S SaBarriens in a canal or a drainage AAfflux is the rise of water level above the normal water level BE cad by structure through which water flows under pressure (See Fig. 2 ee Ean au the aqueduct and canal syphon. In the case of aneis equa a 4 OO aoe Ba i cers ; case of a s 2 aac acimun aati veatdeted to a value such that the resulting velocity does not cause exces scour in the bed. Moreover, it should not cause excessive submergence of the area on the ‘upstream in the case of a syphon aqueduct. Unwin’s formula is generally used to calculat ¢ the afflux, According to which Vee h= (14 +hB) oe ae - (246) where / is afflux, Z is the length of the barrel, R is the hydraulic radius of barrel, V is the velocity in barre and I”, is the velocity of approach If the velocity of approach is neglected, Le ja (hth ca (24) or h = f(g) + fy (IR) (V12g) + 2g (247) In Eq. 24-7, f, is a coefficient for the loss of head at entry and is generally taken as 0-505 for unshaped (square) mouth and 0-08 for bell mouth. Thus loss of head at entry is obviously. h, =f, (Pg) = (248) In Eq, 24:7, f, is a coefficient which takes into account the loss of head (/,) due to friction in the barrel. It is given by b he a(i+0 3054) (249) where a and 5 are constants depending on the type of surface (see Table 24-2) TABLE 24-2 Coefficients a and b are afflux So Tipe of maface of bares | Z 3 1 Smooth iron pipes 0-00497 0-025 2. Incrusted iron pipe 000996 0-025 3 Smooth cement plaster eee 0-030 4 Ashlar or brick work or planks 0-00401 0-070 A Rubble masonry or stone pitching 000507 0-250 The term V2/2g represents the loss at exit (h,). Thus f= he + hy +h, ve 24-10) It may be noted that greater the afflux, the more increased without submergence of property, the aff te educed and the number of barrels can be 1 ome a? kept mote. ‘Thus the watepeay ay educed. However, the velocity in the barrel should not b? Scanned with CamScanner819 Cross-Drainage Works ‘ concrete barrels, otherwise corns itt? increase beyond the safe iit which is normally taken 253-5 fo abrasion of the barrel surface will on The afflux is usually limited to 1 m for large catchments soa chatter carcenitone Afflux in canal barrels In the case of a canal syphon, the af computed using the same procedure Scanned with CamScannerCross-Drainage Works oe y2 CANAL TROUGH evs Niles 25 pys.te. AFFLUK BARREL .——_ Scanned with CamScanner24:8 UPLIFT PRESSURE ON THE ROOF OF A BARREL As the barrel of a syphon aqueduct runs full during floods, an uplift pressure acts on the roof of barrel (or on the under of the canal trough). The uplift pressure at any point of the barrel can be obtained from the hydraulic gradient line H.G.L., as shown in ‘Fig. 24-3". The uplift pressure at any point is obviously equal to the ordinate between the hydraulic gradient line and the roof of the barrel at that point. Because of entry loss, there is a sudden drop in the HGL at that entrance. It is followed by a gradual drop due to friction throughout the length of barrel and again there is a sudden drop at the exit. The maximum uplift occurs just after the entry point at the upstream end of the barrel and is represented by u in Fig. 24-3 While designing the trough, the following two extreme conditions are considered. 1, The canal trough is carrying full discharge but the barrel is empty. 2. The barrel is running full but there is no water in the trough. z Generally, the thickness of the trough designed for CEMENT CONCRETE downward loads is sufficient to counterbalance the uplift poe Pressure. In case it not sufficient, it is generally more economical to anchor the trough to the piers and abutment than to increase the thickness of slab (Fig. 24-6). Canal syphon The uplift pressure on the roof of a canal: syphon can be found by the same method. 24-9 UPLIFT PRESSURE ON THE FLOOR OF A SYPHON AQUEDUCT The floor of a syphon aqueduct is subjected to an uplift pressure due to following causes: ___ 1. Rise of water table The maximum uplift on the bottom surface of the floor occurs when the barrel is empty and the subsoil water table rises upto the drainage bed. The uplift pressure is equal to the difference of the bed level of the drainage and the bottom surface of the floor (Fig. 24-3). Thus Uplift head (h,)= Drainage bed level — bottom level of floor 411) 2. Seepage from canal The maximum uplift ee Pressure due to seepage from the canal occurs when the canal is full and the barrel is empty. The uplift pressure due to seepage from Canal is difficult to compute because the subsur- face flow is three-dimensional. Fig. 24-7 shows the Plan of a syphon aqueduct, The scepage starts from point 4 in the canal trough upto which the ‘trough base is impervious. It reappears at point Dat one end of the impervious floor of the barrel of the drainage. For convenience, it is assumed that the flow takes the paths ABCD, where C is at the middle of the first span of the barrel. Because the flow cannot be approximated as Scanned with CamScannerIrrigation, Water Power and Water Resources Engineering 880 f uplift pressure. Relaxation meth Khos! cannot be used for the estimation of i nd Beata tn Meee iiborus Generally the following simple analysis based on Bligh’s theory is can be used eat hd However, for large and important works, the uplift pressures should: be obtained bal for small works, Howe a Bi siecical: nalogy method or by model studies. cp length, L = AC+CD=1L, +L, L. = Di/s bed level of drainage es) age head drop per unit length = H/L ‘hn = Residual seepage head at C = (HJ/L) * L, 2413) nay be considered for the design of the thickness of the floor of This residual seepage head at ( all the barrels Total uplift pre sure Total uplift pressure on the floor is obtained from Eqs. 24-11 and 24-13 as A, =hy +h, - 24-14) * 4(_h, Thickness of impervious floor = 3 (G7 - 24:15) In order to reduce the thickness of floor, a R.C.C. raft may be provided as the impervious floor. In that case, a part of the uplift pressure is resisted by the weight of floor and the remaining part resisted ty fending strength of the raft supported between the piers, Thus the uplift pressure gets transferred ‘o the piers and is resisted by the weight of the entire superstructure If the uplift pressure is very “high, it can be reduced by the following methods (© The creep length is increased by increasing the length of the impervious floor at the bed of the canal (ii) Drainage holes (or relief holes) are drilled in the floor of the barrels to release the uplift pressure Inverted filter is provided below the holes to prevent piping. These holes are covered by flap values which open only upwards. Floor of the syphon aqueduct A depressed floor is usually required in the case of a syphon aqueduct. The floor should be protected against scour by providing suitable sheet piles and loose ‘apron on either side of floor. As already mentioned, the floor may be designed as a gravity section. However, when the thickness required is large, a R.C.C. raft is provided. The choice between a gravity section and a RC.C. raf is usually a matter of econom y. A raft is structurally superior and is usually more economical in the cast of poor foundations. Uplift pressure on the floor of the canal syphon The uplift Pressure on the floor of a canal syphon can also be found by the same method. termination of the most economical span is to Ke? the cost of superstructure equal to that of substructure However, while applying this criterion, 1 piso be considered. If the cost of individual piers and their foundatioh i! f piers should be provided by increasing the span and vice-versa. The 1 {he type of foundation and the height of piers, of foundation usualh Scanned with CamScannerCross-Drainage Works 881 R= 047 QIN"? (24-16) where R is the scour depth measured below the H.F.L., Q is the discharge and f is the silt factor. The depth R’ of scour around piers of the aqueduct may be taken as 2 2. The scour depth along the piers, foundation aprons, etc. may also be defermined from the relation, R = RWI)? v (241T) where R’ is the actual scour depth, R is Lacey’s normal scour depth, £ is the linear waterway actually provided, W is the Lacey regime width for the alluvial streams and the natural unobstructed width for semi- alluvial streams For well foundations, the depth of foundation below the maximum scour level should not be less than R/3 or Rankine’s minimum depth, with a minimum of 1 m in order to provide adequate grip length. Shallow foundations may be provided instead of well foundations if the drainage bed is protected against scour by a suitable impervious floor, accompanied by suitable cutoff walls and protection works, ‘on the U/s and D/s of the floor To take into account the excess scour due to restricted waterway and concentration of flood in the span, the actual scour is usually taken as follows: Ina straight reach = 1-25 R. At a moderate bend = 1-50 R At a severe bend = 1-75 R. Ata right angle bend or at noses of piers = 2-0 R In severe swirls = 2:50 R where R is the normal scour depth obtained by Lacey’s formula. Type of foundation The type of foundation ii i oe aoe Sire idation is usually selected depending upon the depth of scour If well foundations are difficult to construct or’ uneconomical, the bed is Protected against scour by providing an ‘impervious floor in conjunction with suitable Cutoff walls and protection works at both ends of the impervious floor. 2411 BANK CONNECTION The bank connection consi ihasonry wing walls of the canal naa ie teputate. These are required to connect the ani Section of the canal and the drainage site podified section at the cross-drainage bank Je: 24°8 shows the general layout of Connections required for an aqueduct, DRAINAGE — PIER Scanned with CamScanner882 Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resources Engineer ngineerin the sound natural ground. It should not be lef on the made up formation, ‘The faces of win warped from the natural section ofthe canal (usually, 1-51) tthe verteal fete trough,» "2s a 2 Drainage wing wall The wing walls of drainages are provided onthe pone of the barrel (or culvert) to guide the drainage flow and to ret nd do . in the natural banks of the dean sam wing walls should bs taken sufficiently deep into the guide banks. The wine wn should be share’ as to provide smooth entry and exit at the drainage barrel Shaped such, As the bed of the drainage gets Scoured during floods, the foundation of the drs; Should be taken deep below the maximum scour depth me eran drainage are designed to withstand earth Pressure d and duc to the submerged soil below this tine, © {M1 the dy si 24:12 CLEARANCE AND FREE BOARD (@) Clearance (Headway, se of an ai i queduct is the vertical distance by TaauGned Uis HLF L. (including the afflx of the drainage) sea pe lowest point of the superstructure) ae In the case of a sup, erpassage, the cli canal, and the bottom 5 ‘ing walls inage trough (or the lowest point of the superstructure) A minimum clearance of 0.60 to 1.50 m is Usually provided, depending upon the discharge (Table 24 3) TABLE 24-3 Minimum Clearance awe Dagharee Minimum clearance (cumecs) (m) ie Test than 30 veo 2 30-300 0:90 3. 300-3000 120 4. Over 3000 150 In the case of arch openings, the mi inimum clearance, measured upto the crown of the arch, depends upon the span of the arch (Table 24-4). TABLE 24-4 Minimum Clearance for Arch Openings S.No. Span of arch Minimum clearance (m) (m) 1. Less than 3 1:25 m or rise of arch, whichever is more 2 3-6 1-50 m or 2/3 rise, whichever is more, rr 6-21 1:75 m or 2/3 rise, whichever is more 4. Above 21m 2/3 rise ‘The clearance should be increased suitably if a rise in bed is anticipated due to silting. (b) Free board Free board in the case of canals is the difference between the F.S.L. of the canal to the top level of banks or the formation level of guide banks. In the case of a drainage, the free board is the difference between the H.F.L., including afflux, and ‘the top of the embankment or guide banks, i for A minimum free board of 0-6 m is usually provided. However, it should be increased suitably large discharges or wherever heavy wave action is anticipated. 24:13 DESIGN OF BARRELS OR CULVERTS : on (a) Aqueducts As already mentioned, the total waterway between abutments is usually ee so of to the Lacey’s regime wetted perimeter. However, in stiff soils, the waterway may be reduced Lacey wetted perimeter. ‘ = ‘In the cate of aqueduct, the height of opening is automatically fxd It is equal to the differenc® of the level of the underside of the trough and the bed level of the drainage. a Scanned with CamScannera? Cruss-Drainage Works 883 (®) Syphon aqueducts In the case of a syphon aqueduct. the required area of flow (A) of the barrel is obtained by dividing the design drainage discharge by the permissible velocity in the barrel, Table 24-5 gives the maximum permissible velocity for different types of surfaces of barrels. __ TABLE 24-5 Permissible Velocity in Barrels ‘S.No. ™ a 3 * s Be a ee Concrete face & pepe page ner ‘ ey eons ie The velocity is usually limited to 3 m/s. The higher velocity may cause abrasion of the barrel surface by rolling grits. Moreover, it will cause more afflux, requiring higher and larger marginal banks. The total required area (4) when divided by the number of spans gives the cross-sectional area of cach opening. Knowing the span and the shape of opening, the height of opening can be calculated. A minimum height of 2 m is usually provided so that a person can enter for cleaning the barrel when required. While designing a syphon aqueduct barrel, care shall be taken to maintain the minimum scouring, velocity required to prevent silting. The minimum scouring velocity should be maintained for the normal floods which may occur quite frequently so-as to cause flushing of the deposited sediment in the barrels. Scanned with CamScanner