Chapter 6

Where it starts:Photosynthesis
BIO 121
Instructor: Dr. Marisa Khoo
Chapter 7: Big Ideas

The Light-Dependent Reactions

Overview of
Photosynthesis

Light-independent reaction: Carbon fixing adaptations of

The Calvin Cycle plants
 Photosynthesis fuels the biosphere
• Energy flow through ecosystems begins when
photosynthesizers intercept sunlight
• Autotrophs are living things that are able to make
their own food without using organic molecules
derived from any other living thing
• Autotrophs that use the energy of light to produce organic
molecules are called photoautotrophs
• Plants, algae, and some photosynthetic protists
and bacteria are photoautotrophs, the producers
of food consumed by heterotrophic organisms.
• Heterotrophs are consumers that feed on plants
or animals or decompose organic material.
Tropical forest plants Kelp, a large alga Cyanobacteria
(photosynthetic bacteria)
 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is the
process that transforms
the vast energy of the sun
(light energy) into
chemical energy and is
the basis for most food
chains on Earth.
• It is important that
photosynthesis serve as
the foundation of life,
providing food and
oxygen to the complex
food webs on both land
and in the ocean.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which
are linked by ATP and NADPH
• Photosynthesis proceeds in two stages
– Light-dependent reactions
– Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

Summary Equation of Photosynthesis

Light
energy
6 CO2 +6 H2 O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Carbon dioxide Water Glucose Oxygen gas
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which
are linked by ATP and NADPH
• The light reactions occur in the thylakoids,
producing ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle,
which takes place in the stroma.
• In the light reactions, light energy is converted in
the thylakoid membranes to chemical energy and
O2
• Water is split to provide the O2 as well as electrons
• light energy + H2O  chemical energy (ATP & NADPH)
 Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which
are linked by ATP and NADPH
• The second stage is the Calvin cycle, which occurs in the
stroma of the chloroplast
– It is a cyclic series of reactions that builds sugar molecules
from CO2 and the products of the light reactions
– During the Calvin cycle, CO2 is incorporated into organic
compounds, a process called carbon fixation
• NADPH produced by the light reactions provides the
electrons for reducing carbon in the Calvin cycle
– ATP from the light reactions provides chemical energy for the
Calvin cycle
– The Calvin cycle is often called the dark (or light-
independent) reactions
 H2O CO2

Light
NADP+
ADP
+ P
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions (in stroma)
(in thylakoids) ATP
− −
NADPH

Chloroplast
O2
Sugar
 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in
plant cells
• Chloroplasts are the major sites of
photosynthesis in green plants
• Chlorophyll, an important light absorbing pigment in
chloroplasts, is responsible for the green color of
plants
• Chlorophyll plays a central role in converting solar
energy to chemical energy
• Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double
membrane and contain stacks of thylakoids and a
thick fluid called stroma.
Leaf Cross Section

Mesophyll

Leaf
Vein

Mesophyll Cell

CO2 O2
Stoma
Chloroplast

Inner and outer

membranes
Granum

Thylakoid
Thylakoid space
Stroma
 Sunlight as an energy source
• Sunlight is a type of energy called
electromagnetic energy or radiation.
– It has both waves and particle nature, known as
photons which is the smallest unit of light, and
they are measured as wavelengths.
– Light emitted from the sun contain photons in
wide spectrum of wavelengths called
electromagnetic spectrum.
Sunlight as an energy source
– Visible light is only a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, the full range of
electromagnetic wavelengths
– Certain wavelengths of visible light are absorbed
by chlorophyll and other pigments.
Sunlight as an energy source
 Visible radiation absorbed by pigments
drives the light reactions
• Pigments, molecules that absorb light, are built
into the thylakoid membrane
• Chlorophyll and some other plant pigments absorb some
wavelengths of light and transmit others
• We see the color of the wavelengths that are
transmitted; for example, chlorophyll transmits green
• Carotenoids also function in photoprotection from
excessive light.
 Visible radiation absorbed by pigments
drives the light reactions
• Primary pigment: Chlorophyll a
– most common photosynthetic pigment in plants
and protists
– Known as reaction centre
• Accessory pigments: Chlorophyll b and
carotenoids
– harvest additional light wavelengths
– Many accessory pigments surrounds a single
primary pigments in the photosystems
 Visible radiation absorbed by pigments
drives the light reactions
• Chloroplasts contain
several different pigments
and all absorb light of
different wavelengths
• Chlorophyll a absorbs blue
violet and red light and
reflects green
• Chlorophyll b absorbs blue
and orange and reflects
yellow-green
• The carotenoids absorb
mainly blue-green light and
reflect yellow and orange
 Light
Reflected
light

Chloroplast

Thylakoid
Absorbed Transmitted
light light
• Checkpoint question What color of light is
least effective at driving photosynthesis?
Explain.
• Green, because it is mostly transmitted and
reflected—not absorbed—by photosynthetic
pigments.
Photosystems capture solar energy
• Thylakoid membranes
contain photosystems,
group of hundreds of
chlorophylls, accessory
pigments, and other
molecules.
• Photosystem consist of
light-harvesting complexes
and a reaction-center
complex.
• A primary electron
acceptor receives
photoexcited electrons
from reaction-center
chlorophyll a.
 Photosystems capture solar energy
• Two types of photosystems have been identified
and are called photosystem I and photosystem II
• Each type of photosystem has a characteristic
reaction center
• Photosystem II, which functions first, is called P680
because its pigment absorbs light with a wavelength of
680 nm
• Photosystem I, which functions next, is called P700
because it absorbs light with a wavelength of 700 nm
 Photosystem

Light Light-harvesting Reaction-center

complexes complex
Primary electron
STROMA acceptor
Thylakoid membrane

THYLAKOID
SPACE Pigment
Transfer Special pair of molecules
of energy chlorophyll a molecules
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION:
CONVERTING SOLAR ENERGY TO
CHEMICAL ENERGY
 Light-dependent Reaction
• Light-dependent reactions involve:
– Noncyclic pathways
– Cyclic pathways
• Happen in thylakoid membrane.
• Converts light energy into chemical energy
– light energy + H2O  chemical energy (ATP &
NADPH)
 Light-dependent Reaction
Steps of noncyclic pathway:
1. Light energy ejects electrons from photosystem 2
– Light hits pigment molecule in light harvesting complex of PS2,
excited electron is transferred to other pigment molecules until it
reaches the reaction-center chlorophyll (P680)
– This excited electron finally captured by primary electron acceptor
2. Photosystem II replaces lost electrons by pulling
them from water (photolysis)
– Photosystem 2 pulls electrons and breaks water molecules apart into
oxygen and hydrogen ions
– Photolysis: process by which light energy breaks down a molecule
 Photolysis
Plants produce O2 gas by splitting H2O
 Light-dependent Reaction
Steps of noncyclic pathway (cont.):
3. Electrons enter an electron transfer chain (ETC) in
the thylakoid membrane
– Electrons that flow through the ETC set up a hydrogen ion
gradient that drives ATP formation.
– At end of chain, electrons enter photosystem I
4. Hydrogen ion gradient forms across the
thylakoid membrane
5. After electrons move through first electron transport
chain, light energy ejects electrons from photosystem
I
 Light-dependent Reaction
Steps of noncyclic pathway (cont.):
6. Ejected electrons move through a second
electron transfer chain; electron is then use for
the reduction of NADP + to produce NADPH
7. Hydrogen ions in the thylakoid compartment are
propelled through ATP synthases
8. ATP synthases phosphorylate ADP; ATPis
formed in the stroma
 Light-dependent Reaction
Steps of noncyclic pathway (cont.):
1 light energy 5 light energy 8
electron 4 electron
transfer transfer
photosystem II 3 photosystem I 6 ATP
chain chain
synthase

thylakoid 2 7
compartment
H2O

stroma
O2
 Light-dependent Reaction
Cyclic pathway :
• Under certain conditions, photoexcited electrons
takes an alternative path called cyclic electron flow,
which uses PS I but not PS II.
• Photoexcited electrons in PS I cycle back from to the
previous electron transport chain, continue to P700
chlorophyll of PS I.
• As the cyclic flow does, there is no NADPH
production but it generates more ATP.
Cyclic electron flow
 Light-dependent Reaction

Noncyclic electron flow Cyclic electron flow

Both PS I and PS II are involved. Only PS I is involved.

Electrons travel in a noncyclic manner. Electrons travel in a cyclic manner.

P680 is the active reaction center. P700 is the active reaction center.

Electrons from PSI are accepted by NADP. Electrons revert back to PS I

Both NADPH and ATP molecules are ATP molecules are produced.
produced.
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION:
THE CALVIN CYCLE
 Light-Independent Reaction
• The Calvin cycle:
– Build sugars in the stroma of chloroplasts
– Not powered by light energy
– Driving force is ATP and NADPH that formed in
the light-dependent reactions
– Uses carbon atoms from CO2 to make sugars
• Carbon fixation: carbon from an inorganic source gets
incorporated into an organic molecule
Light-Independent Reaction
 Light-Independent Reaction
• Steps in light-independent reaction:
1. Carbon Fixation:
– The starting material for the Calvin cycle is a five-
carbon sugar named ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
– In the stroma, enzyme RuBisco catalyzes a reaction
between CO2 and ribulose biphosphate (RuBP),
which forms a six-carbon compound that is
immediately converted into two three-carbon
compounds, Phosphoglycerate (PGA).
– This is repeated over and over, one carbon at a time
 Light-Independent Reaction
• Steps in light-independent reaction:
2. Reduction of PGA
– The three-carbon compound, PGA, is converted into
another three-carbon compound called
Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) using ATP and
NADPH.
– This type of reaction is called a reduction reaction,
because it involves the gain of electrons.
– The molecules of ADP and NADP+, resulting from the
reduction reaction, return to the light-dependent
reactions to be re-energized.
 Light-Independent Reaction
• Steps in light-independent reaction:
3. Release of PGAL
– Two of the PGAL molecules leaves the Calvin
cycle to contribute to the formation of the
carbohydrate molecule, which is commonly
glucose (C6H12O6).
– Because the carbohydrate molecule has six
carbon atoms, it takes six turns of the Calvin
cycle to make one carbohydrate molecule
(one for each carbon dioxide molecule fixed).
 Light-Independent Reaction
• Steps in light-independent reaction:
4. Regeneration of RuBP
– The remaining PGAL molecules
regenerate RuBP, which enables the
system to prepare for the carbon-
fixation step. ATP is also used in the
regeneration of RuBP.
CARBON FIXING ADAPTATIONS OF
PLANTS
 Adaptations to Climate
• Stomata are tiny gateways for Leaf

gases Leaf Cross Section

• Open stomata:
– Allow CO2 to diffuse from the air into
photosynthetic tissues
– Allow O2 to diffuse out of these Mesophyll
tissues into the air
• Closed stomata:
– Conserve water on hot, dry days
– Limit the availability of CO2 for
the light- independent reactions; CO2 O2
sugar synthesis slows Stoma
 Adaptations to Climate
• In hot climates, plant stomata close to reduce
water loss so oxygen builds up
• In C3 plants, a drop in CO2 and rise in O2 when
stomata close divert the Calvin cycle to
photorespiration.
– Rubisco adds oxygen instead of carbon dioxide to
RuBP and produces a two-carbon compound
– Unlike photosynthesis, photorespiration produces no
sugar, and unlike respiration, it produces no ATP
– Produces CO2  plant loses carbon instead of fixing it
 Adaptations to Climate
• C4 plants and CAM plants first fix CO2 into
four-carbon compounds that provide CO2 to
the Calvin cycle even when stomata close on
hot, dry days.
 Adaptations to Climate
• C4 plants:
– Close stomata on dry days, but their sugar
production does not decline
– Minimize photorespiration by fixing carbon twice
in two cell types
• Mesophyll cells
• Bundle-sheath cells
– Examples: corn, switchgrass, and bamboo
 CO2
from
inside C4 oxaloacetate
plant cycle

CO2

RuBP
Calvin-
Benson
PGA
cycle
sugar

b C4 plants. Oxygen also builds

up in the air spaces inside the leaves
when stomata close. An additional
pathway in these plants keeps the
CO2 concentration high enough to
prevent rubisco from using oxygen. Fig. 6.11b2, p.102
 Adaptations to Climate
• CAM plants such as pineapples and cacti
conserve water by opening their stomata and
admitting CO2 only at night
– When CO2 enters, it is fixed into a four-carbon
compound, like in C4 plants, and in this way CO2 is
banked
– It is released into the Calvin cycle during the day
 CO2 from
outside
plant C4 oxaloacetate
night cycle
day
CO2

RuBP
Calvin-
Benson PGA
cycle
sugar

c CAM plants open stomata and

fix carbon with a C4 pathway at night.
When stomata are closed during the
day, organic compounds made during
the night are converted to CO2 that
enters the Calvin–Benson cycle.
Fig. 6.11c2, p.102
Mesophyll CO2 Night CO2
cell

4-C compound 4-C compound

Bundle-
sheath CO2 CO2
cell

Calvin Calvin
Cycle Cycle

Sugar Sugar
C4 plant Day CAM plant