CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. General

The stability slope recently is a major concern in the field of geotechnical engineering
especially in area that have diver topography. Slope stability is one of the most important
tasks of geotechnical engineers for economic and safe design of natural and man-made
slopes. Traditionally limit equilibrium methods (LEM) have been used in such analyses
(Janbu, 1973; Spencer, 1967). Alternatively limit analysis (LA) solutions based on lower
and upper bound limit theorems have also been used in recent years ( Juran et al., 1990a;
Giri and Sengupta, 2009).However, with the availability of commercially available
software methods using finite element and finite difference techniques, finite element
method / analysis (FEM/FEA) are extensively used in recent years. For using LEM or
upper bound limit analysis (UBLA) as well it is necessary to have idea about
kinematically admissible failure mechanism that a slope is likely to experience under a
given loading condition. LEM was originally developed and refined for reinforced slopes
and later on Contrary to the requirements of UBLA (Chen et al , 1975), in LBLA a
statically requires an admissible stress field that does not violate the yield condition at
any points within the slope. Importance of displacements and strains in analyzing
geotechnical engineering problems is well recognized (Stocker et al., 1979). Numerical
modeling using FEM/FEA (PLAXIS, ABACUS) and finite difference (FD) technique is
also widely used (FLAC). FEA and FD technique score over the conventional approach
of LEM and LA (Chen et al., 1975; Practer, 1979) due to their ability to predict stresses,
strains and displacements within the body. All these methods were initially developed
and further refined to analyze unreinforced earth structures and later on extended to
reinforced slopes taking into account the inclusion in place. In spite of the superiority of

1
the finite element or finite difference techniques of solutions LEM have widely been used
by geotechnical engineers since Collin (1974) and Fellenius (1936) suggested its use in
analyzing slope instability. Such methods can be used either considering the failure
wedge bounded by the slope geometry and the assumed slip surface as a whole (Taylor,
1948) or considering the failure wedge is composed of several slices into which the
wedge is divided (Fellenius, 1955). Based on the experience gained in analyzing failures
of rail road embankments the famous Swedish slip circle method of analysis was
developed. Fellenius (1955) suggested the use of ordinary method of slices (OMS) in
slope stability computations due to its simplicity and adaptability. OMS was further
refined by Bishop (1955), Janbu (1957) and Spencer (1967) assuming circular slip
surface. However, in frictional and cohesive-frictional soils slip surfaces in general
noncircular. Therefore generalized procedure of slices (GPS) were developed by
Morgenstern and Price (1965), Spencer (1973), Janbu (1973) and Sharma (1976, 1979)
to estimate the factor of safety of slopes corresponding to any general slip surfaces
irrespective of its shape circular or noncircular. Alternatively wedge analysis
(considering only 2 or 3 wedges) is also carried out approximating the nonlinear surface
by two or three linear surfaces (Duncan and Wright, 1980). The minimum factor of safety
and the corresponding critical slip surface was then found out using either trial and error
or grid search techniques. It was recognized quite early that slope stability analysis for
determination of the minimum factor of safety and the corresponding slip surfaces a
problem of optimization. Attempts were made by several investigators to automate the
slope stability computations casting it as an optimization problem using both circular
and noncircular slip surfaces (Sabahit et al., 1996). In the early stages of research for
finding the noncircular slip surface a priori assumptions were made with respect to the
shape e.g. logarithmic spiral (Koppula, 1984). However, later on analysis procedures
were developed without any assumption with regard to the shape of the possible
failure/slip surface (Bhowmik, 1984; Bhowmik and Basudhar, 1989; Babu, 1986;
Bhattacharyay and Basudhar, 2001) and the critical surfaces were determined using
linear, nonlinear programming, variational techniques ( Ramamurthy, 1980) and dynamic
programming (Baker, 1980). As the area of auto search of slip surface reached a

2
saturation point, attention was paid to analyze reinforced earth slopes. Reinforcing slopes
with geotextiles and geogrids are suitable for engineered fills only. To the contrary soil
nailing would be a more appropriate technology for in-situ slope stability. Popularity of
the technique can be gauged from increased demand of soil nails for the purpose all over
the world. This also provided a spurt in research in this area. Initially analysis methods
were developed to include the effect of reinforcement in the increases stability of slopes.
Later on the same was extended to optimal design of nailed slopes (Patra and Basudhar,
2005, Ortiago, 1995). Most of the analysis procedures use the conventional LEM taking
into account the resistance provided by the nail to failure. In most of the analyses
procedures only tensile forces on the nails are considered in computing the resisting
moment neglecting the resistance offered by bending and shear, which affects the
solution by about 8 to 10%. Lately finite element technique is being used more and more
as it is very versatile in predicting the stresses, strain and displacements within the nailed
slopes, which LEM based analysis concentrating only on the limit state condition
determining only the factor of safety, lacks as stated earlier. In spite of this serious
limitation even now LEM is being widely used due to its familiarity with the
engineering community and ease with which the different components and design
principles can be implemented in any program. Very often LEM is used for checking the
various design options and after a design decision is taken, it is further checked in detail
(including the stresses, strains and displacements) by using FEM before final acceptance.
Stability analysis of reinforced and unreinforced slopes are generally conducted by using
pseudo-static approach wherein the stability computations are made by applying inertial
forces in the horizontal and vertical directions (Terzaghi, 1950). Terzaghi in 1950 was the
first to use this concept for the seismic analysis. In this method the cyclic nature of the
earthquake forces was neglected and the inertial forces was considered as an equivalent
concentrated horizontal force acting at the centre of gravity of sliding mass. The inertial
force in the vertical direction is generally chosen half of the horizontal inertial force. The
forces are chosen as a certain percentage of the expected peak ground earthquake
acceleration times the gravity force acting on the ground mass participating in the motion
and acting at its centre of gravity (Majumdar, 1971). But during earthquake it is not only

3
the additional force that causes the instability; loss of shear strength of the soil especially
under saturated condition due to increase in pore- water pressure is also an important
factors. Very often this is taken care of by reducing the shear strength arbitrarily. But, it
would be more appropriate to consider the effect of earthquake on the pore-pressure
under successive cycles of earthquake motion. A procedure developed by Sharma (1975)
for unreinforced slopes partially takes that into account in some respect.Seminal
contributions have been made by several investigators on reinforced slopes and earth
structures [Stocker et al. (1979), Shen et al. (1981a, 1981b), Gassler and Gudehus (1981),
Gassler (1988), Schlosser (1982), Juran et al. (1983), Blondeau et al. (1984), Gutierrez
and Tatsuoka (1988), Laba et al. (1984), Hayashi et al. (1990), Kitamura et al. (1988),
Sawicki (1988), Juran and Chen (1989), Long et al. (1990), Juran et al. (1990a), Juran et
al. (1990b), Asaoka et al. (1994), Jewell and Pedley (1990a, 1990b, 1991), Hayashi et al.
(1990), Hayashi et al. (1990), Sabahit et al. (1996), Ghazav et al. (2004) Patra and
Basudhar (2005), Basha and Basudhar (2010)]. Very good review of these works is
available in literature [Patra and Basudhar (2001), Ortigao et al. (1995)].

Stocker et al. (1979) conducted experiments both large scale field tests and model tests
and measured strain and deformation of the nailed soil mass, they also measured the
forces and strains in the nails. From the tests two, types of failure mechanism are
observed, a single slip line simple failure mechanism is observed when the loads are
closer to the edge of the slope

but in case when the loads are away from the edge of the slope a two blocks composite
mechanism has been observed, consisting of triangular soil blocks under the load and
nailed soil mass separated by each other by a secondary slip line. They gave the
expression for the global factor of safety as the ratio of the sum of the forces in the nails
of the stable soil to the force required for limiting equilibrium.

Shen et al. (1981a, 1981b) observed the performance of a lateral earth support
system applied at two sites. In-situ earth reinforcement technique has been used to
strengthen the native soil and the field results are compared with the results
obtained from finite element analysis. The results from finite element analysis

4
agree with the field measurement and hence indicate the analytical method
developed can correctly predict the field behavior.

Gassler and Gudehus (1981), Gassler (1988) performed four large scale field tests
on vertical nailed cuts in cohesion-less soils. They analyzed different failure
mechanism based on the tests. While determining the stability of the reinforced soil
mass, only tensile capacity of the reinforcement has been considered. The analysis
is based on the kinematic failure mechanism of rigid bodies, which is based on the
following principle of:

a) Kinematic compatibility of the failure mechanism

b) The minimum factor of safety obtained on varying the inclination of the slip
surface.

c) Four failure modes were given based on their study: translation of rigid body,
translation of two rigid bodies, and rotation of one and two rigid bodies.

The results observed from the above failure surface agree with the results obtained
from field and model tests. The translation mechanism of one or two bodies and the
simple rotation mechanism are more relevant for practical design.

Schlosser (1982) developed a design method for nailed soil structure. The behavior
of such structure is governed by the soil-reinforcement friction and the normal earth
pressure on the nail. The mobilization of soil nail friction depends on the frictional
properties, while the mobilization of the normal earth pressure depends on the
relative rigidity of the nail/reinforcement. Based on the two mechanisms, he gave a
multi-criteria design method at failure using the method of slices. According to him,
considering the principle of maximum plastic work enables one to estimate the
tensile and shear forces at failure in each inclusion. The method gives good
agreement when checked on large number of reinforced structures. Gassler and
Gudehus (1983) developed a new technique for the design of nailed slope using
statistical design approach. Parameters like unit weight, friction angle, surcharge

5
stress, and pullout resistance are taken as stochastic variables. Using this method it
has been found that with partial factor of safety of 1.1 for friction and surcharge,
and 1.3 for nail forces, the probability of failure (Pf) equals to 10-6.

Juran et al. (1983) studied the mechanism of intersection between the soil and nails
by conducting direct shear tests on nailed slopes and by theoretical analysis. In
order to study the effect of various parameters finite element analysis has also been
carried out. They have studied the relative influence of parameters such as: normal
stress on the failure surface, rigidity and number of nails, and the efficiency of nails.
The mobilization of overall shearing resistance and the nailed soil mass behavior
have also been investigated. It is observed that the efficiency of the reinforcement
increases with the decrease in normal stress and very small displacement are
sufficient enough to generate the soil nail interface friction and to mobilize the
tensile force in the nails. While, relative large displacements are required to
mobilize the passive lateral earth thrust on the reinforcement and to generate the
bending moment in the nails.

Blondeau et al. (1984) used a computer program (TALREN) for calculating the
internal and external stabilities of various reinforced soil systems like soil nailing,
reinforced earth works and pre-stressed anchors. Taking the various
soil/reinforcement interactions, they have studied the shear and tensile forces, and
bending moment developed in the nails. The developed program is applied to some
failed structures and it is observed that the actual behavior agree with the one
obtained from theoretical values.

Laba et al. (1984) studied the structural response of a reinforced earth retaining wall
model subjected to a surcharge strip load aligned parallel to the wall head. The
effect of horizontal and vertical loading has been studied. They have also studied
the stress distribution pattern and change in stress distribution in reinforcing
elements and reinforced earth medium. Results are obtained for various loading
conditions and load distance from the face of the wall. The results obtained from the
experiment are compared with the theoretical stress distribution that exists in a

6
semi-infinite elastic medium and also with the design method used for reinforced
earth walls. It is observed that results from model test vary significantly from the
results based on design methods now in use.

Laba and Kennedy (1986) performed theoretical as well as experiment study to

assess the maximum tensile force mobilized in reinforced soil wall, subjected to
vertical and horizontal strip loads or vertical surcharge alone. Design method has
been developed for obtaining the maximum tensile force and its variation with the
depth of the backfill. The method considers the ability of the reinforced earth wall
system to retain its internal equilibrium by transferring the stress from overstressed
region to those regions where the full frictional or stress capacity have not yet been
reached. The results obtained from proposed method are in good agreement with the
results obtained from model tests.

Kitamura et al. (1988) carried out number of model tests to study the effect of steel
bar in vertically loaded reinforced sand slopes. The conclusions made on the basis
of the tests are:

a) Reinforcement is most effective when placed horizontally and least for the
inclined upward placement of the nails. The inclined downward
reinforcement is less effective compared to horizontal.

b) Contribution of bending and shearing of steel bars is very little to the

reinforcement effect.

c) The location of the largest increase of the axial stress at each loading step is
in between the slip surfaces of unreinforced and reinforced slopes.

Large scale field tests have been conducted by Nagao et al. (1988) on steel bars
reinforced earth slopes to study the reinforced earth stability mechanism. Two
dimensional and three dimensional FEM analysis has been done for simulating the
loading tests. It has been found that the two dimensional plain strain finite element
analysis is more effective for the reinforced earth.

7
Gutierrez and Tatsuoka (1988) carried out number of small scale model tests on
reinforced earth slopes. The results are compared with the limit equilibrium method
by modifying the method of slices taking in account the inclined reinforcement
forces and the inclined footing pressure. The method used is found to be simple and
accurate.

Matsui and San (1988) analyzed the reinforced cut slopes by finite element method.
It has been found that the slip surface obtained from FEM analysis for unreinforced
slope is close to that obtained from conventional Bishop‟s method. They have
found that performance of the reinforcement cannot be significantly improved after
a minimum inclusion length.

Sawicki (1988) investigated the mechanical behavior of a steep slope by continuum

mechanics approach. Stresses in reinforcement are predicted by the developed
theory. The soil is taken as uniformly reinforced in the direction of nails. The
slippage on the interface between the soil and reinforcement is neglected; the soil
and the reinforcement are assumed to work together. Finite element method is used
to solve the problem considering the reinforced soil as macroscopically
homogeneous material. The results are compared with experimental data obtained
from the full scale test on reinforced slope. A good agreement between the results
obtained from theory and experiments have been found.

Juran and Chen (1989) applied strain compatibility approach for the design of
reinforced earth walls. The design approach is based on the analogy between the
plain strain shear mechanism developed along failure surface in the actual structure
and the response of the reinforced soil to direct shearing. The results obtained from
the design assumptions are compared with at failure observation on reduced scale
laboratory model walls as well as with the tensile forces in the reinforcement
measured in reduced scale model as well as in full scale structures.

Juran et al. (1990a) performed a kinematic limit analysis for design of soil nail
structures. The method can be used to check the effect of main design parameters

8
like inclination and bending stiffness on the nails, embankment slope, facing
inclination, soil strength characteristics etc. on the magnitude and location of the
maximum nail forces and on the structure stability. Local stability at the level of
each nail can be evaluated by estimating the nail forces from the design procedure.
For the validation of design method results are compared with results obtained from
full scale experiments and reduced scale model tests. From the comparison of
results it is seen that Kinematic limit analysis approach predicts fairly good
measured nail forces. The method provides a rational approach to predict the
progressive pull out failure, which is induced by the sliding of the nails located
close to the top of the slope. The factor of safety obtained from conventional design
methods under specific loads must be carefully evaluated.

Juran et al. (1990b) gave a comparative study of the design methods like French,
Davis and Kinematic methods for analyzing soil nailed retaining structures. French
method and Davis method examines global stability of the structure whereas the
Kinematic method ensures the local stability at each nail level which in some cases
is more critical than the global stability. From the study they concluded that Davis
method is more conservative as compared to French method. The Kinematical and
French method can include the effect of ground water and nail bending stiffness for
evaluation of stability of structures.

Hayashi et al. (1990) conducted series of model tests to study the mechanism of nail
reinforcement of cut slopes on the basis of the results obtained from the tests; they
have proposed a design method for reinforced slope. The method is the modified
form of the Bishop‟s method of slope stability considering the tensile and shear
forces mobilized in reinforcement. They have presented the results of the parametric
study in the form of monograph.

Long et al. (1990) investigated the effect of some variables like shape of the
assumed failure surface, inclination and length of nails on global stability of the
nailed soil walls. From the comparison of results with circular, bi-linear, and 3
wedge failure surfaces it is concluded that 3 wedge is the least constraint failure

9
surface. The method of analysis and the inter-slice force inclination affects the
estimated factor of safety, higher the inter-slice inclination higher is the factor of
safety. It is observed that number of rows of nails influence the shape of the failure
surface, its location and the factor of safety significantly. Increasing the number of
rows of nails results in higher factor of safety.

Schlosser (1991) reported that the influence of bending stiffness and shear on the
global safety factor is small, less than 15%. However, the local factor of safety may
not be represented properly if only tensile resistance of nails is considered. The
Multi criteria method proposed by him is more general and can be applied to small
diameter nails and to micro piles, which definitely contributes to bending strength.

Jewell and Pedley (1990a, 1990b, 1991) challenged the importance of bending
stiffness in soil nailing design. They have observed that the nail shear has a
negligible effect on slope stability and hence should not be considered due to
unnecessary additional computation efforts.

Lo and Xu (1992) presented a strain based method to study the collapse of

reinforced soil walls or slopes caused by the failure of the reinforcing elements. The
Limit Equilibrium method has been given to examine the equilibrium of slices of
soil parallel to the reinforcement. A generalized log spiral surface starting from toe
is assumed and numerical optimization is used for finding the critical slip surface.
The distribution of peak tension in the reinforcement is determined based on strain
compatibility along the slip surface. To validate the analysis results are compared
with results observed from three model wall and finite element simulation of a
Terramesh wall at or close to collapse condition.

Asaoka et al. (1994) performed rigid plastic finite element method to study the
development of internal forces in the reinforcement. The mechanism of the soil
reinforcement is modeled keeping the length of the reinforcement as constant. The
proposed concept is checked numerically. The analysis shows that the increase in
the factor of safety is higher for c-ф soil than purely cohesive soils, because of the

10
difference in action of reinforcement in these types of soils. In the c-ф material, it is
seen that the reinforcement acts like an anchor while in purely cohesive material the
reinforcement does not show such effects.

Lee et al. (1995) used Discrete Element Method (DEM) for the analysis of the
nailed soil earth structures. In the analysis, whole slope is considered to be
composed of slices that are connected to each other with elasto-plastic Winkler
springs. The method takes into account the compatibility between slices as well as
the condition of force equilibrium.

Barley (1996) discussed on the reports given by Ortigao et al. (1995) on the
“Experience with soil nailing in Brazil”. He has pointed out that in the tension
distribution diagram the direction of the bond stress in the active zone is incorrect.
The maximum tensile force in the nail at the point of intersection of nails with the
slip surface must be equal to grout/ground bond strength within the active zone plus
the bearing plate capacity. He has recommended minimum three soil nail test prior
to nail operation, a) Pull out test, b) Push in test, and c) Direct bearing test on the
plate if the bearing plate contributes.

Sabahit et al. (1996) proposed a pseudo- dynamic approach for the analysis of nail
soil slopes. They have used finite shear wave velocity assuming that shear modulus
is constant and only the phase not the magnitude of acceleration is varying with
depth. The results are compared with pseudo-static approach and from the
comparison it is observed that pseudo- static method can be used for coefficient of
horizontal acceleration (Kh) less than 0.2 and for higher Kh value pseudo-dynamic is
more reliable. It is observed that placing the nails horizontally requires minimum
force for equilibrium. Therefore, it is preferable to place the reinforcement in
horizontal direction.

Smith and Su (1997) presented a three dimensional modeling of nailed soil wall
curved in plan using finite element method for construction, service and ultimate
loading conditions. They have studied the behavior of the nailed soil walls, soil-nail

11
interaction, internal and external failure mechanism and role of reinforcement. The
horizontal deflection in the wall, settlement, bending moments, distribution and
shear forces in nails are determined. They have also computed the soil/nail interface
shear stresses and horizontal stresses behind the wall face.

Ghazav et al. (2004) employed kinematic pseudo-dynamic analysis for soil nailed
structures subjected to seismic loading. The method is based on the kinematical
working stress design method proposed by Juran et al. (1990) for static loading
nailed soil structures. Kotters equation is used for computing normal stresses along
the failure surface. The results obtained are verified using the data available from
the experiments. Parametric study shows that on increasing the loading frequency
and horizontal acceleration coefficient, the maximum tensile force on the nails also
increases.

Patra and Basudhar (2005) gave a generalized method for the optimum design of
nailed soil slopes. The method is based on limit equilibrium method of analysis
satisfying both internal and as well as external equilibrium. Location, size and
orientation of nails and shape and location of slip surface are taken as variables. The
problem is formulated as dual objective non-linear optimization one. The results are
verified with the observed data from the model and field test and also with the
theoretical results reported in literature.

Giri and Sengupta (2009) presented an analytical method based on the kinematic
theorem of limit analysis for the reinforced slopes under the earthquake loads. The
slip surface is assumed to be log spiral. The results from the analysis are compared
with previously published test results and results are found to be in good agreement.
They have also performed finite element numerical modeling using FLAC and
results are also found to agree with field results.

Basha and Basudhar (2010) proposed a simple design method of analysis for
analyzing the reinforced soil structure subjected to seismic forces for the internal
and external stability. The analysis has been conducted by pseudo-static method of

12
seismic analysis. From the parametric study it is found that the design parameters
like horizontal and vertical seismic acceleration, number of reinforcement layers,
total length of reinforcement, angle of shearing resistance, uniformly distributed
surcharge load have significant effect on the internal and external seismic stability
of the wall. The influence of vertical seismic acceleration (K v) on the factor of
safety is insignificant for L≤H and is significant for L/H greater than 1.

Saran and Mittal (2011) carried out a pseudo - static analysis for analyzing inclined
nailed cut assuming slip surface as log spiral. The conclusions made on the basis of
the study are:

a) Nails placed horizontally are more effective.

b) Factor of safety increases with the increase in the diameter of the nails.

c) Factor of safety increases with the decrease in horizontal and vertical

spacing, as closer spaced nails increases the density of the backfill.

13
 CHAPTER – 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In the recent years, there has been an increased use of computer software techniques
for analyzing stability of slopes. Limit equilibrium method is the most commonly
used method of analysis used in analyzing the problem of slope stability. In the
present analysis Janbu‟s generalized procedure of slices (1973) based on limit
equilibrium approach is used for the stability analysis of slopes. Seismic stability
analysis of unreinforced and reinforced slope has been carried out and the effect of
increase in pore water pressure due to the cyclic nature of earthquake forces as
given by Sarma (1975) has also been included in the present analysis. The early
developments in slope stability analysis procedure were for unreinforced slopes.
Later on these methods were modified to include the effect of reinforcement on its
stability. Janbu‟s GPS (1973) was used by Patra (1998) to analyze nailed slopes.
The same is done here. However, the present method can be contrasted from that of
Patra (1998) with respect to consideration of increased pore water pressure due to
the successive application of seismic pulses.

2.1 Geostudio products

SLOPE/W

SLOPE/W is the leading slope stability software for soil and rock SLOPE/W can
effectively analyze both simple and complex problems for a variety of slip
surface ,pore water condition , soil properties, and loading conditions.

14
Pore-Water Pressure

It can be defined using piezometric lines, spatial function, or the result from other
Geostudio finite element analyses .Values can be displayed as contours on the
geometry to reveal PWP values used in the analysis.

Rapid Drawdown

It can be conducted using the pore water pressure defined using piezometric line,
transient finite element Geostudio analysis, or the multistage rapid drawdown
technique.

15
 GEO STUDIO PRODUCTS

SLOPE/W

SLOPE/W is the leading slope stability software for soil and rock slopes. SLOPE/W can
effectively analyze both simple and complex problems for a variety of slip surface
shapes, pore-water pressure conditions, soil properties, and loading conditions.

PORE-WATER PRESSURE

Pore-water pressures can be defined using piezometric lines, spatial functions, or the
results from other GeoStudio finite element analyses. Values can be displayed as
contours on the geometry to reveal PWP values used in the analysis.

RAPID DRAWDOWN

Rapid drawdown analysis can be conducted using the pore-water pressures defined using
piezometric lines, transient finite element GeoStudio analyses, or the multi-stage rapid
drawdown technique.

MATERIAL MODELS

SLOPE/W supports a comprehensive list of material models including Mohr-Coulomb,

undrained, high strength, impenetrable, bilinear, anisotropic strength, SHANSEP, spatial
Mohr-Coulomb and more.

LIMIT STATE DESIGN

Limit state design or load resistance factor design is handled by specifying partial factors
on permanent/variable loads, seismic coefficients, material properties, reinforcement
inputs and more.

16
 SEEP/W

GROUNDWATER FLOW ANALYSIS

SEEP/W is a powerful finite element software product for modeling groundwater flow in
porous media. SEEP/W can model simple saturated steady-state problems or
sophisticated saturated / unsaturated transient analyses with atmospheric coupling at the
ground surface.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

SEEP/W supports a range of boundary condition options. Field data or user-specified

functional relationships can be inputted to define hydrographs, reservoir fluctuations,
rainfall cycles, vegetation effects, or land-climate interactions.

INTEGRATION

Integration of SEEP/W with SLOPE/W makes it possible to analyze the stability of any
natural or man-made system subject to transient changes in pore-water pressure.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Hydraulic conductivity and volumetric water content functions can be estimated using
built-in functions. The estimation process requires only fundamental information. A
saturated-only material model is also available.

SATURATED/UNSATURATED

The rigorous saturated/unsaturated formulation of SEEP/W means that even the most
demanding flow problems, such as infiltration into dry soil or seepage through complex
upstream tailings dams, can be analyzed with ease.

17
 SLOPE/W

STRESS AND DEFORMATION ANALYSIS

SIGMA/W is a powerful finite element software product for modeling stress and
deformation in earth and structural materials. SIGMA/W analyses may range from simple
linear elastic simulations to soil-structure interaction problems with nonlinear material
models.

CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

GeoStudio's Analysis Tree models even the most complex construction sequences.
Analyses are added to the Tree, forming a Parent-Child relationship in which each new
analysis represents a part of the construction sequence.  

COUPLED CONSOLIDATION

The coupled stress and pore-water pressure formulation can be used to model
construction sequencing involving fill placement, excavation, and soil-structure
interaction. 

SLOPE/W

INTEGRATION

The stresses and/or pore-water pressures from a SIGMA/W analysis can be used directly
in SLOPE/W to do a stress-based stability analysis. 

STRESS REDISTRIBUTION

Stress redistribution analysis is used to conduct a strength reduction slope stability

18
analysis, model stress transfer onto structures such as pile walls installed within failed
slopes, or calculate permanent deformations.

QUAKE/W

DYNAMIC STRESS ANALYSIS

QUAKE/W models dynamic stresses arising from earthquake shaking or dynamic point

forces from a blast or sudden impact. QUAKE/W simulates the impact of these
stresses on earth structures.  

EARTHQUAKE RECORDS

Earthquake time history records can be imported and scaled for a dynamic analysis.
Modify the peak acceleration and duration to ensure the values used in the QUAKE/W
analysis represent site-specific conditions.

 
NEWMARK ANALYSES

The QUAKE/W computed dynamic forces can be used in SLOPE/W to compute yield
accelerations and potential permanent deformations for each trial slip surface. 

EXCESS PORE PRESSURE

Excess pore-pressures computed by QUAKE/W together with the initial static pore-
pressures can be used in SLOPE/W to examine the effect of the elevated pore-pressures
on stability

19
 TEMP/W

HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS

TEMP/W is a powerful finite element software product for modeling heat transfer and
phase change in porous media. TEMP/W can analyze simple conduction problems to
complex surface energy simulations with cyclical freeze-thaw.

CONVECTIVE BOUNDARY

The convective heat transfer boundary condition simulates artificial ground freezing or
other processes involving the flow of fluid over or within a bounding surface.

 
FORCED CONVECTION

Heat transfer is often governed by forced convection in natural hydrogeological systems.

TEMP/W can be fully-integrated with SEEP/W or AIR/W to analyze heat transfer via
groundwater flow or air flow, respectively.

 
LAND CLIMATE INTERACTION

Analyze problems that involve a coupling between climatic conditions and the thermal
response within the ground in TEMP/W using the surface energy balance boundary
condition.

MODEL THERMOSYPHONS

TEMP/W implements a rigorous thermosyphon boundary condition that can

accommodate either two-dimensional or pseudo-3D analysis of thermosyphons.

20
 CTRAN/W

SOLUTE AND GAS TRANSFER ANALYSIS

CTRAN/W is a powerful finite element software product for modeling solute and gas
transfer in porous media. CTRAN/W can be used to model simple diffusion-dominated
systems through to complex advection-dispersion systems with first-order reactions.

COMPREHENSIVE FORMULATION

CTRAN/W offers the capability to model a diverse set of solute and gas transport
mechanisms including diffusion, advection, dispersion, adsorption, decay, and density-
dependent flow due to its comprehensive formulation.

DUAL PHASE GAS TRANSFER

CTRAN/W models gas transfer in both the gaseous and aqueous phases. A bulk diffusion
coefficient, longitudinal dispersivity, and transverse dispersivity are defined for each
phase.

SATURATED AND UNSATURATED

CTRAN/W is formulated for saturated and unsaturated transport, allowing the coefficient
of diffusion to vary with water content and the advection process to adjust as
groundwater velocities change in the unsaturated zone.

SORPTION AND KINETIC REACTIONS

CTRAN/W can model equilibrium sorption and first-order reactions such as radioactive
decay, biodegradation, and hydrolysis.

21
 AIR/W

AIR TRANSFER ANALYSIS

AIR/W is a powerful finite element software product for modeling air transfer in mine
waste and other porous media. AIR/W can be used to model a range of scenarios, from
simple single phase air transfer problems to complex coupled air-water systems.

DENSITY DEPENDENT AIR FLOW

AIR/W can be integrated with TEMP/W to model air transfer via free convection.
Density-driven air transfer is often a dominant mechanism in systems subjected to
seasonal ground temperature variations.

 
ESTIMATE MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The air conductivity function can be generated based on the dry-soil air conductivity, a
user-selected volumetric water content function, and basic soil properties, such as soil
classification or grain size distribution.   
 
FORCED-CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

Combine AIR/W with TEMP/W to model forced-convection heat transfer. This process
often governs the thermal regime in coarse-grain materials such as waste rock piles, rip-
rap, and layered embankments.

SINGLE OR DUAL PHASE FLOW

Air transfer analyses can be conducted using a single phase material model that only
considers pressure and gravity-driven air flow. Alternatively, a dual phase material model
can be used by coupling air flow and water transfer.

22
 CHAPTER 3

GENERALIZED FORMULATION

3.1 General

Limit equilibrium method is the most commonly used method of analysis used in
analyzing the problem of slope stability. In the present analysis Janbu’s generalized
procedure of slices (1973) based on limit equilibrium approach is used for the stability
analysis of slopes. Seismic stability analysis of unreinforced and reinforced slope has
been carried out and the effect of increase in pore water pressure due to the cyclic nature
of earthquake forces as given by Sarma (1975) has also been included in the present
analysis. The early developments in slope stability analysis procedure were for
unreinforced slopes. Later on these methods were modified to include the effect of
reinforcement on its stability. Janbu‟s GPS (1973) was used by Patra (1998) to analyze
nailed slopes. The same is done here. However, the present method can be contrasted
from that of Patra (1998) with respect to consideration of increased pore water pressure
due to the successive application of seismic pulses.

3.2 Slope stability analysis methods

3.2.1 The ordinary method of slices

 Satisfies moment equilibrium condition ,

 Neglects the interstice normal and shear forces ,

 Gives the most conservative FOS, and

 Is useful only for demonstrations.

23
 Fig 2.1 The ordinary method of slices

3.2.2 THE METHOD OF SLICES

ꞇf
FS=
ꞇm

Considering the moments about O, the sum of the moments of the shear forces T on
the failure arc AC must be equal the moment of the weight of the soil mass ABCD.

24
 ∑ Tr=∑ Wrsinα

ꞇf
∑ L FS =∑ WSinα

∑ ꞇ fl
FS=
∑Wsinα

For an analysis in term of effective stress :

FS=¿ ¿ (1)

3.2.3 THE FELLENIUS (or SWEDISH) SOLUTION

 It is assumed that for each slice the resultant of the interstice forces is zero.

 The solution involves resolving the forces on each slice normal to the base i.e.
N’=Wcos α-ul

Rewriting Equation(1):

C ҆ La+ tanφ ҆ ∑ (W Cosα−ul)

FS =
∑Wsinα

3.2.4 BISHOP SIMPLIFIED METHOD (BSM)

 Bishop (1995) also showed how non zero values of the resultant forces (X1-
X2)could be introduced into the analysis but reinforcement has only a marginal
effect on the factor of safety .

 The pore water pressure can be related to the total fill pressure at any point by
means of dimensionless pore pressure ratio ru=u/γh.

25
 1 ( c ҆ b+ W ( 1−ru ) tanφ ҆ ) secα
FS=( ) ∑{ ¿
 ∑ Wsinα tan ꭤ tanφ ҆
1+
FS

3.2.5 JANBU’s SIMPLIFIED METHOD

 JSM is based on a composite slip surface (i.e. Non circular) and the FOS is
determine by horizontal force equilibrium .

 As in BSM , the method consider inter slice normal forces (E) but neglects the
shear forces (T).

 Satisfy both force equilibriums,

 Does not satisfy moment equilibrium ,

 Consider inter slices normal forces, and is commonly used for composite shear
surface

3.2.6 Morgenstern –Price method (M-PM)

 Consider both inter slice forces,

 Assume a inter slice force function , f(x),

 Allows selection for inter slice force function ,

 Computes FOS for the both force and moment equilibrium.

3.2.7 SPENCER’s METHOD (1967)

 (SM) is as the same as M –PM except the assumption made for inter slice forces.

 Assumes a constant inter slice force function ,

26
  Satisfies both moment and force equilibrium

 Compute FOS for force and moment equilibrium

3.2.8 NUMERICAL SIMULATION USING GEOSTUDIO 2018

GeoStudio is an integrated software suite for modeling slope stability, ground

deformation, and heat and mass transfer in soil and rock. SLOPE/W. This example is
designed to assist new users with developing a basic SLOPE/W analysis. This example
highlights the main components of a stability analysis, including the slope geometry,
material properties, trial slip surfaces, and pore water pressures. The analysis will
consider the factor of safety of a 2:1 slope with ponded water at the slope toe. For the
optimal learning experience, new users should attempt to reproduce this analysis by
starting with a completely new project. Doing so will increase one’s understanding of
how to use SLOPE/W for other, user-specific analyses.

SLOPE/W uses the limit equilibrium approach to assess the stability of a defined
geometry. The limit equilibrium method divides a potential sliding mass, defined by a
trial slip surface, into vertical slices. , SLOPE/W computes two factors of safety; one
with respect to overall moment equilibrium and one with respect to horizontal force
equilibrium.

Regions define the slope geometry and stratigraphy, and may be drawn or imported from
a DXF or DWG file. Regions are formed with points and lines, where a point is a
geometric object in space with x-y coordinates, a line is a straight object with points at
both ends, and a region is a closed polygon with a point at each of the vertices. Similar to
defining regions, there are multiple methods available for creating trial slip surfaces,
including the Entry and Exit, Grid and Radius, and Block-Specified methods The
material properties describe the shear strength of a soil, and are generally defined by unit
weight, cohesion, and friction angle. Several material models are available in SLOPE/W
for defining the shear strength parameters. Pore water pressures can have a substantial

27
impact on slope stability. Pore water pressures may be specified by piezometric lines,
spatial functions, Ru and coefficients B, or values computed by a corresponding finite
element analysis (e.g., SEEP/W).A SLOPE/W analysis was created in the Define
Analyses window, using the Spencer limit equilibrium formulation . In the Slip Surface
tab, the Entry and Exit technique creates the trial slip surfaces with the direction of failure
going from the left to right . Under the Settings tab, the Piezometric Line defines the pore
water pressure condition. The modeled domain is comprised of two materials forming a
2:1 slope Eight points define the two regions , which can be entered in the Define Points
window or drawn with the Snapto-Grid option selected such that the point coordinates are
at round numbers. The materials corresponding to the regions are defined in the Define
Materials window with the Mohr-Colulomb material model. The parameter values,
inputted in the Basic tab, are provided. (Note: the parameters in the remaining tabs are
not defined for this example.) Once the material definition is complete, the materials can
be drawn onto the regions with the Draw Materials command. By default, SLOPE/W
draws a green line to represent the ground surface after the materials are applied. The trial
slip surfaces are then created with the Entry and Exit method. The sections of the ground
surface line where the slip surface must enter and exit are either drawn (in the Draw Slip
Surfaces command) or entered into the Define Slip Surface Entry and Exit Range
window. In this example, the Entry and Exit segments have 5 increments, making a total
of 6 points on each segment, and the radius has 10 increments making a total of 11
points. Thus, the total number of trial slip surfaces is 396 (6x6x11). The slip surface
definition is indicated by the red lines along the ground surface.

Results and Discussion

The factor of safety for each of the 396 trial slip surfaces is computed when the
SLOPE/W analysis solves. The slip surface with the lowest factor of safety, or the critical
slip surface, is displayed in the Results view . This represents the potential sliding mass
most likely to exhibit failure based on the inputted parameters.

The Bishop method satisfied only moment equilibrium.

28
The Janbu method satisfies only force equilibrium but also ignores the interstices shear.
The Janbu factor of safety is where the force plot intersects the y-axis. These methods are
available in SLOPE/W; however, the newer methods provided in SLOPE/W (e.g.,
Morgenstern and Price, Spencer methods) are more rigorous as they satisfy both force
and moment equilibrium.
3.2.9 MODEL PROBLEM

Model problem 1

Determine the factor of safety in terms of effective stress for the slope detailed in
Figure for the specified failure surface. The value of ru is 0.20 and the unit weight of
the soil is 20 kN/ m³the shear strength parameters are c′ = 0 kN/m2 and φ′= 33°

(Craig 2004)

29
30
Figure 2.2

Solution-

1 ( c ҆ b+ W ( 1−ru ) tanφ ҆ ) secα

FS=( ) ∑{ ¿
∑ Wsinα tan ꭤ tanφ ҆
1+
FS

Φ’=33 ̊

Ru=0.20

W=ϒbh=20 x 5 x h =100h KN/m

(1-ru)tanφ’=0.80tan33 =
̊ 0.520

Try F =1.10

tanφ’/F= tan 33 ̊/1.10=0.590

31
 Slice h (m ) W=ϒbh α Wsinα W(1-ru) x secα Product
no. (kN/m) (kN/m) tan 1+ ¿ ¿ (kN/m)
φ’(KN/m) ¿

1 1.5 75 4 5 20 0.963 19

2 3.1 310 9 48 161 0,926 149

3 4.5 450 15.5 120 234 0.892 209

4 5.3 530 21 190 276 0.873 241

5 6.0 600 28 282 312 0.862 269

6 5.0 500 35 287 260 0.864 225

7 3.4 340 43 232 177 0.882 156

8 1.4 28 49 21 3 0.908 3

1185 1271

F = 1271/1185=1.07
The trail value was 1.10; therefore take F to Be 1.08.

MODEL PROBLEM 2

Using the Fellenius method of slices, determine the factor of safety, in terms of effective
stress, of the slope shown in Figure for the given failure surface using peak strength
parameters c′=10kPa and φ′=29°. The unit weight of the soil above and below the water
table is 20kN/ m³.

After (Craig 2004)

32
 Figure 3.3 Model problem 1

Solution- Table giving computations (After Craig 2004)

Slice no. hcosα (m) hsinα (m) 2 l(m) ul(kN/m)

u(kN/m )
1 0.75 -0.15 5.9 1.55 9.1
2 1.80 -0.10 11.8 1.50 17.7
3 2.70 0.40 16.2 1.55 25.1
4 3.25 1.00 18.1 1.60 29.0
5 3.45 1.75 17.1 1.70 29.1
6 3.10 2.35 11.3 1.95 22.2
7 1.90 0.952.25 0 2.35 0
8 .055 0.95 0 2.15 0
1750 8.45 14.35 132.0

Table 3.1 computation of perameters

33
 C ҆ La+ tanφ ҆ ∑ (W Cosα−ul)
FS=
∑Wsinα

( 10× 14.35 ) +(0.55 × 393)

=
254

F=1.42

2.3 GEOSTDIO

34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
 CHAPTER – 4

SLOPE STABILIZATION METHODS

These methods generally reduce driving forces, increase resisting forces, or both.

Driving forces can be reduced by excavation of material from the approximate part of the
unstable ground and drainage of water to reduce hydrostatic pressure acting on the
unstable zone.

Resisting forces can be increased by:

42
 1) Drainage that increases the shear strength of the ground.

2) Elimination of weak strata or the potential failure zone.

3) Building of retaining structures or other supports.

4) Chemical treatment to increase shear strength of the ground. Unloading is a type of

slope stabilization technique to reduce the driving forces within a slide mass.

5) Excavation is a common method for increasing stability of a slope by reducing the

driving forces that contribute to movements: This can include:

4.1 UNLOADING

1) Removing weight from the upper part of the slope.

2) Removing all unstable or potentially unstable materials.

3) Flattening slopes.

4) Benching

4.2 DRAINAGE TECHNIQUES

Adequate drainage of water is the most important element of a slope stabilization scheme,
for both existing and potential slopes prone to failure. Drainage is effective because it
increases the stability of the soil and reduces the weight of the sliding mass. Drainage can
be either surface or subsurface. Surface drainage can be through either surface ditches or
shallow subsurface drains. Surface drainage is especially important at the head of the
slide, where a system of cut off ditches that cross the headwall of the slide, and lateral
drains to lead runoff around the edge of the slide are effective.

The FOS against on any potential slip surface that passes below the phreatic surface can
be improved by subsurface drainage. Methods that can be used to accomplish subsurface
drainage are:

43
a) Drainage blankets

b) Trenches

c) Cut-off drains

d) Horizontal drains

e) Relief wells to lower the water pressures in layers that are deep down in the subsoil
(can’t be reached by open excavation)

f) Drainage tunnels or galleries when there is a requirement of substantial number of

horizontal drains

4.3 USING RETAINING WALLS

44
 Figure 4.3 using retaining walls

4.4 SLOPE STABILIZATION USING VERTICAL PILES

Figure 4.4 using vertical piles

4.5 SLOPE STABILIZATION USING ANCHORS

The permanent grouted anchors have been extensively used to provide vertical and lateral
support for natural and engineered structures during the past 6 decades. The end type of
anchorage, where the tendon is grouted below the potential slip surface, has been used to
stabilize dangerous slopes to a specified safety factor because of its significant technical
advantages resulting in substantial cost savings and reduced construction period.

 The safety factor of slopes stabilized with anchors can be calculated by the
following two approaches:

(1) a vertical effect approach conventionally used in practice , and

(2) a normal effect. Thus the safety factor for the vertical effect approach is
given by

45
Where P is the axial tension per unit width, and θ is an angle to indicate the orientation
of Anchors.

 Safety factor for the normal effect approach can be obtained by dissolving axial
tension in the anchor into two components, namely normal and tangential to the
base of the slice, where the slip surface intersects the anchor. The tangential
component of the axial tension was assumed to have no influence on the normal
force at the base of the slice where the slip surface intersects the anchor. The
reinforcing mechanism of anchors in slopes can be explained using the additional
shearing resistance, induced by the axial tension, on the slip surface.

 The additional shearing resistance was given more rationally by the normal
approach than the conventional vertical approach Slope stabilization using
anchors

 The stabilizing effect was optimal in a range of the angle θ from 7.5° to 22.5° and
at the anchor position 2mhorizontallyfromthecrestfor1V:1H slope.

Figure 4.5 using Anchors

46
4.6 SLOPE STABILIZATION USING INJECTED LIME
SLURRY

Figure 4.6 using injected lime slurry

4.7 SLOPE STABILIZATION USING SOIL NAILING

TECHNIQUE

 Soil nailing is a technique in which slopes, excavations or retaining walls are

passively reinforced by insertion of relatively slender elements- normally steel
reinforcing bars.

 Passive anchors: Soil nails; dowels, rock bolts; (with or without facing consisting
of plates, nets, reinforced shotcrete)

 Top-Down construction technique;

 Nails are not pre-stressed(i.e. passive)

47
 Fig 4.7 Soil Nailing

CHAPTER -5

SUMMARY, CONCULSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

48
5.1. SUMMARY

SLOPE/W uses the limit equilibrium formulation to determine the factor of safety for a
given slope geometry, applied materials and pore water pressures, and the defined slip
surfaces. The slip surface associated with the lowest factor of safety is the critical slip
surface. Multiple methods are available in SLOPE/W for interpreting the results, and can
confirm that the defined soil properties are used as intended when computing the factor of
safety. Replicating this example in a separate project file, will increase new users’
fundamental understanding of SLOPE/W and ability to conduct future stability analyses

5.2. CONCLUSIONS

 In 1916, Patterson (1955) presented the stability analysis of the Stigberg Quay in
Gothenburg, Sweden where the slip surface was taken to be circular and the
sliding mass was divided into slices.

 During the next few decades, Fellenius (1936) introduced the Ordinary or
Swedish method of slices.

 In the mid-1950s Janbu (1954) and Bishop (1955) developed advances in the
method.

 The advent of electronic computers in the 1960’s made it possible to more readily
handle the iterative procedures inherent in the method which led to
mathematically more rigorous formulations such as those developed by
Morgenstern and Price (1965) and by Spencer (1967).

 One of the reasons the limit equilibrium method was adopted so readily, is that
solutions could be obtained by hand-calculations

5.3. FUTURE SCOPE

49
 REFERENCES

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Structures Using Rigid Plastic Finite Element Method, Soils and Foundations,
Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 34, No. 1,

50
 (1994), 107-118.

2. Babu, N. S.: Optimization Techniques in Stability Analysis of Zoned Dams,

M.Tech. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, India, (1986).

3. Basudhar, P. K.: Some Application of Mathematical Programming Techniques to

Stability Problems in Geotechnical Engineering, Ph.D Thesis, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kanpur, India, (1976).

4. Barley, A. D.: Discussion on Experience with soil nailing in Brazil, 1970 – 1994,
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8. Bhoumik, S. K.: Optimization Techniques in Automated Slope Stability Analysis,

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Design Method for Reinforced Soil Structures, Proc. of the Int. Conference on In-
Situ Soil and Rock Reinforcement, Paris, France, (1984), 219-224.

10. Gassler, G.: Soil Nailing – Theoretical Basics and Practical Design, Proc. of the
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Kyushu, Japan, (1988), 283-288.

51
11. Gassler, G. and Gudehus, G.: Soil Nailing- Some Aspects of a New Technique,
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12. Gassler, G. and Gudehus, G.: Soil Nailing- Statistical Design, Proc. of 8 th
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13. Ghazavi, M., Karbor, L. and Hashemolhoseini, H.: A New Pseudo-Dynamic

Analysis of Soil Nailed Walls, 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering
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14. Giri, D. and Sengupta, A.: A Kinematic Limit Approach for the Stability Analysis
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15. Gutierrez, V. and Tatsuoka, F.: Role of the Facing in Reinforcing Cohesionless
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Theory and Practice of Earth Reinforcement, Kyushu, Japan, (1988), 289-294.

16. Hayashi, S., Ochiai, H., Otani, J., Umezaki, T. and Quan, J. A.: Mechanics and
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