The Delhi Sultanate ‘The Arabs brought Islam to India, They were followed by the Turks. From AD 1000 onwards, India witnessed a number of Turkish invasions. The two famous - invaders were Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad. Ghorij\While Mahmud of Ghazni had no imperialistic ambitions vis-a-vis India, Muhammad Ghori wanted to establish an empire in Ind Between AD 1175 anid AD 1194, Muhammad Ghori conquered nearly the whole of northern India. Soon a Sultanate with Delhi as its power- centre was established. After Muhammad Ghori’s ) death in AD 1206,/his generals divided the empire among themselves. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the general of Ghori’s Indian provinces, began to rule independently. This may be regarded as the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate. The dynasties that fmf to power during the Sultanate period were th + Slave Dynasty (AD 1206-1290) Khalji Dynasty (AD 1290-1320) Tughlug Dynasty (AD 1320-1414) + Sayyid Dynasty (AD 1414-1451) Lodi Dynasty (AD 1451-1526) + Sources Archaeological sources include inscriptions, coins as well as monuments. The early inscriptions are in Persian and Arabic. Some of the inscriptions are also in Sanskrit and regional languages. One of the magnificent monuments belonging to this period is ‘the Qutb Minar. Some of the literary sources are Ziauddin Baranis Tarikh-i-Feroz Shahi, Amir Khusrau’s Miftah-ul-Futuh and Minhaj-i-Sirja’s Tabagat-i-Nasiri. ,, the slave rulers. They were called so because many of 8 THE SLAVE DYNASTY (AD 1206-1290) Kae early Sultanate rulers were called Mamluks or By them were either slaves themselves, at some point in their life, or were sons of slaves who had later become sultans, Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the first ruler of this dynasty. Qutb-ud-din Aibak (AD 1206-1210) Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of the Delhi Sultanate, with Lahore as its capital. He was a kind- hearted and generous man and was called ‘Lakh Baksh’ or giver of lakhs. He built the Quwwat-ul Islam Mosque in Delhi, Aibak also started the construction of the Qutb Minar in Delhi to honour Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, the famous Sufi saint of Delhi. Iitutmish (AD 1211-1236) (Qutb-ue-tin Aibak was succeeded by Itutmish. He Ws regarded as ‘the real founder of the Sultanate. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi, Iitutmish consolidated his position by suppressing the rebellions of his nobles and the Rajput chiefs. He also successfully averted a possible Mongol invasion led by Chenghiz Khan.) Iltutmish introduced several reforms. First, he organized the ruling elite or nobility of the period. Second, he divided the empire into iqtas. ‘These iatas were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary, Third, he introduced silver coins called tanka. Raziya Sultan (AD 1236-1240) Iltutmish, finding his sons incompetent to sit on the:[torone of Bei nominated hig THE KHALJI DYNASTY “aughter Raziya as his successor (aD 1290-1320) But the nobles put Rukh-nud-/ The first Sultan of the Khalji Dynasty was Jalal-ud-din _ din Firoz Shah on the throne. Khalji, He ascended the throne in AD 1290, but was He, however, did not prove to murdered and succeeded by his ambitious-nephew ean effective ruler and was Ala-ud-din Khalji in AD 1296. deposed by Razig) Raziya’ reign was short and full of problems. The orthodox nobles opposed her as she was a woman, She angered the nobles further dynasty. when she tried to reduce their power and began taking decisions without consulting them. The nobles got Military conquests Ala-ud-din conquered Gujssst together and revolted against her. She was deposed in and Malwa in AD 1297. Victory AD 1240 and died soon afterwards. over Gujarat gave him control of ‘After Raziva, a number of less important the sea ports in the west. During sultans came to the throne. Of these, Nasir-ud-din AD 1301-1303, he conquered ‘Mahmud, a weak and an incompetent ruler, ruled for Ranthambhore and Chittor in 2 long time, ie. from AD 1246 to AD 1266. He left Rajasthan. His attack on Chittor the administration in the hands of Ghiyas-ud-din has been described vividly in Balban. Balban was the leader of the powerful group _ various Rajput sources. _ Rava S Ala-ud-din Khalji (AD 1296-1316) ‘Alaud-din was the most powerful ruler of the ¢ of forty nobles, called the Chalisa. Giunbued by his desire to acquire wealth as also to _ force the southern kingdoms to accept his suzerainty, Balban (AD 1266-1286) Ala-ud-din sent a huge army towards the south under Balban was the most powerful ruler of the Slave his trusted general, Malik Kafur)He not only defeated Dynasty. Balban reorganized and strengthened the Yadava, Kakatiya, Hoysala and the Pandya rulers the army. With its help, he restored law and order but also extracted a hM@bute from them. These throughout the empire. He fought against the local kingdoms, however, were not annexed as it would have rulers and defeated many of them. He fortified the been difficult to administer them from Delhi. Thus the north-western borders against Mongol raids. Many _kings were released on payment of tribute to him. new forts were built and old ones were repaired. Ala-ud-din was so elated with his military success Balban also crushed the power of the Chalisa to that he adopted the title of “Sikandar Sani’ (Second prevent it from revolting against him. Alexander). He also got it inscribed on his coins. Then Balban also consolidated his position as the Ala-ud-din tuned his attention towards consolidating sultan by: = his administration. - +¢ Exalting the position of kingship by calling himself / the ‘Shadow of God on Earth! - Reforms\As a fst step towards preventing the + laren elaborate court ceremonies and rituals nobles from becoming powerful, Ala-ud-din restricted i se poetne elo the king and’ / intermarriages between nobles, for he believed that Ser kre intermarriages bred conspiracy. Further, an elaborate a ie means espionage system was established to keep a close’ Dymitty cae to an wilh the Slave watch on the conduct of the riobles. Ala-ud-din end. The throne of Delhi passed introduced seyeral sweeping reforms in the field of into the hands of the Khalji rulers. revenue system, Prese eae: 7\ Measurement of all and under cultivation + Fixing the state’ demand at one-halfof the produce, especially in the Doab region, ) + Bringing more land under state control by abolishing small igtas. + Ensuring that the aid the revenue only to the king, This saved the peasants from paying extra taxes to the local nobles or the middleme! Qla-ud-din also introduced the market control policy. For this purpose he fixed the prices of various commodities, established separate markets for specific commodities, under the charge of Shehna-i Mandi or Controller of Market. He appointed special officials to keep a check on the shopkeepers. He prescribed strict punishment for those who flouted the rules and indulged in cheating) Q\\S Ala-ud-din died in AD 1316, After his death, the Khalji Dynasty could not survive. The last Khalji ruler, Khusraw Malik, was replaced by the Tughlugs. > Section Review Who laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in India? 2. What differentiated Mahmud of Ghazni’s raid from that of Muhammad Ghori? 3. Who established the Severo in India and when? 4. Why was the Slave Dynasty so called? 5. Why is Iltutmish regarded as the ‘the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate’? 6. Name the only woman to sit on the throne of Delhi Why was she assigned this place of honour? 7. State any two measures taken by Balban to consolidate the Slave Dynasty in India. 10 considered himself as_ ‘Shadow of God on Earth’? Was it justified? @sSNveS) Aiame the ruler who established the Khalji Dynas 10. What was Ala-ud-din’s chief aim in sending expeditions to southern India? Who was Malik Kafur? AyySisd> 12. State any two measures taken by Ala-ud-din Khali to consolidate his rule. 13, Discuss the revenue reforms introduced by Ala-ud-din Khali 14, Discuss the market control policy of Ala-ud-din Khalj ohn + To increase revenue collection, the sultan raised o n Yuardis woe THE TUGHLUQ DYNASTY (AD 1320-1414) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlug was the first ruler of the dynasty. He was an efficient military commander. He suppressed rebellions and consolidated the Sultanate. He was succeeded by Jauna Khan, who took the title of Muhammad-bin Tughluq Muhammad-bin Tughlug (AD 1325-1351) Ibn Batutta gives a lot of information about Muhammad-bin Tughlug’s reign. He tells us that the king was a man of great ideas. He thought of many ambitious schemes and unique experiments. However, he did not implement his ideas properly. ‘That is why most of his experiments failed. + The first project was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (in Aurangabad, Maharashtra) in AD 1327. The king felt that he would be able to control and administer the empire better from Daulatabad, located in the centre of the empire, than from Delhi. But the project failed because of two reasons, First, he ordered the entire population to shift to Daulatabad. This caused great hardship to the people. Second, it was impossible to keep a close watch on the northern frontiers from Daulatabad. So he ordered a re-shift of the capital. + The second project was the introduction of token currency in AD 1329. This project failed ‘on account of the circulation of counterfeit coins on a very large scale, which disturbed trade and commerce. Currency soon lost its value, The sultan had to give silver coins in exchange of the § forged ones. The treasury thus became empty. ‘The experiment had to be withdrawn. taxes on the peasants of the Doab region. The measure proved to be ill: timed, as the Doab was then facing famine. The discontentment among the people forced him to withdraw his order. seas dese {uhammad-bin Tughlugs es! Token a Khurasan, Iraq as well as Tibet currencyhe imposed jaziya (ax imposed on Hindus) on brahmans. He also granted land to the ules and made iqtas hereditary One remarkable feature of Firoa Shahs reign was his interest in public works. He constru dams, : canals, rest houses, SLO\ mosques and mady Be tf fh laid about 1200 State managed fruit gardens. He founded new cities like Hissar, Feroupur, | Jaunpur and Firuzabad. Figo, Shah Tughlug also built many educational institutions. Many BAY oF BENGAL Sanskrit texts were translated into Persiag and Arabic during his reign. Firoz Shah’s death in AD 1388 was followed by 2 war of succession. Taking advantage of this, many regions became independent. Soon, the Sultanate was reduced to Delhi its surrounding areas. ie ee econ Central As ‘invaded India during the reign ‘Central Asia. He in te er et tyTomb of Muhammad Shah, Delhi . nN fyas very soft natured. It was his kind and docile nature Bahlul Khan Lodi (AD 1451-1489) that did not let him acquire many kingdoms during Bahlul Khan Lodi was the foundlecof the Ladi Dynasty his reign JHe defeated the locals of Doab, Kalithar and in India. He was the first Afghan ruler of Delhi, Babul Chandwar since they had stopped paying tributes. Khan seized the throne without much resistance from thé Then ruler, Alam Shah. After becoming the ruler, Mubarak Shah (AD 1421-1434) -* he removed rebellious governors and appoint. Ger the death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Afghan nobles a5 yorsrnans portant provine Shah succeeded him to the throne2Like his father, Hig territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and Mubarak Shah was 3 wise man and‘an efficient ruler. northern UP. - He used his resources carefully and to the fullest. (He was a devout Muslim and cared for his subjects) | Sikandar Lodi (AD 1489-1517) he nobles, however, were against hin) Most @f his After the death of Bablul Khan, his second son timg was, therefore, (pent in controlling his nobles) succeeded him as the king. He sas given the title of The city of Mubarakabad was founded by him in Sultan Sikander Shah. He was an able ruler. His_ AD 1433. empire extended from Punjab to Bihar. He founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He Muhammad Shah (AD 1434-1443) was known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared Muhammad Shah succeeded Mubarak Shah_in for his sul jects. He also initiated many public welfate AD 1434. He was not an able ruler. During his reign, measures. For example, agriculture was improved “the nobles became very powerful. araLgfforis were made to keep the prices of esenth com yw. He established the. id Alam Shah (AD 1443-1451) made it his capital. After the death of Muhammad Shah, his son succeeded : the throne under the title of Alam Shah, HelostDelhi__!brahim Lodi (AD 1517-1526) to Bahlul Khan Lodi in AD 1451. With this, the brief Ibrahim _Lodi_ succeeded Sikandar Lodi, ‘Ihe rule of the Sayyid kings came to anend. Afghan _nobles rebelled against _him. He, howevsh ae — defeated them. ‘To prevent such revolts in future/, TH GES CARTY A Ibrahim Lod replaced senior nobles and sovtney ‘he (AD 1451-1526) by younger men. Some zal os led by ac L Daulat Khan eid Lodi Dynasty was established by the Ghizlai tribe governor of Tahiore, Daul oa L of the Afghans. There were three main rulers in the “against Ibrahim Lodi. They. history ofLodi Dynasty.The Age of the Mughals ‘The Mughals were the last powerful descendants of the Mongols from Central Asia. The Persian word for Mongol is ‘Mughal, from which we get the English word, ‘mogul, meaning ‘tycoon: In the sixteenth century AD, the Mughals, under Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Sources Some of the sources that tell us about Mughal India include literary sources like Baburnama, Abul Fazl's Akbarnama and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, Archaeological sources include coins issued by the Mughal Emperors as well as buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, the Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid and the Red Fort. BABUR (AD 1526-1530) Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. He was a descendant of Timur and Chenghiz Khan. He ruled over a small kingdom in Central Asia. He expanded his kingdom by attacking Afghanistan and capturing Kabul in AD 1504, At this time, Ibrahim Lodi was ruling over the Delhi Sultanate. He was an unpopular king. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, and Rana Sanga, the ruler of Mewar, wanted to end the rule of the Lodis. They invited Babur to India, thinking that after defeating Ibrahim Lodi, he would return to Kabul, leaving the Sultanate in their hands. With an army of only twelve thousand men, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Babur 9 Battle of Panipat in AD 1526. He then attacked a confederation of Rajput states, and conquered Delhi and Agra. This angered Rana Sanga. He led a large army against Babur. The forces of Rana Sanga were defeated in the Battle of Khanua in AD 1527 At the Battle of Ghaghara in AD 1529, Babur forced the combined armies of the Afghans to retreat. ‘These three battles secured Babur’ position in northern India Babur was not just a conqueror, He was also an accomplished poet and writer. His autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnama, ranks among the great autobiographies of the world, It is written in Turkish In it, Babur has described the physical features, climate, animals, birds, flowers, fruits, and the life and condition of the people of the places which he visited. He has also written about his life Babur also introduced the concept of garden palaces in India, He laid out gardens at Agra, Sikri and Dholpur. Babur died in AD 1530. Since his rule was very short, he could not consolidate the empire that he had established. The task of consolidation fell on his son, Humayun. HUMAYUN (AD 1530-1540 AND AD 1555-1556) Babur was succeeded by his son, Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Humayun in AD 1530. He inherited one of the largest empires in the world, and between AD 1530 and AD 1540, he lost all of it to rebellions, from Afghanistan to India. Sher Khan, the Afghan king in the east, took advantage of this situation and strengthened his "3orkind. The administrative officials were lenient atthe time of revenue assessment but strict atthe time of tax collection. In times of natural disasters such as floods oF famines, however, the peasants did not have to pay any taxes, Rather, Sher Shah gave them loans on easy terms during times of emergency. Achievements Sher Shah encouraged trade. To make travelling easier and to promote trade and commerce, Sher Shah built an excellent network of roads in his empire. The most famous of these is the Grand Trunk Road. ‘The roads were provided with sarais or rest houses. These sarais became centres of trade. In course of time, towns and cities developed around these sarais. To encourage foreign trade, Sher Shah reduced the custom duties. He also introduced a silver coin called the rupia. It continued to be used for many centuries after his death. Sher Shah was a secular ruler. He followed a policy of religious tolerance. He respected all religions and looked after the welfare of all his subjects. His architectural achievements included the building of the Purana Qila at Delhi. Sher Shah was succeeded by Islam Shah. He could not build upon the work of his predecessor. Humayun defeated Islam Shah in AD 15SS and ended the Sur Empire. After Humayun's death in AD 1556, the task of consolidation fell on his son and successor Jalal-ud- din Muhammad Akbar. AKBAR (AD 1556-1605) Akbar was one of the greatest rulers of India. He expanded and consolidated the Mughal Empire. When 3 his father, Humayun, died in AD 1556, Akbar became the “Padshal’ or ‘ruler of the empii He was only 13 years of age. Bairam Khan was appointed as Akbar's regent. The Mughal Empire at this time had just been re-established and was not Trivial Not all Rajput rulers, however, accepted Akba's hand of friendship. Udai Singh, the ruler of Mewor, fought against the Mughals. Later, Udai Singh's s0n Rana Pratap continued to fight against the Mughals. Akbar defeated him at the Battle of Haldighati in AD 1576. very trong. The Rajputs and the Afghans were waiting for a suitable opportunity to expel the Mughals from India. Under the guidance of Bairam Khan, Akbar defeated Hemu, the general of the Afghan forces in AD 1586 in the Second Battle of Panipat. Thus Akbar was able to crush the Afghan power. The victory over Hemu gave Akbar a lot of confidence. He dismissed Bairam Khan and assumed all powers, Akbar next conquered Chittor, Ranthambhore, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Sind, Kabul and Kandahar, In the Deccan, Akbar brought Berar, Khandesh and some parts of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar under his control. Akbar was now the ruler of a large part of India. Relations with Rajputs and other Hindu rulers Akbar's administrative foresight is best visible in his relation with the Rajputs. He realized that if he had their support, he could consolidate his empire. So he offered them his friendship. + He married into Rajput families. + He gave high posts to Rajput chiefs in the Mughal administration. Some of his faithful officers, sch as Raja Man Singh and Raja Birbal, were Rajputs. + He respected the political independence of the Rajputs and did not interfere in their internal matters. . ‘Akbar’s. most successful administrative coup, however, was allowing Hindu kings to retain a large eee ther Muslim kingdoms, degree of autonomy. In all o : ee der the same law, the Shariat, non-Muslims came unde allowed the Hindus to all Muslims. Akbar, however, allowe ia the Dharmashastra, and to remain under their own law, eee retain their own courts. This loose style of foTHE AGE OF THE MUGHALS 16 in which territories were under the control of the Emperor but still largely. independent, ecame the model that the British would emulate as they slowly built the colonial model of government in the eighteenth. and nineteenth centuries. Administrative reforms In onder to govern the Mughal Empire, Akbar _ introduced various reforms. ‘The most important feature of his reign was the mansabdari system. ‘The term ‘mansab’ means a rank or position, The ‘mansabdar’ was the official who held this rank, He had to maintain a certain number of horsemen (soldier plus his horse) for use by the emperor. The number of horsemen the mansabdar would maintain depended upon his % rank. The ranks ranged from 10. |” %, to 10000 horsemen. Generally, ranks above $000 were reserved WD. for the princes. In addition to ‘a certain number of horsemen, the mansabdar also hhad to maintain a fixed number of elephants, camels, carts, etc. ‘The mansabdars were paid through jagirs. The jagirs were allotted based on the rank of the mansabdar. Higher ranked mansabdars were assigned bigger jagirs. The mansab or rank of a mansabdar was not hereditary. When a mansabdar died, his jagir was taken away by the king and was allotted to someone else. Akbar also made several changes in the revenue administration, Land revenue was fixed according to the fertility of the land. However, the tax was assessed equally on every member of the empire—a radical innovation considering that every other state in the sixteenth century rarely taxed the nobility. A_N AARADSAGAIE India under Akbar in AD 1605 Religious policy Akbar did not discriminate on the basis of religion. + He employed many competent Hindus in his administration. + He abolished the jaziya and the pilgrimage tax. + He allowed his Hindu subjects to build temples and worship as they liked. + He even participated in many Hindu festivals such as the Holi. Din-ilahi After interacting with people of different religion’ Akbar concluded that all religions preach a comme? message of love for humanity. He felt that if the bes Points of all religions could be combined, the peoP!*This is what Abul Fazl wrote about ‘Din-i-llahi' in the Ain-i-Akbari “Those who wanted to join this order and tho: the emperor approved were amined ens Soest” The members of this order greeted each other with Allah-o-Akbar (God is Great). Each member hosted @ dinner on emperors birthday and gave up eating meat, especially in the month of his birth. There were No priests, no places of worship and no rituals.” of his empire would greatly benefit from it. Therefore, he suggested a religious path called the ‘Din-i-llahi’ or Divine Monotheism—religion of one God. It was based on the fundamental ideas of all religions. Din-illahi, sought to synthesize the world’s religions into a single religion. Akbar also elevated the notion of ‘unity of the realj—the world, as a creation of God, is a single and unified place that reflects the singularity and unity of its creator—to a central religious idea in his new religion. Akbar declared himself as the spiritual guide of his people. He discouraged the killing of animals, giving cruel punishments to criminals and the custom of ‘sti ‘The practice of worshipping the sun, fire and other sources of light was an important part of it. Akbar also popularized the principle of ‘Sulh-iKul’ or ‘peace with all! This was primarily aimed at achieving peace, tolerance and unity in a country of diverse religions. Din-i-llahi was not a new religion, but a code of moral conduct. Raja Birbal was one of the followers of Din- illahi, Din-i-ahi faded out after Akbar. Akbar had put in place an efficient administration and a set of political relationships between the ‘Mughal court and local Hindu kingdoms that ensured peaceful empire for the rest of his life. He was followed by three great emperors, who expanded and consolidated the Mughal Empire. Section Review 1. Why were the Mughals so called? 2. Who founded the Mughal Dynasty? 4 State the importance of the First Battle of Panipat. 4. Whom did Babur defeat at oto the Battle of khanua Who was Baburs successor? Who was Sher Khan? Discuss the administrative reforms of Sher Shah, ‘What unit of currency did Sher Shah introduce? Name Humayun’s successor, State one aspect of Akbars greatness as a unifyin force in this country Ba) ‘What was the mansabdari system? Define the new religion propounded by Akbar. JAHANGIR (AD 1605-1627) Akbar was succeeded by his son, Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir, who ruled the empire from AD 1605 to AD 1627. Jahangir tried to consolidate D the empire further. He first crushed G: a 7 2 the rebellion of his son, Prince Khusrau. Next, he strengthened Mughal control ‘Avadh and Bengal. In AD 1613, he defeated Rana Amar Singh of tehang Mewar. Jahangir allowed the Rana to rule over his territories on the condition that he would remain loyal to the Mughals. He also conquered Kangra in AD 1620. Jahangir tried to expand the Mughal influence in the Deccan. The Mughal armies captured the fort of Ahmadnagar. However, Malik Ambar, the military commander of Ahmadnagar, put up a stiff resistance and did not allow the Mughals to conquer territories in the Deccan. Jahangir also lost Kandahar to the Persians. This was a huge loss as the major trade routes between India and West Asia passed through Kandahar. ; Jahangir patronized art, architecture, literature and painting. Jahangir’s reign is considered the oe period of Mughal culture. However it was aon period that the European presence in India .d two ambassadors from dominant. Jahangir receives ; " in Hawkins and Sir Thomas King James 1, Captals concessions Roe, who sought trading rights an ere Consequently, in AD 1612, the English set up at Surat. over eeNUR JAHAN f his reign to his ir owed many successes Of Jahangir owed mary eee ‘ete, Nor Jahan, She was very amber wpe interest in the administration of the empire. sarangi took her advice on all importer) issues ‘Once when Jahangir fell, she independent managed the affairs of the empire Gradua. he became so powerful that coins Were issued jointly the name of Jahangir and Nur Jahon SHAH JAHAN (AD 4628-1657) « sons fought for the throne. ahangie's death, hi pares Prince Khurram defeated ‘After months of fighting his brothers and ascended the throne. He took the title of ‘Shah Jahan. Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan had to face many revolts. He put down a rebellion in Ahmadnagar, repulsed the Portuguese in the Bengal, and conquered parts of the Deccan. ‘One of Shah Jahan's major innovations was shifting the capital from Agra to Delhi, the traditional seat of Muslim power. Delhi was one of the largest cities in India and its status as the capital increased its prestige and power. Shah Jahan began a series of grand monumental architectural projects in Delhi. The city itself was surrounded by walls. In the middle of the city was the Red Fort, which housed the palace as well as all the buildings associated with imperial administration. He also built the Taj Mahal at Agra. Shah Jahan built for himself an extravagant throne, the Peacock Throne, all in gold and embedded with rare jewels. In AD 1739, Nadir Shah of Persia, invaded India and seized the Peacock Throne for himself—it has remained in Iran ever since. Shah Jahan AURANGZEB (AD 1658-1707) In AD 1687, Shah Jahan fell ill. A war of succession broke out among his four sons—Dara Shukoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh. Aurangzeb defeated his main rival, Dara, and imprisoned Shah Jahan at Agra Fort “thereafter, he crowned himself the ‘emperor. Muhi-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years: His reign witnessed numerous revolts jn different parts ‘of the empire. Most of his time was spent in crush from two groups—the Marathas ing these revolts. The most serious opposition came and the ‘Sikhs. In matters of administration, Aurangzeb repealed alltaxes that were not authorized as per the Islamic law = tration. This move depleted the Mughal Empire of the much-needed revenue. So Aurangzeb reimposed the jaziya and pilgrimage tx. It led to unrest among the Hindu subjects. CAUSES FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHALS “The Mughal Empire owes its decline and ultimate downfall to a combination of factors. | Historians have primarily held Aurangzeb responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire. ‘Aurangzeb’s prolonged Deccan campaign not only depleted the treasury but also rendered administration of the empire impossible. Further it also encouraged the local chiefs to raise the banner of revolt and assert their independence. ‘Aurangzeb also reversed Akbar’s policy of friendship with the Rajputs. As a result, Aurangzeb could not seek their help against the Marathas + Further, Aurangzeb reimposition of jaziya and the pilgrimage tax is also regarded as a cause for the decline of the Mughal Empire, as it led to disunity among the people. The Mughals did not follow any law of primogeniture, therefore a lot of time and resources were wasted on wars of succession among the princes. This affected the smooth running of the administration. The rulers who followed Aurangzeb lacked the administrative acumen and the military prowes> of the early Mughals. Moreover, ‘Aurangzebs successors were weak and pleasure-loving. They were mere puppets in the hands of powerful nobles- + ++ The degeneration of the rulers had also led to the moral degeneration of the nobility. Under the Great Mughals, the nobles distinguished themselves both in war and peace. But under the later Mughals, the nobles had become corrupt and promoted their selfish interests. + The mansabdari system, under which a mansabdar had to maintain a fixed quota of troops, faced a crisis in the second half of the seventeenth century AD. ‘The number of mansabdars increased rapidly. It became difficult to control them. Due to the absence of central control, the mansabdars did not maintain the number of troops that they were required to. + The mansabdari crisis weakened the military. The problem was made acute by the fact that the Mughals did not adopt new technology. The weapons used in the army were outdated. ‘The artillery wing of the army was neglected. Nor did the rulers try to develop a navy. Due to all these factors, the empire failed to defend itself against foreign invasions. + The Mughal Emperors paid their officers through jagirs. By the end of the seventeenth century AD, there were not enough jagirs left to be assigned. Thus, there was a rivalry for the few jagirs that were left. To tide over the crisis, a lot of crown land was converted into jagir land. This reduced the revenue share of the king and his power declined further. + Further, factors like wars of succession, rebellions and luxurious lifestyle of the rulers and nobles had depleted the treasury leading to financial bankruptcy. —_——___. To Remember + The raids by Nadir Shah, and repeated invasions of, ‘Ahmad Shah Abdali, resulted in further weakening of the empire. The already weakened empire faced further threat by the advent of the British and the French, which proved to be the last nail in the coffin. (For details of art and architecture go to page 148) — Section Review — 1. Who succeeded Akbar to the Mughal throne? 2. Why was Kandahar’ loss a huge loss for the Mughal Empire? 3, Name any one ambassador who visited the court of Jahangir 4. Why did Shah Jahan have to pursue an aggressive military policy after accession? 5. What was Shah Jahan’s major innovation during his rule? 6, Name any two architectural glories of Shah Jahan’s period. 7. Was Aurangzeb’s accession to the throne @ smooth affair? 8. Why did Aurangzeb reimpose jaziya? 9. Why do historians hold Aurangzeb primarily responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire? 410. In what way were the successors of Aurangzeb responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Dynasty? 41. What do you understand by ‘the mansabdari system. faced a crisis’? 12. How did the jagirdari system contribute to the downfall of the Mughals? 413. State any external factor that caused the further downfall of the Mughal rule. 34. What according to you has been the greatest impact of the Mughal Rule in India? ————— The Mughal Dynasty—Mughals were the descendants of the Mongols, itis the Persian word for Mongol. Sources—Literary sources like Baburnama, Akbarnama and archaeological sources lke coins and monuments tll us about the Mughal india Babur—Founder of the Mughal Dynasty, the First Battle of Panipat, the Battle of Khanua and the Batt le of Ghaghara “onsolidated Baburs position in northern India, wrote Baburnama, died in AD 1530. Humayun—He inher battles of Chausa Shah Tehmasp of Persia ited, lost and managed to regain one of the largest empires, and Kanauj, Sher Khan then occupied Delhi and Agra, Humayun fled an was defeated by Sher Khan in the 1d took shelter in the court ofEmergence of a Composite Culture During the medieval period, Bhakti and Sufi movements spread across India along with Christianity, hich wi preached by the Senne Jesuit missionaries. They are members of the Society of Jesus, a religious order of men, who follow the teachings of the Catholic Church. The saints of the Bhakti tradition composed hymns and sang bhajans, glorifying God. The Sufi saints also expressed their devotion through music, The Jesuit missionaries too spread their message through sermons and music. ‘These movements influenced the social and cultural aspects of the society during this period. THE SUFI MOVEMENT ‘The Sufi Movement was a liberal reform movement within Islam. The followers were mystics who believed that Sufism originated in Persia. It was an endeavour to bridge the differences between the Shia and the Sunni faith. ‘The term sufi is derived from the Arabic word ‘suf’ meaning wool and refers to the coarse woollen clothing worn by the believers. The movement was brought to India in eleventh century AD by Sheikh Ismail of Lahore. The Sufis preached religious tolerance and oneness of God. ‘Though Sufism represents the mystical dimension of Islam, the Sufi saints transcended all religious and communal distinctions and promoted the interests of humanity at large. Doctrines of Sufism + God is supreme and should be worshipped through love and devotion. + Meditation and chanting of God's name (zikr) is very important. 10 * Respect all religions. Different religions preach different ways of reaching God * Lead a simple life. Keep yourself free from greed. *+ Help those in need. Show charity towards the poor. + Follow a guru (pir) who would show the correct path. The Sufi saints The most renowned of all Sufi saints in India was Hazrat Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti, who founded the Chishti Silsilah. Born in AD 1142, he migrated to India and lived in Ajmer till his death. His dargah at Ajmer is an important pilgrimage centre, visited by both Hindus and Muslims. Other prominent Sufi saints of the Chishti Silsilah were Sheikh Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, and Hazrat Nizam-ud-din Auliya. He was popularly referred to as ‘Mehboob-i-llahi’ (Beloved of God) by his followers. His dargah at Delhi is visited by hundreds of people every day. Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya of the Suhrawardi Silsilah was equally popular. Impact of Sufism It led to the growth of Hindu-Muslim unity as toleration towards other religions increased. + It influenced rulers to become more tolerant in their religious policies. 's As the saints preached in the language of the masses, it enriched the vernacularenc at Trivial 4 © The Sufis were organized into various ‘Sisilahs’ for orders. The four most popular among these were Chihtis, Subrawardis, Qalandariya and Nagshbandis. Ot these, the Chishti and Suhrawardi ‘ became very popular in India. p tte + «tS ‘¢ As members across caste and class were welcomed by the Sufi saints, Sufism promoted social cohesion. Section Review 4. Name the two reform movernents that benefited the people. 2. Where did the Sufi Movement originate? 3 From which Arabic word is Sufism derived? ‘A. Who is credited with having brought Sufism to India? 5, What was the ultimate goal that the Sufi reformers hoped to achieve? & State any two important doctrines of Sufism. 7. Name any two Sufi saints in India. 8. How did Sufism influence the rulers of the day? 9. What was the impact of Sufism? THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT ‘The word bhakti denotes devotion and love for God. The word is derived from bhakta, meaning to serve, honour, revere and love. Bhakti is the attachment or fervent devotion to God and is defined as ‘that particular affection which is generated by the knowledge of the attributes of the Adorable One: ‘The Bhakti Movement emerged as a reaction to the caste distinction and ritualism so prevalent in the Hindu religion. It began as a reform movement that originated in south India in eighth century AD. The alvar and nayannar saints popularized it. They came from different castes and followed different professions. They preached the path of surrendering oneself to God. These saint-poets travelled from place to place, singing hymns in praise of different Gods. The Chola i al ee built temples at places visited by Doctrines of the Bhakti Movement « There is only one God and He can be attained through devotion, +s Salvation is possible only through complete devotion. + As all men are equal, salvation and not his birth. ‘+ Purity of soul and dignity of through meaningless rituals and practices: A guru or an enlightened teacher <3 guide an individual towards realizing the true significance of the Almighty. man’s actions determine his life cannot be achieved The Bhakti saints The roots of the revival of Hindu philosophy Adi Shankaracharya. Bhakti Movement lay in the spearheaded by Sri Ramanujacharya Sri Ramanujacharya was qnother prominent Bhakti saint of south India. He vaised his voice against the increasing orthodoxy and founded a new school of Vaishnavism based oon the gospel of love and devotion. Ramananda Innorth India, the Bhakti Movement qwas popularized by Ramananda. He is believed to have lived in the first half of the fifteenth century. He taught that Rama is the supreme God, and that salvation could be attained only by chanting (japa) His name. : ‘Adi Shankaracharya RamanujacharyaRR THE MESSAGE OF SANT KABIR DAS. > Bura Jo Dekhan Main Chala, Bura Naa Milya Koye, Jo Mann Khoja Apna, Mujhse Bura Naa Koye. “Translation: | looked for the evil in ‘every one, but did ‘not find any ‘When | searched within myself, | found that | was the most evil one. Understanding the message: This doha highlights ‘our behaviour. We often find fault with others and criticize other people. This is because we are not ‘aware of our defects. Kabir says that instead of finding fault with others, we should look within our own, selves. We will find that we, and not others, ave at fault. Adopting a loving and compassionate attitude will make the world a beautiful place to live in. + Kaal Kare So Aaj Kar, Aaj Kare So Ab, Pal Mein Parlay Hoyegi, Bahuri Karega Kab? Translation: Do tomorrow's work today, and today’s work now For if the moment is lost, when will you do the work? Understanding the message: In this doha, Kabir hhas tried to highlight the human tendency of procrastination. Kabir condemns this attitude. if we keep postponing our work, it will never be done. So we should get rid of this habit. + Aisee Vani Boliye, Mann Ka Aapa Khoye, ‘Auran Ko Seetal Kare, Aaphu Seetal Hoye. Translation: Speak such words which are free of pride Of arrogance For such words not only give joy to others, but also to the speaker. "Understanding the message: This doha emphasizes the power of speech. We know that soothing, ‘compassionate and loving words act as a balm, while harsh words breed hatred. Kabir urges us to speak loving words so that we remain calm and the listener ‘also feels happy and cared for. Janam Asthan Gurudwara in Nankana Sahib, Pakistan, ‘8 popular pilgrimage site for the Sikhs. Kabir Sant Kabir Das was a popular Bhakti saint, He believed in the unity of ae God for him was One, the Supreme . Kabir was against idol-worship, 7" performing rituals, bathing in holy rivers, going on pilgrimages and othey such forms of worship, He attacked the superstitions of both the brahmans and the qazis He laid stress on purity of character and conduct, and advocated leading a life dedicated to bhakti. He also preached ahimsa and asked people not to kill animals for food. Kabir had no formal education but he could compose dohas or couplets of extraordinary beauty. His dohas promoted Hindu-Muslim unity. The Kabir Granthavali and the Bijak contain the philosophy of Kabir. Rabindranath Tagore translated many of Kabir’s dohas into English. Kabir Das Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer in the late fifteenth century Bengal. He worshipped the Lord in the form of Krishna, He denounced caste distinctions and preached the universal brotherhood of mankind. \a Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: Guru Nanak Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint and a social reformer. Like Kabir, Nanak emphasized the worship of one God (Ik Onkar). He started the practice of langars or common kitchens. Here, people of all classes and castes ate together, something that the caste rules of that time did not allow. Guru Nanak insisted on three principles which contain the essence of life. These principles are: + ‘Naam Japo' or meditate. + ‘Kirt Karo’ or work hard and earn by honest deeds. Guru Nanak+ "Vand Chhako’ or share your earnings with the less fortunate. Guru Nanak attracted a followers. These were primarily peasants, craftsmen and traders, He also encouraged women to join the Bhakti Movement. Nanak teachings arein the formofvverses. Thesehave been led in the Guru Granth Sahib, large number of artisans, compil also called the Adi Granth. Mirabai Mirabai was a Bhakti saint from Rajasthan. She was an ardent devotee of Krishna. She believed that one could achieve salvation through | complete devotion to Krishna. Her melodious bhajans are sung even today. In Maharashtra the Movement was popularized by: + Sant Jnaneswar, a thirteenth century Bhakti saint, introduced the movement by denouncing the caste system and idol worship. He popularized the worship of Vithoba, the incarnation of Lord Vishnu. ¢ Tukaram was a sixteenth century Bhakti saint in Maharashtra who composed wonderful verses eulogizing Lord Krishna. He preached against casteism, idol worship, rituals and ceremonies. ‘According to him, the ethos of religion lay in the realization of the divine through love for all. ‘The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries witnessed the rise of many religious reformers. The exponents of the Rama cult and the Krishna cult, amongst the Vaishnavas, branched off into a number of sects and creeds. ‘The leading light of the Rama cult was the saint- poet Tulsidas. He was a great scholar and had made 2 profound study of Indian philosophy and literature. immortal work, Ramacharitamanasa is very popular among the Hindu devotees. He set before a image of Sri Rama as all virtuous, |, the Lord of the World, and the very embodiment of the Supreme Reality. Bhakti Mirabai “The followers of the Krishna cult founded the Radha Ballabhi sect under Hari Vamsa. Surdas wrote Sursagar in Brajbhasha, Impact of the Bhakti Movement 4 As the Bhakti reformers believed in equality, '¢ helped in forging unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. + Negation of caste distinction: rituals and practices encourage amongst the rulers of that age ++ Asthe reformers preached in the common language ofthe people, this period witnessed a rich outburst ofliterary activity. + The Bhakti reformers are cre Hinduism. + The harmony the Muslims stabilized the societ opportunities for cultural growth, so witnessed in the prolific outburst of literary activity. ¢ and meaningless a liberal outlook ,dited with reviving so created between the Hindus and ty and provided Similarities between Bhakti and Sufi saints + Believed in the unity of God. + Opposed the prevalent caste system. + Condemned rituals and idol worship. + Preached their message in languages spoken by the masses. + Stressed on the importance of a teacher to guid: the devotees life. me Section Review 1. What does Bhakti mean? 2, From where is the term Bhakti derived? Give any two doctrines of the Bhakti Movement. ‘What was the importance of Adi Shankaracharya in the movement? . Who founded a new school of Vaishnavism? What w it based upon? . State the role of Kabir and Guru Nanak in the Bhakti Movement. Name any two Bhakti reformers who impressed the masses deeply Name any woman saint and her belief Who led the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra?10. What was the role played by Tulsidas during this period? 11. Who is the author of Sursagar? 12, State the impact of the Bhakti Movement. CHRISTIANITY A major development during the medieval period was the spread of Christianity. It was a religious faith based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. He was the son of Joseph and Mary. ‘The life and teachings of Jesus Christ are accounted in four short books called the ms Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Jesus preached I vig oN ft S _ A his message of love in the Jesus Christ form of parables and sermons with the help of 12 chosen followers. The Bible is the holy book of the Christians. It has two parts—the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christianity in India Christianity was introduced in India by apostle h St Thomas, who arrived in Kerala in AD $2 and preached along the Malabar coast. He preached the message of Jesus Christ among the Brahmins of Malabar, who became the first Christians in India. He even established seven churches on the Malabar coast. ‘The arrival of Vasco da Gama in AD 1498 opened the doors for the Portuguese missionaries to come St Thomas ‘o India. In the following years, many Portuguese missionaries arrived in Goa before moving to different Parts of the country. St Frencis Xavier (AD 1506-1552) St Francis Xavier arrived in Goa, on the west coast of India, in AD 1542. Goa was the centre of the Portuguese trade in Asia during this period. After spending some time in Goa, he moved to Cape Comorin. There, he explained Christianity to the fishermen who had accepted the faith but did not the religion. He described his method to a Jesuit in Rome—‘As they do not understand me, nor I them, their native language, I sought out the more literate among them and chose some who knew our language (Portuguese) as well as theirs. Then, after many daysand meetings and much labour, we translated (the prayers) into their language and committed them to memory. I went all over the place with a bell, and collected as many children and adults as I could, After 1 had brought them together, I taught them twice each day, until, after one month, they had learnt the prayers.” St Francis Xavier travelled to other parts of Asia to spread the message of Jesus Christ. He came to be known as the ‘Apostle of the Indies. understand Roberto de Nobili (AD 1577-1656) (Roberto de Nobili wag a Jesuit missionary who came to Goa in AD 1605) After spending time there, he moved to Madurai, where he lived for a very long time. He witnessed the Portuguese and their converts being referred to as Parangis. The term Parangis came to be associated with foreigners who were unclean, ate meat and drank liquor. Roberto de Nobili faced many obstacles initially. ‘Thereafter, he adopted the local customs and started living as a Brahmin sanyasi. He started wearing ochre colour robes, wooden shoes, carried a stick and a Kamandalu (water jug), ate only vegetarian food and wore the sacred thread. He spent time learning Tamil and Sanskrit and engaged in discussions with Hindu scholars on their views on Christianity. He even wrote books in Tamil, popularizing the message of ee Christ. He continued writing books till the end 0! his life.‘The relics of St Francis Xavier have been kept in a silver casket. The casket is crowned by a cross which stands on a pedestal graced with figures of two angels on either side, one near the head holding a heart with a halo and the other near his feet bearing the motto, ‘Satis est, Domine, Satis est’ meaning ‘It is enough, O Lord, it is enough!” These words were St Francis Xavier's most famous utterances. The relics of St Francis Xavier are kept in the be Basilica of Bom Jesus Church at Goa Roberto de Nobili faced: stiff opposition from the Church as well as from the local people because of his acceptance of local customs and lifestyles. Yet, he was successful in spreading the message of Jesus Christ. He even built a church in Madurai. Impact of Christianity ‘Akbar, the Mughal emperor, ‘was curious about Christianity. In AD 1579, he sent his "bet de Nobili ambassador to Goa asking for two learned priests to ‘The influence of Christianity is seen in architecture be sent to his court, Father Rudolph Acquaviva, Father too. The Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri has a ‘Anthony Monserrate and Brother Francis Henriques verse written on it depicting the Christian faith. The reached Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar welcomed them and calligraphy inside the arch of the Buland Darwaza involved them in religious debates and discussions _reads—‘Jesus, Son of Mary (on whom be peace) said: which were held in the Ibadat Khana (Hall of The Worldis.aBridge, pass over it, but build no houses Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar also commissioned upon it. He who hopes for a day, may hope for eternity, Father Jerome Xavier to translate the life of Christ into Persian. The Dastan-i-Masih (life of Christ) was completed in AD 1602, Christianity influenced Mughal art and architecture. An example can be seen in the miniature painting of the Nativity scene which was commissioned under Akbar. The painting shows child Jesus and Mother Mary sitting under a tree outside a wooden garden pavilion. They are being attended by Mughal serving girls. Christian themes abound in many paintings done during the reign of Akbar and Jahangir.Elections and the Election Commission Elections in India are events involving political mobilization and organizational complexity on a massive scale. According to the Constitution, all Indian citizens, who are 18 years of age and above and who are not otherwise disqualified under any law, shall be entitled to vote in the elections. Every Indian who fulfills the above criteria finds a place in the Voters’ List, which is revised every six years. India has the world’s largest electorate comprising over 67 crore voters. THE NEED FOR ELECTIONS India is a constitutional democracy with a parliamentary system of government. At the heart of this system is a commitment to hold regular, free and fair elections. These elections determine the composition of the government, the membership of the two houses of Parliament, the State legislative ADVANTAGES AND DISADVAN’ Both the direct and indirect kind: ADVANTAGES Direct elections ‘erates more interest in the people 25 + Itgen : ‘actual formation of they play a part in the the government. are answerable to the sons elected eee wk more efficiently and people directly, they wo with responsibility. DISADVANTAGES country, where illiteracy and poverty is rampant, too much power placed in the hands of a few people can be too risky ¢ Voting based on rational thinking may easily give way to religious, caste and class considerations and money power. + Ina large assemblies, and the posts of the President and the Vice President of the country. Elections in India are effective tools to ensure that the government in power works according to the provisions of the Constitution and looks after the needs of the people. The people's control over the government through the election process makes it so important in a thriving democracy. Kinds of elections ‘There are two kinds of elections in our democratic system—direct elections and indirect elections. Direct election Here the adult citizens of the country directly elect their representatives to the legislatures. The members of the Parliament and the State Assemblies are elected in this manner. ITAGES OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT ELECTIONS Is of elections have their own advantages and disadvantages. Indirect elections + It reduces the play of people's emotions and passions as the choice is made by a handful of representatives. + Itis really suited in a country where the electorate is very large and mistakes might easily occur due to this. + The distance between the voters and the voted makes the entire system less democratic a8 only a few are directly involved in the process. + As the size of the electorate is relatively small there can be horse-trading and bribery to secure votes according to party lines. a a alataIndirect election The people elect an intermediary group, which then goes on fo elect members of the Tegisature, The members of the Rajya Sabha are lected by this method. The elections of the President tnd the Vice President also follow this method. Types of elections In our electoral system there are three types of elections namely: i. General election, ii. By-election and iii, Midterm election. General election ‘The very frst election of this kind was held in India in 1982 wherein the adult citizens of the country elected their representatives to the first Lok Sabha and to the State Assemblies. When elections were held after five years in 1957, some of the State Assemblies could not hold their elections along with the Lok Sabha. Yet the Lok Sabha elections continued to be called General Elections. By-election When a candidate representing a constituency dies during his tenure or resigns, a by- election is held to fill that seat. The new member elected stays in office for the remainder of the term. Midterm election When the Lok Sabha. or the State Assembly, is dissolved before completion of the full pai of five years, midterm elections are held to form. lew governm i : ae ae el ee to constitute Hence the use of the term become redundant, General Elections, midterm elections has dechon ssevtew : What does the pro kind of governmen going to vote for a a the earlier member died in office, by what led? would that election be The Government of the State of ‘Ganadesh majority vnthin a year of forming the ministry kind of elections can be held now 10. When were the first General Elec Constituencies re a “The country has been divided into $43 Patliamentary Constituencies, each of which returns one member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament ‘The size and shape of the parliamentary constituencies are determined by an independent Delimitanon Commission. Delimitation means the redraw the boundaries of the Parliamentary and Assemb constituencies to ensure that there are, as far as possible, the same number of people in all constituencies> In India, every constituency is a single-member constituency. Only one representative is sent from each constituency. This simple and convenient method helps to build closeness between the voters and the elected candidate and have stability. Some European countries have adopted au member constituency method where more than oo member is elected from each constituency. Here && voters get as many votes as the number of seats Bet this style of voting is now being replaced by sing member constituencies in most places) Reservation of seats ‘The Constitution puts a limit on the size of Lok Sabha at $50 elected members, apart from ©members who can be nominated by the President to represent the Anglo-Indian community. There are also provisions to ensure the representation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, with reserved constituenci these communiti where only candidates from can stand for election, ‘Sukumar Sen K VK Sundaram SP Sen Verma CHIEF ELECTION COMMISSIONERS 21 March 1950 - 19 December 1958 20 December 1958 - 30 September 1967 1 October 1967 - 30 September 1972 Dr Nagendra Singh 1 October 1972 - 6 February 1973 T Swaminathan 7 February 1973 - 17 June 1977 Attempts are onto reserve one-third of the ete Beant cal nega ees RK Trved 18 June 1982 - 31 December 1965 RVS Peri Sastri 1 January 1986 - 25 November 1990 The single transferable vote system 9. VS Ramadevi 26 November 1990 - 11 December 1990 lection of the President and the Rajya te pr OW all Sabha members are carried out, using the single transferable vote system) ‘This system is designed to ensure more diverse representation by reducing the opportunity for major blocks of voters to dominate minorities. The ballot paper or the Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) lists all candidates standing for election and the voters list them in order of preference,(the candidates have to achieve a certain number of votes, known as the ‘quota’, to be elected For presidential elections the quota is set one more than half the number of votes, ensuring that the winner gets a clear Sakon that are deemed surplus, ie. those given to candidates who have already got a full quota of votes, or votes given to candidates ‘who are deemed to be losing candidates, are transferred according to the voter's listed preferences, until the right candidate or candidates are elected) je ‘ransenable Vole Custer THE ELECTION COMMISSION ‘An independent Election Commission_has_been established under the Constitution ‘Article 324) in order to carry out and regulate the jolding of elections in India. Composition and organization ln, Election Commission was established on 25 January 1950, Originally, the Commission consisted ofa Chief Election Commissioner. However, the President is vested with the power to appoint 12. JM Lyngdoh 13. TS Krishnamurthy 14. BB Tandon 15. N Gopalaswami 16. Navin Chawla 17. SY Quraishi 18. VS Sampath 19. HS Brahma 20. Dr Nasim Zaidi 21. Achal Kumar Joti 22. OP Rawat 12 December 1996 - 13 June 2001 14 June 2001 - 7 February 2004 8 February 2004 - 15 May 2005 16 May 2005 - 29 June 2006 30 June 2006 ~ 20 April 2009 21 April 2009 ~ 29 July 2010 30 July 2010 ~ 10 June 2012 11 June 2012 - 15 January 2015 16 January 2015 - 18 April 2015 19 April 2015 ~ 5 July 2017 6 July 2017 ~ 22 January 2018 23 January 2018 - tll date more Commissioners, if needed. Thus for the first time two additional Election Commissioners were appointed in 1989, but the system was removed in 1990. Again in 1993, the government promulgated an ordinance, which later became an Act to provide for the appointment of two Election Commissioners. ‘The Commission has its headquarters, called Nirvachan Sadan in New Delhi) At the state level, it consists of a Chief Electoral Officer and a core staff of varying numbers. At the district and Nirvachan Sadan in New Delhi} Be ‘Sukumar Sen and © P Rawat—the first and Election Commissioners \e present constituency level, officers and staff of the civil administration double up as election officials. During the actual conduction of elections, a large number of additional staff are temporarily drafted in to fulfil various election duties. They function mainly as polling and counting officials. Appointment At present, there are two Election Commissioners in addition to the Chief Election Commissione The Election Commissioners are appointed by i) President on recommendation of the Prime Ministi ‘The regional or state Commissioners are also appointe| by the President to assist the Election Commission \carry out its duty in all parts of the country. Conditions of service, independence and tenure of office The conditions of service and tenure of office of the Election Commissioner are prescribed by the Parliament through t enactment of law. Currently, the Act of Parliament (1994) determines them. The main provisions of the Act include: + The Chief Election Commissioner and the other Commissioners hold office for a term of six years or tll they attain the age of 6S years, whichever is earlier, : + They are paid a salary at par with the Judge of the Supreme Court, Their salary is charged on the vee Bre set yen ot A voter entity card Consolidated Fund of India and to their disadvantage. They are also pension on retirement. «The Chief Election Commissi removed from office only by the Pa; procedure of impeachment similar of removal of a Judge of the Sup The other Commissioners shall not by the President except on the recommeng the Chief Election Commissioner - + The Commission decides most x consensus but in case of any di majority view prevails. Powers and functions The Election Commission is responsible for the following functions: Making the electoral roll The electoral rll « a list of all registered voters in a constituency: Onk those people with their names on the electoral roll ae allowed to cast their vote. Normally, the electoral ro! is revised every year to add the names of those who have turned 18 in that year or have moved in to the constituency, and to remove the names of those whe have died or moved out of the constituency: The Election Commission is working towards computerization of the electoral rolls all over the country. The process has already improved the accuracs and speed of updating of the eestor roll. To improve accuracy of the elector roll and to prevent electoral fraud. Election Commission has intrdact® photo identity cards for voters. Recognizing political parties ™ Election Commission recog political parties under three Giese national parties. state PPP unrecognized registered se parties are also given election © os # “The national parties and stat® ne - piven reserved symbols The STS acandidates can choose symbols for them from a list of free symbols. ‘The election symbols help the masses especially the illiterate, to exercise thet franc hice judiciously, Conducting oloctions When the five year tern a Legislature 18 up. or it has been dissolved and new elections have heen called, the Hlection Commisaon, puts into effet the machinery for holding the election no Tonger than «x months between the last session of the dusolved Lok Sabha and the recalling of the The Conshtution states that there can be new House, so elections have to be concluded within this period In a country as huge and diverse as India a time when clections can be held through country is not simple. The Election Commission, which decides the schedule for elections, has to take into account various factors like: 4. the weather dung winter some constituencies may be under snow cover, while during the monsoon access to remote areas may be restricted, ti, the agricultural cy that the seasonal planting or harvesting of crops is not disrupted, ili. the exam schedules, as schools are often used as polling stations and teachers employed as election officials, and iv. religious festivals and public holidays. On top of this there are many logistical difficulties that go with holding an election, such as arranging electronic voting machines, setting up polling booths, recruiting officials like polling officers, ‘Returning Officers’ and ‘Presiding Officers’ to oversee the elections. , $0 Ensuring free and fair olections That the clections are conducted in a free and fair manner is the responsibility of the Election Commission. It sends Central Observers to sensitive areas to secure the safety of the voters while they exercise their franchise. If any malpractice or booth capturing is reported, the voting is countermanded and new dates are announced for fresh voting in that polling booth. Severe punishment is also prescribed for booth capturing under the Representation of People Act. \4 Scrutiny of nomination papers All papers have to be checked thoroughly by. the Returning Officer. Incomplete and invalid papery ha to be returned and the nomination of the candidate rejected. The candidates have to be qualified, genuins and meeting all criteria regarding deposit: mone symbol, etc Scrutiny of election expenses the candidate have to submit before the Election Commission 2 detailed account of all their expenses incurred during the election. There isa limit that a candidate can spend and if on scrutiny he is found to transgress or to have made illegal use of the government machinery for personal gains, even a winning candidate can be asked to step down and the election declared invalid. Model Code of Conduct To ensure free and fair elections the Electon Commission enforces a model code of conduct to be followed by the candidates, parties and the government. These include: sbmcted Nomination papers being st+ The gremment officials cannot in their official capanaty take part in politcal activities + Sitong MSand ML Ascannot use official machinery for elevtton purposes, Their official duty cannot be dubbed with the electioneering works « A phe of worship cannot be used for election + To incite through speeches or printed material is prohibited and can lead to disqualification. + Handing over gifts to the voters in exchange of votes is considered an act of corruption. When to hoid elections Elections for the Lok Sabha and every State Legislative Assembly have to take place every five years, unless called earlier. If the government in power no longer commands the confidence of the Lok Sabha and there is no alternative government available to take over, the President can dissolve the Lok Sabha and call a general election before its five-year term is up. Under certain circumstances such as civil unrest, militancy, etc. which make the holding of elections difficult, the elections may be postponed. In the past, for instance, disturbances in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Assam have led to the postponement of elections in those states. Holding of. regular elections can be stopped only by means of a constitutional amendment and in consultation with the Election ‘Trivia! ‘?! The election for the 14th President of th : Rey was held on 17 July 2017 pan herathc Commission, It is recognized that interruptions of Jular elections are acceptable only in extraordinary circumstances. Who can stand for election Any Indian citizen who is a registered voter and is 25 years of age or above can contest elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies. For Rajya Sabha, the age limit is 30 years. Usually, the of the Rajya Sabha represent the interests ate. However, it is no more obligatory for bha member to be a resident of the State memb of the S ¢ represents. Every candidate has to make an initial deposit, which is returned if the candidate receives more than one-sixth of the total number of valid votes polled in the constituency. In the case of a candidate sponsored by a registered political party, the nomination must be supported by at least one registered elector of the constituency, whereas in the case of other candidates, it has to be supported by 10 registered electors from the constituency. The Returning Officers, appointed by the Election Commission, receive nominations of candidates in each constituency and oversee other formalities involved in the process. In the case of the Lok Sabha and the Vidhan Sabha constituencies, a number of seats have been reserved for candidates from the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the Scheduled Tribes (ST's). The number of these seats is in approximate proportion to the population of the SCs and the STs in each state. Section Review ~ 1. What is a Parliamentary constituency? How many such constituencies are there in India? 2. What does the term single-member constituency mean? 3. Why did the Constitution provide for reservation of seats and for whom? 4. Define the term single transferable vote. 5. How is Article 324 linked to the election process n this country? When was the Election Commission established? 7. Give any two important functions of the Election Commission.® What role does the temporarily recruited additional Staff by the Commission play in an election» %. Who appoints the main functionani Election Commission? ey 10. What is the maximum tens ure of an Election Commissioner? mer 11. How can a Commissioner be removed from office? 12. In what manner does the Election Commission as a group take decisions? 13. Name the present Election Commissioner of India, 14. Who was the first Election Commissioner of India? 15. What is an electoral roll? 16. How important are photo identity cards? 17. What are the categories of political recog litical parties recognized by the Election Commission? : 18. What is the purpose behind having free symbols? 19. When are the elections held under normal circumstances? 20. State two important factors taken into consideration by the Election Commission before drawing the schedule for general elections in India, 21. What is the role of the Returning Officers? 22. How important are central observers in the election process? 23. What is booth capturing? 24. State two important aspects in the scrutiny of nomination papers. 25. Enumerate any two features of the Model Code of Conduct. THE ELECTION PROCESS After the election dates are announced the political parties gear up for the election process. The process involves a set pattern, which goes as follows: The election manifesto The political parties place their policies and programmes in front of the voters in the form of a document called the Election Manifesto, This document apprises the people of the policies and objectives of the party in question so that the voters can make their electoral choice based on it. Itis also a mode of impressing the people. It generally lists a set of promises to the people to be fulfilled if the party is voted to power. Filing and scrutiny of nomination papers The Candidates either belonging to a political party oF independent have to file in their nomination Papers within the stipulated period. After the last date the scrutiny of the nomination papers begins If a candidate has met all the criteria his papers are accepted while incomplete and faulty papers are rejected. The candidates are also given time to withdraw nominations if they so wish to. After this each of the eligible candidates is allotted an election symbol, which is to appear on the voting machine or ballot paper along with his name. The election campaign The success of the candidates depends largely on how well they are able to convince the voters during the period before the actual voting, The campaign generally involves the use of posters featuring the photographs, symbols and party promises all over the constituencies. The candidates also hold public meetings where eloquent speeches about personal and party achievements are put forward to the public. Candidates also take this ‘opportunity to criticize their opponents and argue their case. Apart from this, house to house canvassing where candidates greet individual voters, is also undertaken. Processions are taken out to display the popularity of the candidates and the party in question. Pamphlets and documents are distributed. The campaign ends 36 hours before the polling begins. The poll On the election day, the voters go to their respective polling booths and exercise their franchise. tthe polling booth, the electoral officers first confirm inclusion of the voter's name in the voters’ list andthen mark his/her finger with an indelible ink. The voter then proceeds to cast his/her vote either by putting a seal agains the candidate's name or symbol oon the ballot paper or press the appropriate button on the electronic voting machine. The Presiding Officer is in-charge of a polling booth. Counting and declaration of results Once the voting is over, all the ballot boxes or the electronic voting machines are sealed and taken to the counting centre assigned for each area. The counting is done in the presence of the Returning Officer and representatives of the candidates. Afterall the votes are counted, the candidate obtaining the maximum number of votes is declared elected. Election petition Any elector or candidate can file an election petition if he or she thinks there has been malpractice during the election. An election petition is not an ordinary civil suit, but treated as a contest in which the whole constituency is involved. Election petitions are tried by the High Courts, and if upheld, they can even lead to re-election in that constituency. Re-elections are also ordered where cases of booth, capturing, loss or destruction of the EVMs, etc. are confirmed. The election may also be countermanded due to the death of a candidate. Media coverage In order to bring as much transparency as possible to the electoral process, the media are encouraged and provided with facilities to cover the election, although subject to maintaining the secrecy of the vote. Media persons are issued special passes to enter polling stations to cover the poll process and the counting ‘An EVM showing election results ‘An electronic voting machine halls during the actual counting of votes. ‘The media also have the freedom to conduct opinion polls and exit polls. By a recent set of guidelines issued, the Election Commission has stipulated that the results of opinion polls cannot be published between two days before the start of polling and after the close of poll in any of the constituencies. Results of exit polls can only be published or made otherwise known only after half an hour of the end of polling hours on the last day of the poll. Electronic Voting Machines Nowadays, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) have replaced the use of ballot papers. An EVM not only retains all features of voting by ballot papers, but also makes polling a lot more expedient. Being fast and absolutely reliable, it saves considerable time, money and manpower. It is 100 per cent tamper-proof and also helps to maintain total secrecy about voting. ‘Moreover, in comparison with the manual counting of ballot papers after the poll, an EVM can give the results at the press of a button. ‘An EVM consists of two units: i, a ballot unit which a voter uses to exercise his vote, ii. a control unit which is used by the polling officials. ‘The EVMs placed in a polling booth will display the names and symbols of all the candidates contesting from the constituency. There are blue buttons against the name of each candidate. The voter has to press the ‘one against the candidate of his or her choice. A red. light will appear and a beep will be heard. These signs indicate that voting has been successful. If not, voter has to press the button again.