Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237

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Marine Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

China's marine economy and regional development

Xu-Zhao Jiang a, Tie-Ying Liu a,n, Chi-Wei Su b
a
School of Economics, Ocean University of China, China
b
Department of Finance, Ocean University of China, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper analyzes the evolution of Chinese marine economic development policy and the character-
Received 22 February 2014 istics of regional differentiation in the coastal regions. The contributions of the elements of the marine
Received in revised form economy to regional economic growth in China are deduced by using a multi-factor production function
26 June 2014
model with a constant elasticity of substitution. The results indicate that the contribution of the Chinese
Accepted 26 June 2014
marine economy to the national economy increased from 6.46% to 13.83% between 2000 and 2011, and
the average annual growth rate during that same period was 7.17%. This contribution mainly resulted
Keywords: from marine capital's contribution to the national economy, which amounted to roughly two-thirds of
Marine economy the marine economy's contribution to the national economy. With respect to regional differentiation, the
Regional development
contributions of the marine economy to the regional economies in China are ranked by region from
Marine policy
greatest to least as follows: the Circum-Bohai Sea Region, the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River
China
Delta region. Finally, Liaoning's marine economy made the largest contribution to the national economy
from 2000 to 2011.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction gradually become the new economic growth point of China.

Because land resources are becoming exhausted by large-scale
development and the utilization of fuel resources, people have
begun to pay considerable attention to the exploitation and
potential economic value of marine resources and to promote
the development of the marine economy. China has witnessed its
centers of economic activity shift from the hinterland to its coastal
regions during the last 2000 years, with coastal economies
achieving considerable levels of prosperity during the early Tang
(7th–10th centuries) and Ming (14th–17th centuries) dynasties.
After the third century B.C., the opening of the maritime silk route
and substantial maritime trade with Northeast and Southeast
Asian countries has generated steady development in China's
coastal regions over the centuries. Since the 1980s, China's marine
economy has expanded, and the coastal regions' marine resources
have been developed vigorously. In the 21st century, many
countries have increased their strategic investments in emerging
marine industries. Compared with other countries, China's marine
economy has its own unique characteristics and strong signifi-
cance, which can be explained as follows.
First, China has vast ocean territory, and the coastal regions are
rich in marine resources. Developing the marine economy has
n
Correspondence to: School of Economics, Ocean University of China, 238,
Songling Rd., Qingdao, Shandong, China. Tel.: +86 13869827948.
E-mail address: liutieying1985@126.com (T.-Y. Liu).
Second, the statistical coverage of China's marine economy, which
includes its marine industry and marine-related industries, is
larger than that of other countries (China Marine Statistical Year-
book, 2013). The Chinese government attaches great importance to
the statistical calculations of its marine resources and related
research. Third, China's marine industry system is broad based,
and the government has developed national marine planning,
which signifies its determination to develop the marine economy
in recent years.
However, the qualitative differences between the coastal
regions' marine economies are fairly obvious. According to the
China Marine Statistical Yearbook, in 2012, the Chinese Gross
Ocean Product (GOP) totaled 5.0087 trillion yuan, which was an
increase of 7.9% over the previous year, and this GOP accounted for
9.6% of the gross domestic product (GDP). According to the
“twelfth national five-year marine economy development plan”,
China's marine economic output is expected to account for 10% of
its gross domestic product by 2015. According to this plan, China
will advance the establishment of three key marine economic
areas: the Circum-Bohai Sea Region, the Yangtze River Delta and
the Pearl River Delta region. Moreover, China will nurture an array
of marine economic growth poles. Although China's marine
economy develops more quickly from year to year, the regional
states are obviously different. The Circum-Bohai Sea Region's GOP
is 1.5 times the GOP of the Pearl River Delta region. In addition,
Tianjin's marine economy has accounted for more than 30% of the
total for the region, which is significantly higher than in Hebei,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.06.008
0308-597X/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
228 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237
Jiangsu, Guangxi and other coastal provinces (in which the
comparable figures are less than 10%). Because of the differences
in natural resources, policy, and foreign direct investment, the
regional differences among marine economies are increasingly
significant. Although modest regional economic differences help
promote the rapid development of the economy, these regional
differences would result in relatively weak demand in under-
developed regions, which would lead to weakness in effective
demand and lower utilization and efficiency of capital or labor.
Thus, it is necessary to study the development of the Chinese
marine economy's evolutionary characteristics and the particula-
rities of different regions. By analyzing the objective patterns in
the Chinese marine economy's development, a more comprehen-
sive regional characteristic may be obtained.
It is important to understand why the marine economy's
development presents regional differences and why different
ocean-based industries exhibit different space accumulation char-
acteristics. From the perspective of cost comparison, the repre-
sentatives of the traditional classical economics of Smith [26] and
Ricardo [25] explain the location selection problem of industrial
layout by means of comparative and absolute advantages in local
production costs. Under classical location theory, Thunen [40]
argues that an agricultural location's layout should consider not
only the natural conditions but also factors such as transportation
and agricultural management. Later, Weber [41] posits that indus-
trial layout is mainly influenced by freight and other production
factors (labor and externalities). He emphasizes that freight, labor
cost and gathered force have effects on the selection of production
distribution. Since the 1930s, the market has become an important
factor to industrial layouts. Christaller [1] proposed different
spatial distribution models according to market, traffic and admin-
istrative principles on the basis of traditional classical location
theory. Josch [9] emphasizes industry layout based on the pursuit
of profit maximization, which focuses on consumer demand and
the market. Furthermore, Perroux [22] describes the localities of
various region-leading industries because the growth pole will be
important for the surrounding industry's development.
These theories analyze industry layout from the trade and
location theory perspectives, but their hypotheses are too strict. In
the 1990s, Krugman [12], as the representative of spatial econom-
ics, introduced space factors to analyze the neoclassical framework
in scale-increasing returns and imperfect competition, which
more adequately explains problems such as the spatial distribution
of industry and urbanization. He explains that the initial equili-
brium with the reduction of trade costs and labor transfers
appears as a regional asymmetric structure in the center periphery
model, which demonstrates the spatial agglomeration trend of
manufacturing. Subsequently, a number of scholars have studied
industry spatial agglomeration and location choice by considering
transportation costs, increasing returns and spatial agglomeration
problems [2,4]. However, Krugman's research is based on enter-
prise homogeneity assumptions and does not consider differences
among enterprises and individuals. More recently, Melitz and
Ottaviano [14] consider micro-enterprises' cost and individual
labor productivity differences to determine both the competitive-
ness of enterprises and their spatial distribution. The regional
differences among local marine economies are mainly the result of
regional characteristics regarding natural resource endowment,
transportation costs, human capital and the degree of openness to
the outside.
In China, the marine economy is now considered to be a critical
component of national economic development. Following the
country's economic trade policy (particularly in the period 2001–
2010), China's marine economy has been growing rapidly in line
with the national GDP. Additionally, as the second largest economy
in the world, China is paying more attention to the sustainable
development of its marine economy. Marine industry is highly
important in terms of natural resources and energy, trade, sciences
and techniques. It is an essential part of trade, which means that
there must be innovative solutions and careful management
systems to ensure the industry's long-term sustainability. For
instance, 85% of China's international trade moves by sea lanes,
and China's increasing reliance on oil imports to sustain its rapid
economic expansion is a key element of this marine commerce.
China imported over half of the oil it consumed in 2009, and the
majority of this oil was transported by tankers [51]. In recent
years, the pace of industrialization and urbanization of the Chinese
coastal areas has greatly accelerated, and space for marine devel-
opment is thus urgently required. Since adopting the policy of
“reform and opening” in 1978, China has witnessed the rapid
development of its marine resources, particularly in the most
recent decade. China's marine economy has maintained a higher
growth rate than the national economy during the same period,
but it still has certain disparities with respect to the global marine
economy [50].
At the beginning of the present century, many researchers
began to understand the importance of measuring the contribu-
tion of the marine economy to the national economy [10,27,11].
Many scholars have primarily argued for specific marine or
marine-industry contributions to the regional economy – includ-
ing seaside tourism, transportation and fisheries – but not for the
marine industry as a whole [6,13,39]. Most of the previous and
related studies focus on countries' overall marine economic con-
tributions and neglect the regional differences in a country; there
are only few studies on contributions of the marine element
[17,51]. Thus, this paper analyzes the evolution regularity of
marine economic development policy since the founding of the
People's Republic of China as its first contribution.
Since 1949, China has experienced four historical stages in its
marine economy: recovery in the initial period (1949–1965); the
forward period (1966–1977), which involved many changes; the
overall development period (1978–1990); and the comprehensive
starting period (1991-). Because the development of China's
marine economy has affected everything from the traditional
marine industries to the overall development of strategic emer-
ging industries, the advantages derived from developing the
marine economy must be studied, which gradually changed from
an extensive mode to an intensive mode. As its second contribu-
tion, the present research focuses on the regional contribution of
the marine economy's elements for the coastal provinces of China.
The remainder of this study is organized as follows: Section 2
presents the historical evolution of Chinese marine economic
policy, Section 3 describes China's coastal economies' character-
istics, and Section 4 discusses the differences in the development
of Chinese regional marine economies. Section 5 concludes
the paper.
2. Evolution of marine economic policy in China
The present Chinese marine economy dates from 1978; Xu [43]
presented the critical ideas related to its development. Since then,
He and Chen [5], Yang [47], Quan [24] and Xu [45] have used
different approaches to define the concept of the marine economy.
In 2006, China's government proposed the “classification of
marine and related industry (GB/T 20794-2006),” which refers to
the development and utilization of the marine economy and
protects all types of marine industry activities. The measure
clarifies the marine economic statistical indexes and standards
and further standardizes marine economic statistical practices. As
part of China's economic and political development, the contem-
porary marine economy in China has experienced four historical
 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237
stages since the founding of the country [8]. There have been a
number of advantages derived from the marine economy's devel-
opment quality, which gradually changed from an extensive mode
to an intensive mode.
2.1. Marine industries' economic recovery in the initial period
(1949–1965)
Chinese marine economic policies were steady in the recovery
and establishment period when the marine economy's ultimate
form was not yet fully developed. The traditional industries,
including fisheries, marine transport and the salt industry, quickly
recovered from 1949 to 1965. However, the imperialist countries'
blockade of the coastal regions in China made it difficult to
develop the marine economy, to search for offshore oil and to
engage in deep-sea ocean exploration. There were a series of
instability-inducing factors in the liberated areas, in which there
was a lower standard of living, which hurt some marine industries,
such as coastal tourism and other spiritual and cultural products;
this aspect of marine industrial policy has not been clearly
explained.
In 1956, China established its socialist system and adopted the
management system of a planned economy. The marine economic
policies' implementation in various industries was mainly in the
form of a state-owned and collective economy. Due to their
importance to the country's long-term economic development,
marine industries (such as marine mining and marine power)
were highly regulated. During this period, the marine economy
had a planned-economy form, but some traditional industries such
as fisheries had already begun to explore the idea of fishery
production cooperatives. Thus, marine fisheries policy was not
controlled entirely by the central government, which gradually
delegated powers to lower levels. In 1949, the government provided
guidelines for the salt industry to develop both state-owned and
private enterprises and to increase production and to reduce costs.
There are a variety of systems of ownership in the sea salt industry
[3]. State-owned transportation enterprises are the backbone and
provide leadership, but they also encourage private enterprises to
develop in the direction of state-funded shipping [7].
In 1956, the Chinese government put forward the slogan of
“march to science”, which was the most important policy during
this period. The government scientific planning committee drafted
its “marine science development vision 1956–1967”, and its main
task was to conduct a comprehensive investigation of China's
offshore resources [38]. This policy was a national marine planning
policy that focused on the task of conducting a comprehensive
survey, which laid a solid foundation for marine industries,
particularly for strategic and/or emerging industries. To this day,
the marine chemical industry and marine mining industry's
development have benefitted from the policy. In addition, the
marine resources' protection problems appeared in traditional
industry during this period. In June 1955, the state council
prohibited fishing in certain areas of the Bohai Sea, the Yellow
Sea and the East Sea of China to ensure sustainable development
of fishery resources [28].
Throughout the adjustments and trends of the policy during
this period, several characteristics could be observed. First, the
marine economy was adjusted to give it a socialist track. The
marine economy became an important part of the socialist
economy. For example, the oceanic fishery industry gradually
formed production cooperatives through the socialist transforma-
tion of agriculture by the government, and it was thus melded into
the state's planned economy. Secondly, the marine economy was
gradually adjusted in the initial period from 1949 to 1965. Most
marine industries were strictly controlled during this period,
except for traditional industries such as fisheries and the salt
229
industry. Third (and finally), the adjustment shows the planned
economy's characteristics because businesses had to rely more on
their own conditions, cope with a variety of blockades and
maintain independent development. Because there were differ-
ences in the basic conditions of the marine economy, the future
development trend was also affected by the conditions of this
period.
2.2. The marine economy's development period (1966–1977)
From 1966 to 1976, China experienced the Cultural Revolution,
and the marine economy's development, which was not relevant
to policy, basically ground to a halt. The State Oceanic Adminis-
tration was founded in 1964 as a specialized marine management
institution, but due to social problems, marine-economy policy
was inadequate. Marine-economy policies during this period were
mainly concerned with environmental protection. For example, in
1972, Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Tianjin and other provinces
(cities) jointly investigated the Bohai Sea and North Yellow Sea
for environment. In 1973, Guangdong province conducted a water
pollution survey on the Pearl River [48].
Compared with the recovery and the initial period, marine
policy remained an extension of the previous policy but had lost
its continuity. The attention paid to marine environmental protec-
tion policy largely reflected the real economic recession and the
stagnation of the marine industry. Thus, the evolution of marine
economic policy is related to the country's current level of
economic development and characteristics.
2.3. The marine economy's overall development period (1978–1990)
After the reform and opening up, China's marine economy
policy system was tentatively established. The Third Plenary
Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist
Party identified economic development as the central policy, and
the government adopted an unbalanced development strategy.
The Eastern Coastal region received priority development based
on location and the advantages of the zone in question, and
development of the marine economy was complementary to the
entire country's economic development. The traditional marine
fisheries had strictly controlled market access. For example, in
1979, the State Fishery Administration ruled that people must
obtain a license to engage in fishery production [29]. Thus, the
freedom of the fishing system in China was absorbed into a
controlled system that was mainly influenced by the indigenous
fishery resources, which declined. By contrast, marine transporta-
tion freedom was increased, which may have benefitted growing
numbers of people through logistics and information transmission
to promote the prosperity of regional economic development. For
the most mature marine industry, the Chinese fishery law was
promulgated in 1986, and it began the process of legalizing fishery
resource management, which specifies the use and management
of the fishing license system and fishing gear [19]. Due to the
policy of opening to the world, some marine industries were
deregulated during this period [44]. In 1988, the government
completely canceled the cargo reservation system and allowed
foreign shipping companies into China to engage in international
liner shipping business in 1990. Other marine industries' policy
developments encouraged foreign exchanges and cooperation in
hopes of obtaining advanced Western technology and experience.
Thus, there are three important characteristics of this period:
first, marine policies had the features of openness. Chinese
marine-economy policies were increasingly geared toward inter-
national exchanges and cooperation along with the advanced
process of reform and opening. The liquidity and openness of
the ocean itself determined the marine economy's development
230 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237
needs, and its development incorporated advanced technology
and benefited from the rapid growth in developed countries. The
results were helpful in offshore oil exploitation, marine engineer-
ing construction and related areas. Second, the marine policy
adjustment gave more attention to the role of market mechanisms
and fully aroused worker enthusiasm. The previous policy under
the planning system was mainly in the state's overall control, and
the economic form gave priority to state-owned enterprises and
collective economic policy. During this period, in addition to the
relationship between the national economy and important indus-
tries and key areas, many marine industries were adapted to
operate independently and self-finance. Finally, marine economic
policy is trended towards becoming comprehensive in the future.
Nevertheless, the evolution of marine economic policy was
focused on individual industries and lacked a comprehensive
policy system.
2.4. The marine economy's comprehensive starting period (1991- )
China's marine economy management policy and marine
industry policy have acquired many distinct features since 1991.
Indeed, the policy system has been better, and many policies have
been comprehensive and complementary during this period. The
policies emphasize the protection of the marine ecological
resources and the harmony of development between humanity
and nature. The national policy also embodies the concept of
overall planning on land or in the sea through the use of integrated
coastal zone management. As part of marine environmental policy,
the marine environmental protection law has been reformed such
that firms or individuals who directly discharge pollutants into the
sea must pay a pollutant discharge fee in accordance with state
regulations [20]. Next, the government has promulgated a series of
regulations that include shipping–pollution–prevention manage-
ment regulations, environmental protection and the management
of offshore oil exploration [42]. Marine fisheries have received
more attention with respect to ecological protection. Since 1995,
the Fuji moratorium has been in effect in the East and Yellow Seas,
which resulted in zero growth in oceanic fishing production in
1999 [23]. The Fuji moratorium is the measure approved by the
state oceanic administration and conducted by the departments of
fishery administration for the protection of fishery resources [16].
It provides that some fishing activities shall not be conducted in
specific waters during the time of Fuji (from the middle of July to
the middle of August). In 2007, the property law declared the
rights of fishery farming and fishing rights as a usufructuary right,1
which is of great significance for protecting the legitimate rights
and interests of marine fisheries [21].
During this period, certain related supporting policies aimed at
establishing a comprehensive experimental area or booster indus-
try that would play an important role in marine strategic emerging
industries, such as the seawater desalination industry. In 2005, the
government issued special regulations on water use in which
Tianjin, Dalian, and Qingdao were identified as national desalina-
tion and comprehensive utilization cities and industrialization
demonstration bases [18]. Regarding the marine chemical indus-
try, the Ministry of Environmental Protection issued a soda-ash-
industry clean production standard in 2008 that promotes the
healthy development of the marine chemical industry [46].
China's marine-economy policy has gradually involved strate-
gic national planning. The government has introduced a series of
policies because development of the marine economy requires
1
The usufructuary right means the usufructuary right holder has the right to
possess, use and benefit to others all the realty or chattel in law. According to the
Real Right Law, the mineral exploration or mining right, water use right, tidal flats
for breeding and fishing rights are protected by law.
strong macroeconomic regulation and control; at the same time,
the investigation and statistical analysis of the marine industry has
been greatly improved, which makes some policies more prag-
matic. In recent years, the State Oceanic Administration has
promulgated national marine-economy statistics data and the
national marine environment quality bulletin. In July 1995, the
state issued the “National Marine Development Plan”, whose
purpose was to arrange the sea area and the development and
utilization of all types of resources. These resources were used in a
coordinated way to solve problems in China's marine development
[32]. In March 1996, the State Oceanic Administration issued its
action plan for China's 21st century ocean agenda, which sets forth
the guidelines and framework for marine resources' development
and environment protection [34]. In 2003, the state issued an
outline of the national marine economy development plan, which
was China's first guidance for development of the national marine
economy and established China's marine economic vision through
2010 [35]. On February 7, 2008, the state issued the national
marine development planning outline, which was the first overall
plan for marine areas since the founding of the PRC [36]. In 2009,
President Hu inspected the proposed national strategy that built
the blue economic zone in Shandong peninsula. This strategy not
only set forth the overall development of the regional marine
economies' planning ideas but also embodied the basic concept of
national action. Since that time, a series of regional marine
economic plans have been issued, such as the west channel bank
economic zone development plan and the Guangdong compre-
hensive marine economic development and experimental zone
plan. In 2013, the state council approved the “the Marine Career
Development Plan for the Twelfth Five-Year Plan”, which is a
comprehensive plan that promotes sustainable and efficient
development of the marine economy [37].
Thus, the government's policies pay attention to coordinating
between protection of the ocean's ecological resources and devel-
opment of the marine economy. Although the marine industries'
output value has increased, this growth has caused a series of
ecological problems. The rapid development of the marine econ-
omy will promote the development of the national economy and
the marine economy has gradually become a national economic
strategy. Moreover, the marine industry is based on supply chain
coordination, and its strategic emerging industries have gradually
expanded. China's marine economy exhibits regional characteris-
tics and has gradually begun to cultivate its new oceanic economic
growth point in the relevant areas. In addition, the marine-
centered environmental and territorial disputes gradually high-
light the potential future pitfalls; therefore, the national marine
policy should be more concerned about marine rights and inter-
ests involving other countries.
3. The Chinese coastal regions
The coastal areas of China consist of 11 provinces, and from
north to south they are as follows: Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin,
Shandong, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong,
Guangxi and Hainan (Fig. 1). After the reform and opening-up,
China's coastal area was divided into three regions, including the
Circum-Bohai Sea Region (Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, and Shandong),
the Yangtze River Delta (Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Zhejiang) and the
Pearl River Delta region (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hai-
nan). Bohai is the only inland sea, and it occupies an important
strategic position in China. Bohai's coastline is 3784 km long, and
the corresponding sea area is 7.7 square kilometers; it has an
average depth of 18 m and contains 416 islands. The area's marine
environment condition is good, and it is rich in such natural
 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237 231

resources as oil and gas. The Circum-Bohai Sea Region consists of a
total area of 521,120 square kilometers and accounts for 5.43%
of the national land area and 17.48% of the total population.
The Yangtze River Delta, which is the most densely populated
and economically developed area in China, accounts for 2.2% of the
country's land area and 10.4% of its population. The Yangtze River
Delta region is based on the manufacturing aggregation along the
river, and this region, with Shanghai as its core city, has become
the most potent economic region in terms of production services
and manufacturing. The Pearl River Delta region is between the
traditional Pearl River delta and the pan-Pearl River delta area and
is located in the coastal provinces in southern China, which are
close to Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan. This area is more open
than most. In 2011, the Yangtze River Delta region had the highest
per capita GDP, which was 1.5 times the GDP of the Pearl River
Delta region. Whereas the Circum-Bohai Sea Region has the
highest unemployment rate, the lowest unemployment rate is in
the Pearl River delta. Among the provinces, Tianjin has the highest
per capita GDP and Guangxi has the lowest per capita GDP. In
addition to Guangdong and Hainan, all the provinces' unemploy-
ment rates are at least 3%. Table 1
Liaoning
Tianjin
Hebei
Shandong
Jiangsu
Shanghai
Zhejiang
Fujian
6%-8% Guangxi Guangdong
8%-9%
9%-10%
10%+
Hainan
Fig. 1. Regional marine economies' contributions.
Defining the marine industries in the Chinese marine economy
is important in estimating the contribution of the marine econ-
omy. To standardize marine economy data, China's State Oceanic
Administration released a document in 2006 that defined the
statistical standard for Industrial Classification for Marine Indus-
tries and Their Related Activities (GB/T 20794-2006).This docu-
ment sought to establish a statistical standard for collecting
marine economy data from across all regions in China. The marine
industrial classifications within this document divided the marine
sector into two parts; ocean industries and marine related indus-
tries. According to the statistical standard for Industrial Classifica-
tion for Marine Industries and Their Related Activities, and as
defined by China's State Oceanic Administration's Industrial Clas-
sification for Marine Industries and Their Related Activities, the
marine economy is therefore the summation of both ocean and
ocean-related industrial activities that are aimed at developing,
utilizing and protecting the ocean. Marine industries refer to
industries involved in the production or supply of services for
developing, utilizing and/or protecting the ocean. This part of the
marine economy includes 12 major marine industries such as
offshore oil and gas, marine mining, marine salt manufacturing,
the marine chemical industry, marine biomedicine, marine electric
power generation, sea-water utilization, marine ship building,
marine engineering and construction, marine communications
and transportation, coastal tourism, marine scientific research,
and education.
The marine-related industries refer to the enterprises that form
a technical and economic link with the major marine industries.
These industries are defined as suppliers and customers of the
marine industries, and they produce inputs for use outputs from
the latter in their production processes. Some of these activities
are not necessarily performed at sea or even in the coastal zones.
These industries include agriculture and mangrove forestry (that
for example provide feed for marine use and that in turn use sea
water to irrigate certain species of plants cultivated in Chinese
wetlands), marine equipment manufacturing, ocean-related build-
ing and installation, marine wholesale and retail services, etc. The
Gross Ocean Product is the short form of gross output value of the
marine economy – which refers to the final results of marine
economic activities in the permanent units of the coastal region
within a given period and calculated at the market price – and is
equal to the sum total of the added values of the marine industries
and marine related industries.

Table 1
China's coastal economic development characteristics in 2011.

Regions Population GDP per capita Unemployment GDP Laborers Total unemployment
(ten thousand (ten thousand RMB/ rate (%) (ten thousand (ten thousand (ten thousand
persons) person) RMB) persons) persons)

Liaoning 4383 5.07 3.7 22,226.7 579.6 39.4

Hebei 7241 3.39 3.8 24,515.76 555.4 36
Tianjin 1355 8.34 3.6 11,307.28 268.2 20.1
Shandong 9637 4.71 3.4 45,361.85 1050.4 45
Jiangsu 7899 6.22 3.2 49,110.27 811.3 41.4
Shanghai 2347 8.18 3.5 19,195.69 497.3 27
Zhejiang 5463 5.92 3.1 32,318.85 995.7 31.7
Fujian 3720 4.72 3.7 17,560.18 596.3 14.6
Guangdong 10,505 5.07 2.5 53,210.28 1238.2 38.8
Goangxi 4645 2.52 3.5 11,720.87 341.6 18.8
Hainan 877 2.88 1.7 2522.66 85.1 2.9
Circum-Bohai Sea Region 22,616 4.57 3.6 103,411.59 2453.6 140.5
Yangtze River Delta 15,709 6.41 3.3 100,624.81 2304.3 100.1
Region
Pearl River Delta region 19,747 4.31 2.9 85,013.99 2261.2 75.1
Total 58,072 4.98 3.2 28,9050.4 7019.1 315.7

Note: data are from the China Regional Economic Statistical Yearbook 2012.
232 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237

Table 2 reflects the development of China's regional marine
economy in 2000–2011. In this paper, the regional marine econ-
omy can be defined as the marine economy in regions, including
specified coastal provinces or zones. In China, it includes eleven
provinces and three coastal economic zones by administration
partition. The regional marine economy output value can be found
in the China Marine Statistical Yearbook. The Circum-Bohai Sea
Region's marine economic growth rate was 29.09%, which was the
fastest in all the coastal regions. The growth rate for its marine
economy in the Pearl River delta area is below the national
average. There are large differences in the coastal provinces:
Jiangsu's marine economic growth rate was the highest from
2000–2011 at 40.1%, whereas Jiangsu's marine economic growth
rate is currently 18.71%, which is less than half the growth rate of
Jiangsu province. The added value proportion growth rates of the
marine economies in the Circum-Bohai Sea Region and Yangtze
River Delta region were 1.56% and 1.33%, respectively, and the
Pearl River delta area's marine proportional added value growth
rate was minus 2.44%. Thus, the Pearl River delta area's marine
proportional added value growth rate was slowing; furthermore,
the importance of the marine economy has a downward trend in
this region, which is related to the structure of the local sea-based
industry. Liaoning, Shandong, Shanghai, Fujian, Guangdong,
Guangxi and Hainan's marine proportional added value growth
rates were also negative from 2000 to 2011, which demonstrates
that the marine economic development speeds have fallen during
this period. By contrast, Hebei, Tianjin and Zhejiang's proportional
added value growth rates were positive. The marine economy's
proportion of the coastal province has increased annually, which
highlights the importance of marine economic development in
these provinces. Tianjin has the highest marine proportional
added value growth rate at 8.74%, whereas Guangxi has the lowest
marine proportional added value growth rate at minus 6.59%.
Thus, the marine economy's contribution rates in different pro-
vinces are distinct from one another.
For marine laborers, the average growth rate of regional marine
labor was 23.11% during the 2000–2011 period. The Circum-Bohai
Sea Region's marine labor growth rate was 26.52%, which was the

Table 2
China's regional marine economy during the 2000–2011 period.

Region 2000 2011

Added valuea The ratio of Marine labor added value The ratio of Marine labor
(ten thousand RMB) added value (%) (ten thousand persons) (ten thousand RMB) added value (%) (ten thousand persons)

Liaoning 326.58 7.90 12.62 3345.5 7.35 318.2

Hebei 69.19 1.67 12.31 1451.4 3.19 94.2
Tianjin 138.63 3.35 8.52 3519.3 7.74 172.7
Shandong 737.76 17.85 71.66 8029.0 17.65 519.4
Jiangsu 146.04 3.53 51.73 4253.1 9.35 189.8
Shanghai 601.37 14.55 23.32 5618.5 12.35 207.0
Zhejiang 399.53 9.67 47.90 4536.8 9.97 416.3
Fujian 419.15 10.14 67.59 4284.0 9.42 421.6
Guangdong 1114.57 26.96 98.96 9191.1 20.20 820.4
Guangxi 110.45 2.67 16.65 613.8 1.35 111.9
Hainan 70.23 1.70 14.20 653.5 1.44 130.9
Circum-Bohai Sea Region 1272.16 30.78 105.11 16,345.2 35.93 1104.5
Yangtze River Delta Region 1146.94 27.75 122.95 14,408.4 31.67 813.1
Pearl River Delta region 1714.4 41.48 197.4 14,742.4 32.40 1484.8
Total 4133.5 100 425.46 45,496 100 3402.4

Note: data are from the China Marine Statistical Yearbook.

a
Added value refers to the final results of production and service activities by resident units according to the market prices over a certain period of time.

Table 3
China's regional marine industries' development in 2011.

Region Marine industry

Major marine Marine scientific research, Marine-related industry

industry (ten thousand RMB) education, management and (ten thousand RMB)
service (ten thousand RMB)

Liaoning 1642.8 407.2 1295.6

Hebei 684.5 77.7 689.2
Tianjin 1878.6 171.5 1469.2
Shandong 3393.7 1222.5 3412.8
Jiangsu 1787.0 591.4 1874.8
Shanghai 2104.9 1167.3 2346.3
Zhejiang 1822.7 737.3 1976.8
Fujian 1638.0 629.2 2016.8
Guangdong 3273.8 2338.4 3578.9
Guangxi 318.3 68.4 227.1
Hainan 320.9 145.9 186.7
Circum-Bohai Sea Region 7599.6 1878.9 6866.8
Yangtze River Delta Region 5714.6 2496 6197.9
Pearl River Delta region 5551 3181.9 6009.5
Total 18,865.2 7556.8 19,074.2

Note: data are from the China Marine Statistical Yearbook 2012.
 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237 233

highest among China's coastal regions. Among the provinces,
Liaoning's marine labor growth rate was the highest and Jiangsu's
marine labor growth rate was the lowest. For a sense of scale, in
2011, the Pearl River Delta region's marine labor force was the
largest and consisted of 14.848 million people, including 8.204
million in Guangdong province, which is the densest province for
marine labor. The number of Hebei marine laborers was the
lowest, and Guangdong's corresponding number was 8.7 times
the number for Hebei.
Table 3 reflects the size of the marine industry in coastal areas
in 2011. Major marine industries include fisheries, the oil–gas
industry, mining, shipbuilding, the salt industry, the general
marine industry, biological and pharmaceutical firms, engineering
and construction, power, the seawater desalination industry,
marine transportation and coastal tourism. Marine scientific
research and education management services include oceanic
scientific research, marine education, and related information
services. The marine-related industries include marine agro-
forestry, equipment manufacturing, and services. The Circum-
Bohai Sea Region's major marine industries scale is the largest,
and Shandong is the largest province within it. In the Pearl River
Delta region, marine scientific research, education management
and services make up the largest such sector, and Guandong is the
largest province of this region. Similarly, the Circum-Bohai Sea
Region's marine-related industries scale is the largest, and Guang-
dong's marine-related industries scale has topped 357.89 billion
dollars.
to least are the Circum-Bohai Sea Region, the Yangtze River Delta
region and the Pearl River Delta region, and the marine economy's
elements' contribution differences are closely related to the
regional marine resource endowment and industrial structure.
4.1. Model
The capital and labor input of the entire national economy
(including land and ocean economy) is assumed to have been in
accordance with the constant elasticity of substitution (CES)
production function. The multi-element CES production function
model can be constructed as follows:
Y ¼ Aðδ1 K 1 ρ þ δ2 L1 ρ þ δ3 K 2 ρ þ δ4 L1 ρ Þ  1=ρ ð1Þ
where Y represents regional gross domestic product (RGDP); A
represents the technological progress; K 1 and L1 represent the
marine labor and capital; K 2 and L2 represent the land labor and
land capital, respectively, in addition to the marine economy
system; and δ1 , δ2 , δ3 and δ4 represent distribution coefficients
where δ1 þ δ2 þδ3 þ δ4 ¼ 1. Then, natural logarithms and deriva-
tives to time t are taken on both sides for Eq. (1).
: :
Y A 1 ðδ1 K 1 ρ þ δ2 L1 ρ þ δ3 K 2 ρ þ δ4 L2 ρ Þ
¼ þð Þ  ð2Þ
Y A ρ δ1 K 1 ρ þ δ2 L1 ρ þ δ3 K 2 ρ þ δ4 L2 ρ
: : : :
Among the Eq. (2), Y ¼ dY dt
and A ¼ dA
dt
, while YY ¼ g Y and AA ¼ g A
represent the output growth rate and the growth rate of technical
progress. Thus, Eq. (2) can be settled as follows:
 
1 ðdδ1 K 1 ρ =dtÞ
gY ¼ gA þ  ð
ρ δ1 K 1 þ δ2 L1 ρ þ δ3 K 2 ρ þ δ4 L2 ρ
ρ

4. The Chinese regional marine economy ðdδ2 L1 ρ =dtÞ ðdδ3 K 2 ρ =dtÞ
þ ρ ρ ρ ρ þ
δ1 K 1 þ δ2 L1 þ δ3 K 2 þ δ4 L2 δ1 K 1 þ δ2 L1 ρ þ δ3 K 2 ρ þ δ4 L2 ρ
ρ

A multi-element constant elasticity of substitution (CES) pro- ρ

ðdδ4 L2 =dtÞ
þ ð3Þ
duction function model that measures the marine economy and its δ1 K 1 ρ þ δ2 L1 ρ þ δ3 K 2 ρ þ δ4 L2 ρ
elements' contributions to the national economic development in
the coastal regions during 2000–2011 has been constructed in this Supposing that the changing rate of capital and labor growth
paper. The capital (or labor) is divided into two parts, including rates are constant, the equation is further reduced as follows:
 
marine capital and land capital (marine labor and land labor). g 1
1¼ Aþ 
Marine labor refers to the marine related employed personnel who gY ρ
perform the activities of marine industries and related industries δ1 ðg k1 =g Y Þ
in the marine economy. Marine capital refers to the capital ð
1 þ ðδ2 L1 =δ1 K 1 Þ  ρ þ ðδ3 K 2 =δ1 K 1 Þ  ρ þ ðδ4 L2 =δ1 K 1 Þ  ρ
investment to create marine economy output (Gross Ocean Pro-
δ2 ðg L1 =g Y Þ
duct). Marine capital can be defined as the marine and related þ
ðδ1 K 1 =δ2 L1 Þ  ρ þ 1 þðδ3 K 2 =δ2 L1 Þ  ρ þ ðδ4 L2 =δ2 L1 Þ  ρ
matter and energy stock that can provide products and services for
δ3 ðg k2 =g Y Þ
people and be able to produce earnings. The key feature of marine þ
capital lies in profitability and the characteristic of production ðδ1 K 1 =δ3 K 2 Þ  ρ þ ðδ2 L1 =δ3 K 2 Þ  ρ þ 1 þ ðδ4 L2 =δ3 K 2 Þ  ρ
inputs. Marine capital is an input factor of production, which is the δ4 ðg L2 =g Y Þ
þ ð4Þ
important link in the marine economy production process.2 Data ðδ1 K 1 =δ4 L2 Þ  ρ þ ðδ2 L1 =δ4 L2 Þ  ρ þðδ3 L2 =δ4 L2 Þ  ρ þ 1
are from the China Marine Statistical Yearbook and the China
Among these, the elasticity of marine capital (eK 1 ) is calculated by
Statistical Yearbook. The results show that between 2000 and
2011, the contribution of China's marine economy to the national δ1
eK 1 ¼ : ð5Þ
economy rose from 6.46% to 13.83%, and the average annual 1 þ ðδ2 L1 =δ1 K 1 Þ  ρ þ ðδ3 K 2 =δ1 K 1 Þ  ρ þ ðδ4 L2 =δ1 K 1 Þ  ρ
growth rate of the marine economy in China was 7.17%. The In the same way, the elasticity of marine labor (eL1 ), the
marine economy's contribution to the national economy in China elasticity of land capital (eK 2 ) and the elasticity of land labor (eL2 )
mainly came from its capital contribution. Indeed, this economic are as follows:
contribution is based on the ocean and has gradually become a
δ2
new national economic growth point. From the perspective of eL1 ¼ ð6Þ
ðδ1 K 1 =δ2 L1 Þ  ρ þ 1 þðδ3 K 2 =δ2 L1 Þ  ρ þ ðδ4 L2 =δ2 L1 Þ  ρ
regional differentiation, the regions whose marine economies
made contributions to the national economy ranked from greatest δ3
eK 2 ¼ ð7Þ
ðδ1 K 1 =δ3 K 2 Þ  ρ þ ðδ2 L1 =δ3 K 2 Þ  ρ þ 1 þ ðδ4 L2 =δ3 K 2 Þ  ρ
2
Most marine industries use marine capital. For example, fishery resources
δ4
and machinery, such as boats, are part of marine resources capitalization input, eL2 ¼ ð8Þ
which creates product value in the marine economy and can be understood as ðδ1 K 1 =δ4 L2 Þ  ρ þ ðδ2 L1 =δ4 L2 Þ  ρ þðδ3 K 2 =δ4 L2 Þ  ρ þ 1
marine capital; ocean oil and gas and drilling platforms are part of the marine oil
and gas industry's marine capital; the equipment and raw materials that are used
In theory, the output growth is determined by the factors of
in production processes to create value are part of the marine equipment and production, including capital and labor inputs and technological
manufacturing industry's marine capital, etc. progress. The contribution to the region's economic output of
234 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237

Table 4
The contributions of marine capital (%).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Growth rate

Tianjin 5.62 6.36 6.71 7.07 7.80 8.12 7.30 7.80 8.13 7.51 7.80 10.80 6.12
Hebei 5.27 5.96 6.16 6.53 7.14 7.62 7.54 8.17 8.63 7.37 7.61 11.43 7.29
Liaoning 4.95 5.24 5.50 5.80 6.44 6.66 6.16 6.68 7.08 6.37 6.49 9.56 6.16
Shanghai 4.98 5.26 5.39 5.59 6.28 6.48 6.26 6.61 6.91 6.19 6.37 8.82 5.34
Jiangsu 5.42 5.93 6.23 6.88 7.39 7.70 7.30 8.08 8.51 7.74 7.99 11.74 7.27
Zhejiang 4.29 4.73 5.09 5.25 5.71 5.87 5.24 5.66 6.00 5.47 5.56 8.08 5.92
Fujian 5.64 6.28 6.72 7.06 7.50 7.59 7.01 7.62 8.05 7.34 7.48 10.65 5.96
Shandong 4.73 5.07 5.28 5.62 5.99 6.41 5.84 6.33 6.68 6.06 6.23 8.92 5.93
Guangdong 4.15 4.52 4.60 4.78 5.19 5.65 4.88 5.21 5.55 5.05 5.20 7.45 5.47
Guangxi 3.29 3.53 3.67 3.45 3.89 3.98 3.90 4.25 4.51 4.04 4.17 6.28 6.07
Hainan 3.62 3.98 4.08 4.33 4.73 4.86 4.53 4.87 5.11 4.60 4.68 6.80 5.91
average 4.72 5.17 5.40 5.67 6.19 6.45 6.00 6.48 6.83 6.16 6.33 9.14

Note: authors' calculations.

marine capital and labor can be presented as follows:
eK gk
EK 1 ¼ 1 1
ρ gY
eL1 g l1
E L1 ¼   ð10Þ
ρ gY
EM ¼ EK 1 þEL1
where EK 1 and EK2 represents the contribution to the region's
economic output of marine capital and labor, respectively. EM
represents the marine economies' contribution. Additionally, the
regional marine economies' contribution is the sum of the marine
capital contribution and marine labor contribution.
4.2. Marine capital contributions
Compared with the land economy, the marine economic
system itself has the characteristics of capital-heavy and
technology-intensive production, and marine economic produc-
tion activities require more technological development. The pro-
cess of moving marine scientific and technological achievements
into greater productivity urgently requires the effective combina-
tion of capital markets and innovative industry. Along with the
strategy of large-scale development and utilization of national
marine resources, the traditional production mode that has been
relied on for marine labor inputs and extensive capital accumula-
tion has been unable to adapt to the development goal of the
modern marine economy. Traditional industry is gradually being
replaced by strategic emerging marine industries such as materi-
als, the chemical industry, the energy industry, and the marine
equipment manufacturing industry. Most of these industries are
capital intensive and require technology investment inputs, which
is the objective requirement of modern marine economy devel-
opment in China. Overall (Table 4), the coastal regions' marine
capital elements3 made increasing economic contributions to the
national economic growth during 2000–2011 in China, and these
contributions rose from 4.72% in 2000 to 9.14% in 2011. Further-
more, the average annual economic contribution growth rate of
these elements was 6.19%. The main contribution of marine capital
is through the development of marine capital-intensive industries,
which leads to related regional industrial development to realize
contributions to national economic growth. The various inter-
relationships among the industries in the marine sector provide
an important driver for continued development of these marine
industries. For example, the marine equipment manufacturing
industry's capital investment in the coastal areas promotes the
marine shipbuilding industry, oceanic oil and gas exploitation and
ð9Þ also development of modern fisheries.
From the perspective of regional differentiation, different
coastal provinces' marine capital contributions have exhibited
obvious discrepancies but an increasing trend. In 2000, Fujian's
marine capital contribution was the highest, and it amounted to a
ð11Þ 5.64% contribution to the national economy; this figure was
1.7 times the contribution of Guangxi province (the lowest figure
among the coastal provinces). In 2011, Jiangsu's marine capital
contribution was the highest, amounting to an 11.74% contribution
to the national economy. Similarly, this figure was 1.9 times the
contribution of Guangxi province (the least contributive province).
With respect to the marine capital contribution growth rate, Hebei
province's rate was the highest, which is mainly due to the rapid
development of the coastal heavy chemical industry. The highest
marine capital contribution region was from the Circum-Bohai Sea
Region, and the Pearl River Delta region's marine capital contribution
was the lowest. In recent years, thousand-ton steel projects and other
major capital-intensive projects have settled in the Liaoning coastal
economic belt region, in Tianjin's new coastal region, in the Shandong
peninsula's blue economic zone, and in Hebei. Whereas these regions'
contributions to GDP increased, these activities also cause marine
ecological and energy development pressure, and marine upgrades
and the optimization of the industrial structure have become urgent
problems to be solved in regional economic development. This result
indirectly reflects the degree of dependence of regional economic
growth on marine capital-intensive industries, which is deepening.
Furthermore, in some regions, such as the provinces comprising the
Circum-Bohai Sea Region, modern marine industry is developing
faster, and the economic transformation period from marine capital
that depends on advanced technology into a new point of regional
economic growth is shorter than in other regions. Guangxi, Hainan
and other regions' marine capital contributions were lower because
their marine economic development still relied on the support of the
primary and tertiary marine industries.
4.3. Marine labor contributions
The average growth rate of marine labor4 was 22% during 2000–
2011 in the coastal areas, which is nearly 20 times the land workforce's
growth rate over the same period. Traditional marine industries such
as fisheries are more dependent on these laborers, but the labor force
of marine science and technology has a higher growth rate. The
human capital contribution of the marine economy to regional

3 4
According to the China Marine Statistical Yearbook, the term “marine capital” According to the China Marine Statistical Yearbook, the term “marine labor”
means the amount of ocean-related capital in coastal regions. means the number of ocean-related employed persons in a region.
 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237 235

Table 5
The contributions of marine labor (%).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Growth rate

Tianjin 1.92 2.06 2.22 2.30 2.57 2.79 3.08 3.44 3.69 3.05 3.09 5.55 10.12
Hebei 1.50 1.63 1.75 2.05 2.23 1.73 2.13 2.42 2.62 2.15 2.20 4.16 9.70
Liaoning 2.78 3.46 3.60 3.70 4.06 4.13 4.57 5.09 5.42 4.51 4.60 8.10 10.21
Shanghai 1.68 1.87 1.93 2.06 2.23 2.35 2.52 2.87 3.12 2.55 2.62 4.98 10.40
Jiangsu 0.89 0.91 0.93 1.01 1.09 1.17 1.16 1.31 1.43 1.15 1.18 2.25 8.77
Zhejiang 1.63 1.79 1.85 1.93 2.23 2.46 2.36 2.66 2.87 2.35 2.41 4.44 9.52
Fujian 1.78 1.94 1.99 2.17 2.52 2.41 2.44 2.72 2.91 2.40 2.45 4.37 8.54
Shandong 1.47 1.62 1.64 1.80 1.97 1.45 2.08 2.35 2.53 2.08 2.12 3.93 9.38
Guangdong 1.58 1.73 1.75 1.78 1.95 1.33 2.28 2.57 2.77 2.26 2.31 4.24 9.37
Guangxi 1.42 1.58 1.66 1.73 1.98 2.40 2.03 2.28 2.45 2.00 2.02 3.69 9.06
Hainan 2.41 2.73 2.69 2.88 3.13 3.53 3.44 3.83 4.09 3.48 3.55 5.91 8.49
Average 1.73 1.94 2.00 2.13 2.36 2.34 2.55 2.87 3.08 2.54 2.60 4.69

Note: authors' calculations.

economic development has gradually become prominent. In the
coastal regions, marine labor elements showed an upward trend in
their contribution to regional economic growth in China during 2000–
2011, rising from 1.73% in 2000 to 4.69% in 2011, and the average
annual elements' economic contribution growth rate was 9.48%.
Although this marine labor contribution was less than the marine
capital contribution during the same period, the marine labor con-
tribution growth rate was 1.5 times the corresponding capital growth
rate. Thus, the human capital advantage of marine laborers is gradually
being reflected. The two main marine labor elements' contribution
patterns are as follows. First, through the traditional industry input of
marine human resources into the economy of scale, marine labor
elements promote regional economic growth, which belongs to the
traditional pattern of economic growth. Second, the marine economy
has a technology-intensive economic form, and labor itself realizes
marine labor elements' contribution to regional economic develop-
ment through the effects of agglomeration and technology spillovers.
Table 5
From the viewpoint of regional differentiation, the regional
differences in marine labor contributions are greater than those
among the marine capital contributions, and the labor contribu-
tions also show an annually increasing trend. In 2011, Liaoning
province's marine labor contribution was 8.10% relative to regional
economic growth, which was the largest in the provinces.
Whereas Jiangsu had the lowest marine labor contribution of
2.25%, Liaoning's contribution was 3.6 times larger than this
minimum value. With respect to the contribution growth rate,
Shanghai's marine labor contribution growth rate was the largest,
but the absolute contribution of Shanghai was lower. As a result,
the marine human capital advantage in Shanghai is not as
influential as in Liaoning. The result shows that although Shan-
dong has more marine science and technology talents, its marine
laborers' contribution to regional development was lower; thus,
the local government should increase its support for marine labor
input and arouse their enthusiasm and creativity to make a larger
contribution to the local economic growth. There is a long process
through which marine labor forces resource change into human
capital advantages and enhance their regions' economic growth,
which requires cultivation mechanisms and incentives to attract
human capital. Above all else, economic growth requires adaptable
laborers who can be relied on in the marine industries' evolution,
and these laborers require incentives. At present, the development
of the marine economy in China remains in the process of
extensive to intensive changes. The marine labor input is mainly
realized through traditional industries' contribution to regional
economic growth. Compared with land-based industry, marine
industry's overall labor contribution was lower than marine capital
to regional economic growth during the 2000–2011 period.
4.4. The marine economy's contribution to the national economy
The national economic system includes two relatively indepen-
dent economies that comprise the land-based and marine econo-
mies' subsystems. This section analyzes the marine economic
system's contribution to the national economy. From 2000 to
2011, the marine economy's overall contribution to the national
economy rose from 6.46% to 13.83%, and the average annual
growth rate was 7.17%. The contribution mainly came from marine
capital, which accounted for two-thirds of the sea-based economic
contribution to the national economy. When the twelfth five-year
plan's overall planning strategy for the marine economy proposed
its rapid development, the contribution to the relevant regions
increased significantly. From 2010 to 2011, the growth of these
contributions to the national economy matched the growth rate of
the national economy. In provinces such as Liaoning, the local
marine economy's contribution accounted for nearly 20% of its
addition to the national economy. In recent years, Liaoning's
coastal economic belt has developed gradually along with the
development strategy of the Northeast Old Industrial Base and has
undertaken industrial transfers and upgrades, which highlights
how the marine economy has become a new economic growth
point. Fig. 1 shows the contributions of different provinces' marine
economies' by average value during the 2000–2011 period. The
marine economies' contribution is the contribution sum of the
marine capital contribution and marine labor contribution. Liaon-
ing, Tianjin, Hebei and Fujian's contributions were higher than any
other provinces, and the contributions of Guangdong, Guangxi and
Jiangsu's marine economies were lower during this period. Table 6
For China's coastal regions, the various gaps in the regional
marine economies' contributions have been gradually widening
but stable from 2000 to 2011. The contribution of the Circum-
Bohai Sea Region's marine economy to the national economy was
higher, particularly in Liaoning, Hebei and Tianjin provinces,
whereas the contribution of Guangdong and Guangxi's marine
economy to the national economy was lower. For the contribution
growth rate, the Circum-Bohai Sea Region had the fastest increase,
and the Pearl River Delta region's marine economy contribution
growth rate was the lowest, which was due to the different
historical processes of their marine economies and industrial
structures. Since the founding of the PRC, the Circum-Bohai Sea
Region has implemented marine-economy development planning,
and its marine economy thus began developing relatively early.
Indeed, heavy industry and the chemical industry's layouts accel-
erated its transformation and upgrading, which improved the
contribution of this region's marine economy to the national
economy. The Pearl River Delta region's marine economy began
later and lacked a good marine capital basis; furthermore, its
236 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237

Table 6
Contributions of the marine economy to the national economy (%).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Growth rate

Tianjin 7.54 8.42 8.93 9.37 10.36 10.92 10.38 11.24 11.83 10.56 10.90 16.36 7.29
Hebei 6.77 7.60 7.91 8.58 9.37 9.35 9.67 10.58 11.25 9.51 9.81 15.59 7.87
Liaoning 7.73 8.71 9.10 9.50 10.50 10.78 10.73 11.76 12.49 10.88 11.10 17.65 7.80
Shanghai 6.65 7.12 7.32 7.65 8.51 8.83 8.78 9.48 10.03 8.74 9.00 13.79 6.85
Jiangsu 6.32 6.83 7.16 7.89 8.48 8.87 8.46 9.39 9.94 8.90 9.17 13.99 7.50
Zhejiang 5.93 6.52 6.95 7.17 7.93 8.33 7.60 8.32 8.87 7.82 7.97 12.52 7.04
Fujian 7.41 8.21 8.71 9.23 10.02 10.01 9.45 10.35 10.96 9.75 9.94 15.02 6.63
Shandong 6.20 6.69 6.92 7.41 7.96 7.86 7.92 8.68 9.21 8.14 8.36 12.85 6.85
Guangdong 5.73 6.25 6.34 6.56 7.14 6.98 7.15 7.78 8.32 7.32 7.51 11.69 6.70
Guangxi 4.71 5.11 5.33 5.19 5.88 6.38 5.93 6.52 6.96 6.04 6.19 9.97 7.06
Hainan 6.03 6.71 6.78 7.21 7.86 8.38 7.98 8.70 9.20 8.08 8.22 12.71 7.02
average 6.46 7.11 7.41 7.80 8.55 8.79 8.55 9.35 9.91 8.70 8.92 13.83

Note: authors' calculations.

Table 7 Table 8
The ranking of the local marine economies' contributions to the national economy. The classification of the local marine economies' contributions to the national
economy.
Marine capital Marine labor Marine economies'
contribution contribution contribution High capital–high High capital–low Low capital–high Low capital–low
labor labor labor labor
1 Tianjin Liaoning Liaoning
2 Jiangsu Hainan Tianjin Tianjin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Hainan Guangdong,
3 Hebei Tianjin Fujian Liaoning, Hebei Guangxi,
4 Fujian Shanghai Hebei Fujian, Shandong,
5 Liaoning Fujian Shanghai Zhejiang
6 Shanghai Zhejiang Jiangsu
7 Shandong Hebei Shandong
8 Zhejiang Guangdong Hainan
accumulation and contribute to regional growth. Shanghai, Jiangsu
9 Guangdong Guangxi Zhejiang
10 Hainan Shandong Guangdong and Hebei belong to high capital-low labor contribution regions,
11 Guangxi Jiangsu Guangxi and these provinces' marine capital contributions have been
significantly higher than their marine labor contribution to the
national economy. The marine regional contribution mainly relies
marine economy's characteristics were not significant except in on capital investment and lacks the effective accumulation of
Hainan. human capital contributions. These regions have not fully utilized
Overall, the 2011 national GOP totaled 4.557 trillion yuan, the talent advantage of their marine professional labor force. By
which was an increase of 10.4% over the previous year, and this contrast, Hainan is the only low capital-high contribution region,
GOP accounted for 9.7% of the national gross domestic product. and the marine labor contribution in Hainan ranks second among
The growth rate of the marine economic contribution to the coastal regions. Hainan's marine economy development has relied
national economy was lower than the growth rate of the marine primarily on the tourism industry, particularly in building Inter-
economy itself, which suggests that the contribution of the marine national Tourism Island in Hainan through promoting coastal
economy has huge potential and can be further leveraged. tourism and local economic development. In addition, Hainan's
Furthermore, the contribution of the marine economy to the marine capital basis is weaker than that of Liaoning or Tianjin,
national economy calculated in this paper is more than the and Hainan's regional resource endowment advantage places
proportion of the marine economy that is accounted for in the particular emphasis on labor rather than capital. Both the marine
national economy, which indicates that the marine economy can capital and labor contributions to the national economy in Guang-
be used as a new economic growth point for the national economy. dong, Guangxi, Shandong and Zhejiang are relatively low, as their
This result has important strategic significance for deepening marine economies' contributions to the national economy have yet
reforms and for adjusting the economic structure in contemporary to be enhanced. Tables 7 and 8.
China.

4.5. Classification analysis 5. Conclusion

According to the average of the marine capital and labor
economic contributions to the national economy, the marine
economy's contribution to the national economy is divided into
high capital-high labor regions, high capital-low labor regions, low
capital-high labor regions and low capital-low labor regions. The
classification standard is that the top five provinces for marine
capital or labor contribution belong to a high capital or labor zone.
Among these provinces, Liaoning, Tianjin and Fujian belong to the
regions in which both marine capital and marine labor's contribu-
tions to the national economy have been higher. These regions'
marine capital is mainly employed in the shipbuilding industry
and the marine equipment manufacturing industry, and the
advantages of marine human capital enhance the effect of
The modern Chinese marine economy dates from in 1990. The
development of this economy is more dependent on marine capital
than marine laborers, and this paper illustrates the capital-intensive
characteristics of China's marine economy. The evolution of the marine
economic policy indicates that the development of China's marine
economy has gradually transitioned from traditional marine industries
to the emerging marine industries, from a single industry's develop-
ment planning to the current, all-encompassing programmatic policy
and from an extensive development mood to a sustainable, intensive
development mood. Among its regions, China's marine economy had
uneven characteristics during the 2000–2011 period. The regional
differences in local marine economies' contributions to the national
economy are obvious, and these contributions have mainly come from
 X.-Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Policy 50 (2014) 227–237
marine capital. The contribution of local marine economies to their
regional economies has varied, and the corresponding regions ranked
from high to low are as follows: the Circum-Bohai Sea region, the
Yangtze River Delta region and the Pearl River Delta region. In
addition, different gaps between the regional marine economies'
contributions have been gradually widening but remained stable
during this period (e.g., Liaoning and Tianjin have consistently been
high capital-high labor contribution regions). The contribution differ-
ences of the elements of the overall marine economy are closely
related to regional marine resource endowments and the marine
industrial structures in different regions.
Compared with the land economy, the marine economy is
capital and technology intensive, and the ratio of marine capital
and labor contribution to the national economic growth is 2:1,
according to the research performed in connection with this study.
Although the overall marine economy is in its infancy, the regional
contribution of marine capital was greater than the contribution of
marine labor during this period. In addition, the growth rate of the
marine economic contribution to the national economy was lower
than the marine economy growth rate, and the contribution of the
marine economy to the national economy was more than the
proportion of the marine economy that can be accounted for in the
national economy. The results show that the marine economy can
be used as a new economic growth point for the national economy.
The differences between marine labor contributions in provinces
are larger than differences in marine capital contributions. This
paper presents statistics related to the marine economy and the
characteristics of the marine economic system's evolution, which
has important practical significance for analyzing the marine
industrial structure and resource endowment in China. The devel-
opment of China's marine economy must focus on attaining a
regional economic balance. Although China's marine economy is
more dependent on material capital investments to realize rapid
and sustained development, different coastal regions in China
have different resource advantages; therefore, the government
should rate marine industries according to the local proportion of
marine economies' resources.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported through the National Social
Science Fund Project “China modern marine economic history
studies”(13AJL002).
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