FOR THE IB DIPLOMA SECOND EDITION Physics John Allum and Christopher TalbotPhysics FOR THE IB DIPLOMA SECOND EDITION John Allum and Christopher Talbot <> HODDER ? EDUCATION AN HACHETTE UK COMPANYEvery forth been made to trace al copyright holders, bc if any have ben inadvertently overlooked the Publishes mlb plese vo make the necesaryartangements at the fis opportuni Although every efforthae been made to neste that webiteadreses are corect ime of ging to pres, Hod Eucation emnnr be eld responsible fr the content of any webse mentioned this Bock. sometimes posi to finda rlcsted we page by png the ales of the home page fra west the URL wind ef Your bowsee Hace UK’ policy io se papers that are sae renewable and teycabe productsand made fom wd grown, nsusesinable foes. The loging ae manufacturing yeoceses are expected fo confvem to he envionment ‘egulicions ofthe county ofergn, Odes: lame contact Bookpint Ld, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OXI 4SB. Telephones (4401235 82772, Fax: 4901235400454, Line ate open fr 900-300, Monday to Saray, witha 24 our message answering serice Yeu eam alo order though our welsie ww whodderaducation com (© Ja Altun and Chstophor Tabor 2014 Fins ecm published in 2012 by Hodder Education [Aa Hacheste UK Company 538 Buon Road London NWT 3BHL ‘This second edition published 294 Impeesion number 54321 Year 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 Allright reserved. Apart fom any use peretd nde UK copyright la no par of his puliaton maybe ‘epenced ornare in any frm a by any means electrons oe mechan ining oocopying ae ‘coring oc held within any information storage and rece syste, the pemsson wring fre the Publhor or under cence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limit. Further dees such licences (oe Fepeaphic redaction) may be obtained rm the opyeaht Licensing Agency Limite, Safton Hoe, 610 Kieby Suet, London ECIN STS. Cove photo Linden Gledhill Ihetraton by Pantck Media, Basking Do Art, Aptane Typeset in Gol Olay Sul 1O2p by Apraa ine oes in aly catalogue econ! fr thi til saaiale rom the Bits Libary This ebook edition as been create wing CieuaFLO from Cieular Software ISBN: 976 147 1829048Contents Introduction Core Chapter 1 Measurements and uncertainties 11 Meas 1.2 Uncertainties and errors ments in physies 13 Vectors an scalar Chapter 2 Mechanics 21 Motion 2.2 Forces 23 Work, energy and power 2.4 Momentum and impulse Chapter 3 Thermal physics 31 Thermal concepts 32 Modelling a gas Chapter 4 Waves 41 Oscillations 42 Travelling waves 43 Wave chanscteristies 44 Wave behaviour 45 Staring waves Chapter 5 Electricity and magnetism 5.1 Blecre fields 5.2 Heating effect of electric currents 53 Blectic cells 5A Magnetic effects of electric currents Chapter 6 Circular motion and gravitation 61 Gircular motion 62 Newton's aw of gravitation Chapter 7 Atomic, nuclear and particle physics 21 Discrete energy and radioactivity 72 Nuclear reactions 13 The structure of mater Chapter 8 Energy production 81 Energy sources 82 Thermal energy transfer vi 6 a a 2 108 108 125 141 ut 150 159 m2 202 202 27 25 m2 259 259 268 282 282 307 315 332 332 3@v Oey Options Available on the website accompanying this bok: vowahodderpls.combphyscs Chapter 13 Relativity 134 The beginnings of relativity 1322 Lorentz transformations 133 Spacetime diagrams 13.4 Relativistic mechanics (AHL) 13.5 General relativity (AHL) Chapter 14 Engineering physics 141 Rigid bodies and rotational dynamics 142 Thermodynamics 143 Fluide and fii dynamics (AHL) 144 Forced vibrations and resonance (AHL) Chapter 15 Imaging 15.1 Introduction to imagis 15.2 Imaging instrumentation 153 Fibre optics 154 Medical imaging (AHL) Contents Contents Additional higher level (AHL) [Z=BE Chapter 9 Wave phenomena 381 911 Simple harmonic motion 38 9.2 Single-slit diffraction 388 93 Interference 392 94 Resoltion 496 95 Doppler effect, az f | Chapter 10 Fields 423 10. Desribing lds 2 102 Fels ac work os ieee Chapter 11 Electromagnetic induction 460 111 Electromagnetic induction 460 11.2 Power generation and transmission an 11.3 Capacitance 489 Ey Chapter 12 Quantum and nuclear physics 507 12.1 The interaction of mater with radiation sor 12.2 Nuclear physics 528 vvi Chapter 16 Astrophysics 164 Stellar quantities 162 Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution 163 Cosmoleay 164 Stellar processes (AHL) 165 Further cosmology (AHL) Appendix Graphs and data analysis Answering examination questions Answers, glossary and index ‘Answers othe selfaseamene queions and examioation questions in Chapers 1-12 oppea the book: answers for the Options, Chapters 13-16, are available on the website accompanying this book: www hodderpiscomibphyscs, Answers to the self-assessment questions in Chapters 1 to 12 548 Answers to the examination questions in Chapters 1 to 12 561 Glossary 565 Acknowledgements 581 Index 583ntroduction Welcome to the second edition of Phsis forthe IB Diploma. The content and structure of this second ecltion has been completely revise to meet the demands of the 2014 1B Diploma Programme Physics Guide. ‘Within the IB Diploma Programme, the physics content is organized into compulsory topics plus numberof options, from which all stents select one. The organization of this resource exactly follows the IB Physics Guide sequence: 1m Core: Chapters I-8 cover the common core topes for Standard and Higher Level students © Additional Higher Level (AHL): Chapters 9-12 cover the ackltional topes for Higher Level seen 1 Options: Chapters 13-16 cover Options A, B, C and D respectively. Bach of these is available © both Standard ancl Higher Level students. (Higher Level stents study more topics within dhe same option, Each ofthe core andd AHL topes isthe subject ofa corresponding single chapter in the Physics forthe IB Diploma printed book The Options (Chapters 13-16) are available on the website accompanying this book, as are useful appendices and! akltional student support (inluding Starting points and Summary of knowledge): ww hoddereducaton com/iBextras “There are two akitonal short chapters offering physies-pecifc advice on the skills necessity for Graphs and data analysis and Preparing forthe IB Diploma Physics examination, incliding explanations ofthe command terms. These chapters can he fond on the accompanying website: Special features of the chapters of Physics fer the IB Diploma are described below. = The text is written in straightforward language, without phrases or idioms chat might conse students for whom English ia second language 1m The depth of treatment of topics has heen carefully planned to accurately eflect the objective of the IB sylahus and the requirements ofthe examinations. 1m The Nature of Science is an important new aspect of the IB Physics course which atm to Ioan students’ inerests and knowledge beyond the confines ofits specific physics content Throughout this book we hope that students will develop an appreciation of the processes snd applications of physics and technology: Some aspects of the Nature of Science may be cxaimined in IB Physics examinations and important discussion points ae highlighted in the margins 1 The Usilisatons and Additional Perspectives sections alo reflect che Nature of Science, but they are designed to take students heyond the limits ofthe IB syllabus in a variety of ways They might, for example, prove a historical context, extend theory or offer an interesting aplication. They ate sometimes accompanied by mote challenging or esearchrstyle, _questions. They do not contain any knowlege that i essential fr the IB examinations 1m Science andl technology have developed over the centuries with contributions from scientists forall around the world, In the modern world science knows few boundaries and the flow of information ie usually quick and easy. Some international applications of science have been indicated with the International Mindedness icon. Worked examples are provided in each chapter whenever new equations are introduced. A large number of self-assessment questions are placed throughout the chapters clase to the relevant theory. Answers to most questions are provided at the end of the book. = Iris notan aim of this book to provide detailed information about experimental work of the use of computers. However, our Skills icon has been placed in the margin to indicate wherever such work may usefully aie understanding. A numberof key experiments are included in the IB Phyies Guide and these are listed in Chapter 18: Prepaing forthe IB. Diploma Physics examination, to be found on the website that accompanies this book.A lection of IB examination-style questions is provided at the end of each chapter, as well ‘as some past IB Physics examination questions. 1 Links to the interdisciplinary Theory of Knowledge (ToK) element of the IB Diploma, ‘course are made in all chapters a Comprehensive glossaries of words andl terms for Core and AHL topies are include in the printed hook. Glossaries for the Options are available on the website Using this book ‘The sequence of chapters in Physics for che IB Diploma deliberately follows the sequence of the syllabus content. However, the IB Diplema Physics Guide is not designed asa teaching syllabus, so the omer in which the syllabus content is presented is not necessarily the order in which it will be caught. Different schools and colleges should design a course hased on their individual In addition to the study of che physics principles contained in this book, IB science students carry out experiments and investigations, as wel as collaborating in a Group 4 Project. These are assessed within the school (Internal Assessment), hase on wellestablished criteria The contents of Chapter | (Physics and physical measurement) have applications that recur throughout the rest ofthe book and also during practical work. For this reason, itis intended more asa source of reference, rather than as material that should be fully understood before progressing to the rest of the cours. & Author profiles John Allum John has taught pre-universty physies courses as a Head of Department ina variety of international schools for more than 30 years. He has taught IB Physics in Malaysia and in. Abu Dhabi, and has beer an examiner for IB Physics foe many year. Christopher Talbot (Chris teaches TOK and IB Chemistry at leading IB World School in Singapore. He has alo taught IB Biology and a variety of IGCSE courses, inluxing [GCSE Physics, at Overseas Family ‘School, Republic of Singapore. 1 Authors’ acknowledgements We are indebted to the following teachers and lecturers who reviewed early drafts of the chapters: De Robert Smith, University of Sussex (Astrophys: Dr Tim Brown, University of Surtey (Communications an Distal Technology: Dr Davi Cooper (Quantum Phys Mr Bernard Tayor (Theory of Knowledge internal Assessment a Fils and Forces); Professor Christopher Hammond, University of Leeds (Electromagnetic Waves); Professor Phil Walker, Universty of Surrey (Nuclear Pysis}; Dr David Jenkins, Universty of Yor (Nuclear Physics) and Trevor Wilson, Bavaria International School e¥, Germany ‘We alto like to thank David Talbo, who supplied some ofthe photographs for the book, and Teri Harwood and jon Homesood who drew a amber of psi For this econd dition, we woud ike eo thank the felling academics for their advice, ‘comment and feedback on drafts of the chapters: Dr Robert Smith, Emeritus Reader in ‘Aaconomy, University of Suex, Dr Tim Brown, Lectern Radio Frequency Antennas nd Propagation, University of Survey, Dr Alexander Merle, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Dr David Berman, Schoo of Physics and Astronomy, Queen Mary College, Professor Carl Dettmann, School of Mathematics, University of Bristol and Dr John Roche, Linacre College, University of Oxford. We would like to thank Richard Burt, Wincermere School UK for authoring Option A Relativity (Chapter 13). Finally we would alo ike t expres out gratitude fr the ireles efforts of the Helder Baton team that produced the book ou have in font of yu, led by SoShan and Fteck Fo.Contents ixteed Measurements and uncertainties SSS = Since 1948, the Systeme International d’Unités (Si) has been used as the preferred language of science and technology across the globe and reflects current best measurement practice. = Scientists aim towards designing experiments that can give a ‘true value’ from their ‘measurements but, due to the limited precision in measuring devices, they often quote ‘their results with some form of uncertainty. = Some quantities have direction and magnitude, others have magnitude only, and this ulation of quantities. 1.1 Measurements in physics -since 1948, the systeme International d’Unités (Si) has been used as the preferred language of science and technology across the globe and reflects current best measurement practice ® Fundamental and derived SI units ‘To communicate with each other we need to share a common language, and to share numerical information we need to use common units of measurement. An intemationally agreed system of Units is now used by scientists around che world, It is called the SI system (from the French ‘Systéme International’. SI units will be used throughout this course. Common terminology For much of che last 200 years many prominent scientists have tried to reach agreement on ‘a metric (decimal) system of units that everyone would use for measurements in science and commerce. A common system of measurement is invaluable forthe transfer of scientific information and for international trade. In principle this may seem more than sensible, but there are significant historical and cultural reasons why some countries, and some societies and individuals, have been resistant o changing their system of units. ‘The SI system was formalized in 1960 and he seventh unit (the mole) was added in 1971 Before that, apart from SI units, system based on centimetres, grams and seconds (CGS) was widely used, while the imperial (non-decimal) system of feet, pounds and seconds was also popular in some countries. For non-scientific, everyday use, people in many countries sometimes stil prefer to use different systems that have been popular for centuries. Confusion between differen systems of units has been famously blamed for the failure of the Mars orbiter in 1999 ‘and has been implicated in several aviation incidents, The fundamental units of measurement There are seven fundamental (basic) units in the SI system: kilogram, metre, second, ampere, ‘mole, kelvin (and candela, which is not part of this course). The quantities, names and symbols for these fundamental SI units are given in Table Ll table 1 ‘They ate called fundamental because theie definitions are not combinations of other units Fundamental units (unlike metres per second, for example). You do not need to leam the definitions ofthese units. Quantity Name Symbol Definition length mete m____thedstance traveled by ight na vacuum in 1299 792 458 seconds mace Keogrm ig the mass of onder of platinum aloy pt at the international Bureau of Weights and Measures in ance tine second &_thedluration of 9192 631 770 osclations of the electemagneti adation emitted a te ransmision between two spectc energy levels in caestum-13 atoms iecre current ampere Atha current which, when flowing in two pacalel conductors one metre apart in vacuum produces a force of 2 T0-7N on each mete ofthe conductors ‘enperatve Kevin —_K 127316 of the hemodynamic temperature ofthe pe pont of water amount ofsubstnce mole mal_—_anameuntof substance that cortains as many particles as there are atomsin 129 of carbon 22 1 Measurements and uncertainties 1 Toble 1250me named derived units Improvement in instrumentation ‘Accurate and precise measurements of experimental data are a cornerstone of science, and such, ‘measurements rely on the precision of our system of units. The definitions ofthe fundamental units depend on scientists’ ability to make very precise measurements and this has improved, since the units were frst defined and usec Seientific advances ean come from original researc in new areas, but they are also driven, bby improved technologies and the ability to make more accurate measurements. Astronomy is a good example: controlled experiments are generally not possible, so our rapklly expanding understanding of the universe is heing achieved largely as a result of the improved data we can receive with the help ofthe latest technologies (higher resolution telescopes, for example). Derived units of measurement Allother units in science are combinations ofthe fundamental units. For example, the unit for ‘volume is m* and the unit fr speed is ms“, Combinations of fundamental units are known as derived units Sometimes derived units are also given their own name (Table 1.2), For example, the unit of force is kes”, but iis usually called the newton, N. All derived units will be introduced and defined when they are needed! during the course. “Derivedunit Quantity Combined fundamental unite force pascal pressure kgm? hertz ra frequency joue 0) eneray watt ower ‘coulomb () charge wot) potential difference ‘ohm (2 ressiance weber (WE magnet fic ‘esa (t) magnet field strength becquerl Ba) radosctiy [Note that students are expected to write and recognize units using superscript format, such as ‘mst rather chan mys. Acceleration, for example, has the unit ms. Occasionally physicists use units that are not part ofthe SI system. For example, the clectronvoit &, isa conveniently small unit of energy that is often used in atomic physics. Units stich as this will be introckiced when necessary during the course. Students will he expected to ‘beable to convert from one unit to-another. A more common conversion would be changing ‘time in years to time in seconds.& 1 Table 1.3 Standard reteie (5) multipliers 1.1. Measurements in physics © Scientific notation and metric multipliers Scientific notation ‘When writing and comparing very large or very small numbers it is convenient to use scientific rotation (sometimes called ‘standard form). In scientific notation every number is expressed in the form a x 10%, where ais a decimal ‘umber larger than T and tess than 10, and b isa whole number (integer) called the exponent. For example, in scientific notation the number 434 is written as 4.34 x 10% similarly, 0.000316 is written a5 3.16 « 10% Scientific notation is useful for making the number of significant figures clear (ee the next section). It is also used for entering and displaying large and small numbers on caleulatrs. x10 or the leter E is often used on calculators to represent times ten to the power of. For example, 4.62E3 represents 442 x 10°, or 4620 ‘The worklwide use of this standard form for representing numerical data i of great importance for the communication of scientific information between different counties, “Pratix Abbreviation Value Standard metric multipliers, peta In everyday language we use the words ‘thousand! eC Cece coer and ‘million’ to help represent large numbers. eee, The scientific equivalents are the prefixes ae Ll kilo- and mega-. For example, a kilowatt is one a a thousand watts, and a megajoule is one million decd 1G joules. Similarly, a thousandth and a millionth SM tainting a ate represented scientifically by the prefixes criti 10 Rilsancd micro. A list of standard prefixes is micro w 10% shown in Table 1.3. Itis provided in the Physics tno data Booklet. ico P 10 feta + 0 lm Significant figures ‘The more precise a measurement isthe steater the numberof significane figures (ists) that can be used to represent it. For exatnple, an electric current stated to be 420A (as distinct from 419 or 4.21 A) suggests a much greater precision than a current stated to he 4.2. Significant figuces ane all the digits used in data to eaery meaning, whether they ate before oraftera decimal point, and this indudes soos. But somtimes zeros are used without thouzht oF meaning, and this can lead to confusion, Fer example, if you are tol that iis LOOkm to the nearest airport, you might he unsure whether itis approximately 100krn, or exaety” 100k. This isa good example of why scientific notation is useful. Using L00 x 10°km makes it clear thot there are thre significant figures | 10°km represents much les precision ‘When making calculations, che esule cannot be more precise than the data used to produce it. Asayeneral (and simplified) tule when answering questions or processing experimental data, the result shoukl have the same numberof significant figures as the data used. Ifthe number of significant figures snot the same forall pices of data, then the number of significant figures the answer should be the same as the least precise ofthe data (which has the fewest significant figures. This is illustrated in Worked example 14 1 Measurements and uncertainties Figure 11 The behaviour of Incividual atoms in araphene (a material made from asingle leyer of carbon atoms) can be seen using aspecial type of electron microscope bb Complex gas and dust doudsin the Cat's Eye nebula, 3000 light years away 1 Use the equation gh to determine the power, Pof an electic motor that ases a mass, m, of 15kg, a distance, h, of 1128m in atime, ¢ of 4795. (g= 981 ms) rogh _15% 981 x 1.128 nr ‘A caleuator wil display an answer of 3.4652... but his answer suggests avery high precision, which isnot usted bythe data, The data used wit the leact numer of significant gure is 1.Skg, 20 the _nnwer should a0 have the same number: P=3.5W ‘Rounding off’ to an appropriate number of significant figures ‘Rounding off, as in Worked example 1, should be done at the end ofa multi-step calculation, when the answer has co he given. If further calculations using this answer are then needed, all the digits shown previously on the calculator should be used, The answer to this caleulation shoul then be rounded off to the correct numberof significant figures. This provess can, 1 Orders of magnitude Physics isthe fardamental science that resto explain how and why everything in the universe behaves in the way that it does. Physicists study everything from the smallest parts of atoms to distant objects in our galaxy and beyond (Figure 1). Physics isa quantitative subject that makes much use of mathematics. Measurements anal calculations commonly relate vo dhe world that we ean see around us (the macroscopic world), microscopic explanations often incluxing an understanding of molecules, atoms, ions and sub-atomic particles. Astronomy isa branch of physics that deals with the but our observations may req other extreme ~ qua n everyday life res that ae very much bigge than anything we experience The study of physics therefore involves dealing with both very lange an very small numbers, When numbers are so difierent from our everyclay experiences, it can he difficult to appreciate their ve site. For example, the age ofthe universe is helieved to be about 10s but jst how big is that number! The only sensible way to answer that question is to compare the quantity with something else with which we are more familiae. or example, the age ofthe universe is about 100 milion human lifeimes ‘When comparing quantities of vey different ses (maznitudes), for simplicity we often make appreximations to the nearest power of 10. When numbers are approximated and quoted to the nearest power of 10, itis called giving them an order of magnitude. For example, when comparing the lifetime ofa human (the workvide average is about 70 years) with the age ofthe universe (14 101), we can use the approximate ratio 10%/10% That i, the age ofthe universe is about tude between them. To human lifetimes, or we could say that there are eight orders of magt1.1. Measurements in physics Table 14 The Here are three further examples: 1m The mass of a hydrogen atom is 167 x 107k, To an ceder of magnitude this is 107k. The distance to the nearest star (Proxima Certaui) is 401 x 10!m. To an onder of, magnitude this is 10m. (Nore: log of 4.01 » 10! = 16.60, which is nearer to I7 than to 16) 1m There are 864400 seconds in a day. To an order of magnitude this is 10°, Tables 14 to 16 list the ranges of mass, distance and time that occur in the universe. You are recommended to look at computer simulations representing these mnges. a farse of masesi9 anata 108 uray the iy Wo) 108 the fat 1 sage pssenerpine ceri 1° gies 1 anon ws “ahyonenaten 0 anion Datance Stein Tie period Tine rena in Wea aire ‘a dete fu Gy the My Wa Totnes dow bare et 108 diet eet 1O% ta ar ist pened en th 108 iano Son Tota te pron ware bun Egypt 10" ace te Moon Wt _ypeatan ire i ‘as of Eh wo one dy 1 ation lne Tot seen hari earbens 1 ho ech 1 siete of heen sod ve how mich unas Ri Gow byinenedy G+" or ight ttn ao a mom ro er a “tne paodof cain aighiwae 10 dnote mode 1-7 for ight otal ac ics 1 1 Table 15 The ange of datances inthe nese 1 tbl L6 he ang of enh uae = Estimation Sometimes we do not have the data needed for ae rate calculations, or maybe calculations reed to be made quickly. Sometimes a question is so vague that an accurate ansover is simply rot possible. The ability to make sensible estimates isa very useful skill that needs plenty of practice. The worked example and questions 2-5 below are typical of ealculations that do not have exact answers, ‘When making estimates different people wll produce different answers and it is usually sensible rouse only one (maybe two) significant figures, Sometimes only an onder of magnitude is needed 56 Measurements and uncertainties Dennen 2 Estimate the mass of sr in aclasroem,(ensty of ar = 1.349% ‘Atypical clasroom might have cimensions of 7m x 8mm x 3m, Sots volume is about 170m? mass = density x volume = 170 13 =220kg Since this isan estate, an answer of 200kg may be more appropriate To an oider of magnitude it ‘woud be 10a. 1 Estate the mae of: ® apage of abook b alrinabotte « adog «water in the oceans of the worl, 2. Give an estimate foreach ofthe flowing: 4 theheight of abouse with thee floors he many times a wheel ona cat rotates during the Mfetime of the cat © how many gains of sand would fila cup othe thickness ofa pagein a book. 3. Estimate the following periods of time: | how many seconde there aren an average human fate + hw long t wou take a person to walk around the Earth (gnore the tkne ot spent walking) « haw long it takes for Ight to travel across a room 4 Research the relevant data so that you can compare the following measurements (Give your answer 3s an Ctder of magnitude) the distance othe Moon withthe circumference ofthe Earth ‘the mats ofthe Earth with the mazs ofan apple the time it takes light to travel 1m wit the tee between your heartbeats. 1.2 Uncertainties and errors - scientists aim towards designing ‘experiments that can give a ‘true value" from their measurements, but because of the limited precision in measuring devices, they often quote their results with some form of uncertainty Certainty Although scientists are perceived as working towards finding ‘exact’ answers an unavoidable Uncertainty exists in any measurement, The results ofall scientific investigations have uncertainties and errr although god experimentation wll try to kep theve as sal as possible. ‘When we receive numerical data of any kind (acentife or otherwise) we nel to kn hens much belie we should place in the information that we are reading or hearing. The presentation othe rests of serious scientific research shoul always have an asesment ofthe uncertainties in the finds, because this in integral par ofthe segntifc process. Unfortunately the ame isnot tae of much ofthe information we feceve through the media, where data are too offen resented uncrtcally al unscientific without any reference to their source or reliably No matter how hand we try, even with che very best of measuring instruments, tis simp not posible to measure anything exactly. For one reason, ce things that we can measure donot vista perfectly exact quai there no reason why they should ‘This means that every measurement is an approximation. A measurement could be the most accurate ever made, for example the width of alee might be stated as 2283891 Oem, bat that ts ail ot perfect, and eve i fase woul not know hecause we wow always need a more accurate instrament to check i In this example we also have the added complication ofthe fct tha when measurements of length become very small we have ro dal ith the atomic nacre of the objects that we are measuring, (Where is the edge of an atom’)Uncertainties and errors 7 ‘The uncertainty in a measurement isthe range, above ard below stated value, over which wwe would expect any repeated meastirements t fal. For example, ifthe average height «0 which ball bounced when dropped (fem the same height) was 48cm, but actual measurements varie! between 45cm and 5t cm, the result shoul be reconded as 48 cm. The uncertainty is #3em, bur this is sometimes beter quoted asa percentage, in this example + 6%. Obviously, iis cesirable ‘that experiments should proskice results with low uncertainties ~ such measurements are cesribed tas being precise. Par it should be noted that sometimes results can be precise, but wrong! ‘The more precise that a measurement is, the greater the numberof significant figures (digits) that can be used to represent it. If the correct (true’) value of a quantity is known, but an actual measurement is make that is not the same, we reer to this as an experimental error That ian error occurs in a measurement when it is not exoetly the same as the correct value. For example, ifa student recorded the height ofa balls bounce as 494m, but careful observation of a video recording showed that it was actualy 48cm, then there wasn error in the measurement of +I cm. All measurements involve ertors, whether they are large or small, for which there are many possible reasons, but they should not he confused with mistakes. Errors can be described 2s either random ot systematic (see below), although all measurements involve both kinds of error to some extent. ‘The words erwr ancl uncertainty are sometimes used to mean the same thing, although this can only he true when refering to experiments that have a known correct result. © Different kinds of uncertainty ‘The uncertainty in experimental measurements discussed in this chapter isa consequence of the limitations of scientists and their equipment to obtain 100% accurate results. However, we should also consider that the act of measurement, in itself, can change what we are attempting to measure. For example, connecting an ammeter in am electric circuit must affect the current it is tying to measure, although every effort shoul he made to ensure this effect is not significant Similarly, patting a cold thermometer in a warm liquicl will alte its temperature “Uncertainty’ also appears as an important concept in modern physics: the Heisenberg uncertainty principle deals with the behaviour of sub-atomic particles and is discussed in Chapter 12 (Higher Level students). One of is core ideas is that the more precisely the position of particle is known, theless precisely ts momentum can be known, and vice vers. But i should be stressed thatthe Heisenberg uncertainty principle isa fundlamental feature of quantum physies and has nothing to do with the experimental limits of current laboratory technology. m= Random and systematic errors Random errors Random errors eannot be avoided because exact measurements are not posible. Measurements can be bigger orsmaller than the correct value and are scattered randomly around that value.8 1m Figure 1.2 Digital and 1 Measurements and uncertainties [Random errors are generally unknown and unpredictable. There are many possible reasons for them, including: 1 limitations ofthe scale or display being used 1 reading scales from wrong positions 1m irregular human reaction times when wsing a stopwatch, 1 difficulty in making observations that change quickly with time, The reading obtained froma measuring instruments limited bythe smallest division of itsscale. This is sometimes calle a readability (or sealing) error For example, liguihine sass thermometer witha scale marked only in degres (23°C, 24°C, 25°C, ete) cannot reliably be used to measure to every 01°C. [eis usualy assumed thatthe eror for analogue (Continuous) scales like a lquidierglass thermometer, shal ofthe smallest division ~ in this exaraple +£05°C. For digital instruments the erorisassumed tobe the smallest division that the meter can display. Figure 1.2 shows analogue and digital ammeter that can he used for measuring clectre current. ‘A common reason for random errors is reading an analogue scale fom an incortest position. ‘This iscalleda parallax error ~an example is shown in Figure 13. edn t0 ow ‘analogue ammeters meaturing the same 1m Figure 1.3 Parallax errar when reading the level cof liquid in a measuring cylinder systematic errors A systematic error occurs hecause there is something consistently wrong with the measuring instrument othe method used Areading with a systematic reo is always either bigger or smaller thar the correct value by the sme amour. Common causes ae instruments that have an incorrect scale (wrongly calibrated, or v insteuments thar have an incorseet value © hegit with, such asa meter chat displays a reading ‘when icshould read zero. This scaled a2ec0 offset erzoe~ an example isshown in Figure L4. Acthermometer that incorrectly records room Figure 1.4 This volometerhasa zero offset temperature wil podice systematic errors when Toro 03V, sothatallreadings wil be too used to measure other temperatures large by tis amount fm Accuracy A measurement that i close to the correct value (iit is known) is described as accurate, but in science the word accurate alsa means that a set of measurements made during an experiment have a small, systematic error. This means that an accurate se of measurement are approximately1.2 Uncertainties and errors. 9 evenly distributed around the correct values (whether they are close to it or not), so that average of those measurements will be close to the true value In many experiments the ‘correct’ result might not be known, which means that the accuracy of measurements cannot be known with any certainty. In such cases, the quality of the measurements can best be judged by their precision: can the same results he repeated? The dfference between precise and accurate ean be illustrated by considering arrows fired ata target, asin Figure 15, The aim is precise ifthe arrows are grouped close together and accurate if the arrows are approximately evenly distributed around the centee ofthe taeget. The Jast diagram shows both accuracy and precision, although in everyday conversation we would probably just deseibe it as accurate +, not precise prise not precise precise 1 Figure 1.5 Difference between precision and accuracy A watch that is always 5 minutes fast ean be described as precise but not accurate. This isan cexaimple ofa systematic ero offiet errr, Using hand-operated stopwatches to time a 100m race sive accurate results (if there are no systematic error), but they ure unlikely to be p because human reaction times will poshce significant random errors, Identifying and reducing the effects of errors Ifa single measurement is made of a particular quantity, we may have no way of knowing how close itis to the corzect result; chat i, we probably do not know the size of any error in measurement. But ifthe sime measurement i repeated and the results are similar (low "uncertainty, high precision), we will guin some confidence in the results of the experiment, especialy if we have checked for any possible causes of systematic eror ‘The most common way of reducing the effects of random errors is by repeating measurements and calculating a mean value, which should be closer to the correct value than most, oF al, of the individual measurements. Any unusual (anomalous) values should be checked and probably excluded from the caleulation of the mean. Many experiments involve taking a range of measurements, each under different experimental conditions, «© that a graph can be drawn to show the pattern of the results. (For example, changing the voltage in an electric circuit to see how it affects the current) Increasing the number of pais of measurements made also reduces the effects of random errors because the line of besefitcan be placed with more confidence. Experiments should be designed, wherever possible, to produce large readings. For example, a ‘metre ruler might only be wealabe tothe nearest half millimetre and ths wll be dhe same for all ‘measurements that are mae with it. When measuring length of 90em this ero will peobably be considered as acceptable (it isa percentage eror of 0.56%), bur the same sized ertor when, ‘measuring only 2mm is 25%, which is probably unacceptable. The lager a measurement (that is ‘made with a particular measuring instrument, the smaller the percentage error shoul he If this, isnot possible, then the measuring instrument might need to be changed to-one with smaller divisions Teis posible to carry out an experiment careflly with good quality instruments, bur still have large random errors. There coull be many different reasons for this and the experiment ‘may have to be redesigned to get over the problems. Using a stopwatch to time the fall of an object dropped from a hand to the floor, or measuring the height of a bouncing ball, are101. Measurements and uncertainties two examples of simple experiments which may have significant random ertors The effects of systematic errors cannot be reduced by repeating ‘measurements. Instruments shoukl be checked for errors before they sleet are used, but a systematic etor might not even be noticed until a graph has been dravin of the results and a line of bestit found not to pass through the expected intercept, as shown in Figure 1.6. In such a case it might chen be sensible to adjust all measurements up cor down by the same amount if the cause of the systematic error can al Figura 16 The best-fit Speed ° Te We ermine Wn fo this speed tine ; raph for toy ol © Absolute, fractional and percentage eee uncertainties ‘does not pass through the orn so there was Uncertainties in experimental data probably a systematic error Uncertainties in experimental data can be expresedin one of three a 1 The absolute uncertainty of a measurement isthe range, above and below the stated value, within which we would expect any repeated measurements to fall. For example, the mass of a pen might he stated as 53.2 + O11 g, where the uncertainty is + 0.1 g 1m The fractional uncertainty isthe ratio of the absolute uncertainty to the measured value. 1m The percentage uncertainty isthe fractional uncertainty expressed as a percentage. Uncertainties expressed in percentages are often the most informative. Experiments that proxluce results with uncertainties of less than 5% may be desirable, bu are nor always possible, 3 The mas of a piece of metals quoted to be 2469 2 2.0%. a What is the absolute uncertainty? bb What the range of values that the mass could be expected to have? ‘© What i the fractional uncertainty? 2. 2.0% of 3464 is« 7g to the nearest gram, 2s provided inthe data in the question) b 339910 3599 to 3 sgnficant gues) 1 © 2% ieequivalent to 3 30 deally uncertainties should be quoted forall experimental measurements, but this can be repetitive and tedious in learning environment, so they ate often omitted unless being taught specifically. It is ustally easy to decide on the size of an uncertainty associated with taking a single ‘measurement with a particular instrument. Ic is often assumed to be the readability error, as described earlier. However, the overall uncertainty in a measurement, allowing forall ‘experimental difficulties is sometimes more difficult to decide, For example, the readability error ‘on a hand-operated stopwatch might be OOLs, but the uncertainty in its measurements will be treater because of human reaction times, ‘The amount of seattering of the readings around a mean value isa useful guide to ancom luncertainty, hut not systematic uncertainty. After the mean value of the readings has been calculated, the random uncertainty can be assumed to he the largest difference between any single reading and the mean value. This is shown in the following worked example.1.2 Uncertainties and errors Dene 4. The folowing measurements (n crn) were recorded in an experiment to measure the height to which ball bouncect 32,28, 33, 32, 37 and 28 Estimate values forthe absolute and percentage random Lncertaris inthe experiment ‘The mean ofthese sik readings 31.83.m, butt would be sensible to quote this to two sonficant ‘igures zc) a5 nthe orignal data. The measurement that has the greatest ference om ths ‘vale s 37m, so an estimate of the uncertany is Scr, which means a percentage uncertainty of (5/37) = 100~ 14% Note that the same data had been obtained in the order 28, 29, 32,32, 3,37, twould be ifiult tobeliee thatthe uncertainties were random, ad another explanation for the variation in results ‘would need to be found Uncertainties in calculated results ‘When making further calculations based on experimental data, the uncertainty in individual ‘measurements should be known. Its then important to know how to use these uncertainties 0 determine the uncertainty in any results that are calculated from those data, Consider a simple example: a trolley moving with constant speed was measured to travel a distance of 7bem 2em (« 2.6%) in a time of 4354 02s (+ 47%). The speed can he calculated from distanceftime = 76/43 = 17.67... which is I8ms"! when roundel to two significant figures, consistent with the experimental data. ‘To determine the uncertainty in this answer we consider the uncertainties in distance and ‘ime. Using the largest distance and shortes time, the largest possible answer for speed is 7344.1= 1902... Using the smallest distance and the longest time, the smallest pessble answer for speed is 7445 = 1644... (The numbers will be rounded atthe end of the calculations) ‘The speed is therefore between 16-44ems"! and 1902 ems". The value 1902 has the greater Aifierence (1.38) fom IZ67. So the final result can be expressed as 1267 + 1.35ems", which isa ‘maximum uncertainty of 26% Rounding to two significant figures, the result becomes 18+ lems") Uncertainty calculations like these ean he very time consuming an foe this course, “approximate methods are accepeable. For example, in the caleulation for speed shown above the uncertainty in the data was * 2.6% fordistance and 4.7% for time. The percentage uncertainty in the final result is approximated by akling the percentage uncertainties in the data: 2.6 +47 = 7.3%, This gives approximately the same value as calculated using the largest andl smallest possible values for speed. Rules for finding uncertainties in calculated results ae given below. Rules for uncertainties in calculations 1m For quantities that are added or subtracted: add the absolute uncertainties, In the Physics daa bookle chs is given as ‘= For quantities that are multiplied or divided: add the individual fractional or percentage ‘uncertainties, Inthe Physics daea bool this is given as ‘= Forquantities that are raised to a power, n, the Physies daca booklet gives: "2 1 Measurements and uncertainties 1m For other functions (such as trigonometric functions, logarithms or square roots): calculate the highest and lowest absolute values possible and compare with the mean value, as shown. in the following worked example. But note that although such calculations can oecur in ‘connection with laboratory work, they will not be requited in examinations. ‘nara, 0, was measured 1 be 34 «1°, Whats the uncertainty inthe slope ofthis angle? tan3a°=0675 tan33°=0609 tan Larger absolute uncertainty = 0.675 ~ 0.649 = 0.026 (0.700 ~ 0.675 = 0,025, which is smal than 0.026) So,tan @=0167 2 003 ising the same numberof slgnifcant figures sin the orignal dat). 700 5 A mass of 346 2 29 was added toa mass of 129 + 19 ‘9 What was the overall absolute uncertainty? »b What was the overall percentage uncertanty? 6 The equation = ta? was ued to calcuate a value forswhen a was 43 2 02 ms and twas 14 015 1 Gaelate avalde fos 1 Gael the percentage uncertain the dt provides Galea th perantageuneraey inthe answer 4 Gaede the ble Uncertainty in the reve. 7 Aceranquatty was mesure to have a agate of (46 +008, What the mavirumunceanty Inthesque roto ths any? Using computer spreadsheets to calculate uncertainties (Computer spreadsheets can be very helpful when itis necessary to make multiple calculations of uncertainties in experimental results. For example, the resistivity, p, of a metal wire can be calculated using the equation p = Rev, where rand are the radius and length of the wire, and Ris its resistance. Figure L7 shows the ray data (shaded green) of an experiment that measured the resistance of various wites of the same metal, The rest of the spreadsheet shons the calculations involved with processing the data to determine esstivty and the uncertainty inthe result. A computer program can then be used to draw a suitable graph of the results, nxt this-ean include error hars (se page 13) RESISTANCE RADIUS tenet Percentage! Percentage] Percentage ereentage luncertainey \incertainty|uncertainty| uncertainty ink tee ine® iar 2 7 BS FE} az a5 or a5 a8 33 or 10. a0 29 37 oe 83 16 32 os. 1m Figure 1.7 Usinga spreadsheet to calculate uncertainties ina resistance experiment {5 Usea computer spreadsheet to enter the some rw data as shawn in Figure 17 ' Use the spreadsheet to confirm the results ofthe calculations shown, {© What ference woul it make tothe result the radius ofthe wire could only be measured to the nearest half ilimere?