Bernard Jose Macahig (475608)

CE 561/D (6097)
Engr. Geffren Bernardo
PLATE NO. 1

1. Discuss briefly the following in your own words and understanding. What is the
importance of each of them in the analysis and design of steel members? Show
illustrations if you must to strengthen your point.

 Hot-rolled shapes – this steel is being roll-pressed at a very high temperature

around 1700°F. At this temperature is easy to shape and form the steel, it shrinks
when cooled this means there is less control over the size and shape of the
finished product. This is much cheaper than the cold rolled steel. This kind of
steel is being used when precise shape is not required and it is often used in
railroad tracks.
 Cold-formed sections – they are made from structural quality sheet steel that are
formed into C-sections and other shapes. The applications of Cold-Formed
Sections include the buildings, bridges, car bodies, storage tanks, highway
products, railway coaches, transmission towers, drainage facilities, etc. The
advantages of the cold-formed steel (CFS) is light-weight, non-combustible,
durable, its easy to install, less waste because its recyclable.
 LRFD Loads – these are loads or set of load combinations is multiplied by a load
factor (normally larger than 1.0) and it is also called “factored loads”. The
importance of this to analysis and design of steel members is that factored loads
are applied to a steel component to determine the required absolute strength and
this is evaluated with the component's assumed strength and a suitable reduction
factor and have more consistent reliability is achieved during the structural steel
design process and in many cases a more cost-effective steel structure result.

Below is the example of basic LRFD Load combinations:

 ASD Loads – unlike the LRFD loads that is being multiplied by load factors or
safety factors, ASD loads are summed up as is, for various possible combinations
and the largest values obtained are used to calculate forces in the members. These
load combinations are also used when designing for serviceability limit states
such as deflections and vibrations. ASD loads is also called as “service loads”.

Below is the example of basic ASD load combinations:

 Methods of Obtaining an Acceptable Level of Safety
- There two methods of obtaining an acceptable level of safety, the LRFD or
Load and Resistance Factor Design and the other one is the ASD or Allowable
Strength Design, this method is being establish because in order us to have a
building or structure to reduce the probability of failure to an acceptable small
value also depends on what state of unserviceability. Though both methods
have same goal that will have a result of acceptably level of safety. It is
important to analysis and design of tension members because we will rely to
these factors, so that we can assess what kind of steel member or kind of grade
steel to be use and we know what is the limit of certain member.
2. Types of tension members.
Discuss briefly the advantages, disadvantages and applicability.

 Round/Flat Bar – this kind of member is great because it has great welding
characteristics that’s why this is used to members that has small tension but the
disadvantage of this member is that inadequate stiffness resulting in noticeable
sag under the self-weight.

 Single structural shapes and plates – under this member are the ones we are
familiar the angle section, channel section, structural tee and I section (W or S).
All these members/sections are more rigid than the rods or bars. The angle section
is flexible when the tension member is too long, the disadvantage of single angle
section is the eccentricity in both planes in a riveted connection. Angle sections
are commonly used in roof trusses that carry light loads; it’s also used for bracing.
The channel section has eccentricity in one axis only. Single channel sections
have high rigidity in the direction of web and low rigidity in the direction of
flange. Now I sections have more rigidity because of its shape and more
economical than other sections, usually used in beams and columns.
 Built-up Sections – two or more members/sections being used to form a built-up
section, the usage of this built-up section is used only if the single section cannot
fit-out the required area. A built-up section requires more engineering than a
standard section to economize the connection between the parts while accounting
for the different loads coming into the beam, such as standard gravity connections
vs seismic connections.

 Hollow Structural Section – under this have the Box/Square, Rectangular and
Round sections. This section has high resistance in terms of torsion compared to I,
Channel, Angle and T sections, also can be used as jacket for concrete column for
it being hollow (increase in axial capacity). The disadvantage of this section is too
expensive (flexural member) due to more steel being used than the common I
section. Bolt is hard to install due to the closed section it is.