64

5. HOMOLYTIC REACTIONS (Photochemistry)

5.1. Prelude to Photochemistry

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The role of light in effecting chemical change has been recognized for many years. Indeed,
the connection between solar energy and the biosynthesis of plant carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide and water was known by the early 1800's. Yet organic photochemistry was
slow to develop as a well-understood and manageable science. Progress only became rapid
following the development of spectroscopy and spectroscopic techniques for structure
determination and the detection of transient species. For this reason, photochemistry for
many years was the domain of physical and theoretical chemists. Their work laid the
foundation for modern organic photochemistry, which correlates the nature of excited
electronic states of molecules with the reactions they undergo.

Quite apart from the unparalleled importance of photosynthesis, photochemical reactions have
a great impact on biology and technology, both good and bad. Vision in all animals is triggered
by photochemical reactions. The destructive effects of ultraviolet radiation on all forms of life
can be traced to photochemical reactions that alter cellular DNA, and the harmful effects of
overexposure to sunlight and the resulting incidence of skin cancer are well established. The
technical applications of photochemistry are manifold. The dye industry is based on the fact
that many organic compounds absorb particular wavelengths of visible light, and the search for
better dyes and pigments around the turn of this century was largely responsible for the
development of synthetic organic chemistry. Dye chemistry has helped establish the
relationship between chemical structure and color, which also is important in color printing
and color photography. We cover these important applications of photochemistry only briefly
in this chapter, but we hope to convey some understanding of the fundamentals involved.

Most photochemical reactions can be considered to occur in three stages:

1. Absorption of electromagnetic radiation to produce electronically excited state

2. Primary photochemical reactions involving excited electronic states.

3. Secondary or dark reactions whereby the products of the primary photochemical reactions
are converted to stable products.

What happens when light is absorbed by molecules?

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When we were talking about the various sorts of orbitals present in organic compounds on the
introductory page (see above), you will have come across this diagram showing their relative
energies:
 65

Remember that the diagram isn't intended to be to scale - it just shows the relative placing of
the different orbitals. When light passes through the compound, energy from the light is used
to promote an electron from a bonding or non-bonding orbital into one of the empty anti-
bonding orbitals. The possible electron jumps that light might cause are:

In each possible case, an electron is excited from a full orbital into an empty anti-bonding
orbital. Each jump takes energy from the light, and a big jump obviously needs more energy
than a small one. Each wavelength of light has a particular energy associated with it. If that
particular amount of energy is just right for making one of these energy jumps, then that
wavelength will be absorbed - its energy will have been used in promoting an electron.
We need to work out what the relationship is between the energy gap and the wavelength
absorbed. Does, for example, a bigger energy gap mean that light of a lower wavelength will
be absorbed - or what? It is easier to start with the relationship between the frequency of light
absorbed and its energy:

You can see that if you want a high energy jump, you will have to absorb light of a higher
frequency. The greater the frequency, the greater the energy. That's easy - but unfortunately
 66

UV-visible absorption spectra are always given using wavelengths of light rather than
frequency. That means that you need to know the relationship between wavelength and
frequency.

You can see from this that the higher the frequency is, the lower the wavelength is. So, if you
have a bigger energy jump, you will absorb light with a higher frequency - which is the same
as saying that you will absorb light with a lower wavelength.
Important summary: The larger the energy jump, the lower the wavelength of the light
absorbed.
Some jumps are more important than others for absorption spectrometry

An absorption spectrometer works in a range from about 200 nm (in the near ultra-
violet) to about 800 nm (in the very near infra-red). Only a limited number of the
possible electron jumps absorb light in that region. Look again at the possible jumps.
This time, the important jumps are shown in black, and a less important one in grey.
The grey dotted arrows show jumps which absorb light outside the region of the
spectrum we are working in.

Remember that bigger jumps need more energy and so absorb light with a shorter wavelength.
The jumps shown with grey dotted arrows absorb UV light of wavelength less that 200 nm.
The important jumps are:

 from pi bonding orbitals to pi anti-bonding orbitals;

 from non-bonding orbitals to pi anti-bonding orbitals;
 from non-bonding orbitals to sigma anti-bonding orbitals.
That means that in order to absorb light in the region from 200 - 800 nm (which is where the
spectra are measured), the molecule must contain either pi bonds or atoms with non-bonding
 67

orbitals. Remember that a non-bonding orbital is a lone pair on, say, oxygen, nitrogen or a
halogen.
Groups in a molecule which absorb light are known as chromophores.
Contributors
Jim Clark (Chemguide.co.uk)

What does an absorption spectrum look like

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Figure 9-18: The ultraviolet spectrum of 2-propanone (acetone) in cyclohexane

The ultraviolet spectrum of 2-propanone (acetone) is shown in Figure 9-18. The weak
absorption, which peaks (i.e., has λmax at 280nm, is the result of excitation of one of the
unshared electrons on oxygen to a higher energy level. This is called an ∗n→π∗ transition, in
which nn denotes that the excited electron is one of the unshared n electrons on oxygen
and π∗ (pi star) denotes that the excited electron goes to a high-energy antibonding orbital of
the carbon-oxygen double bond. The same kind of n→π∗ transition occurs at about the same
wavelength and intensity for many simple compounds of the type R2C=O and RCH=O in
which R is an alkyl group. In a very schematic way, we can write

There also is an absorption of 2-propanone with λmax at 190nm, which is a different kind of
excitation. This is ascribed to raising an electron in the ππ-bonding orbital of the carbon-
 68

oxygen double bond to the π∗π∗ orbital. Such transitions are called π→π∗π→π∗, and occur
generally for substances with double bonds:

We shall begin with a closer look at electronic excitation, some aspects of which are discussed
above. Transfer of electronic energy from one molecule to another is a basic process in
photochemistry, we will discuss energy transfer also before giving an overview of
representative photochemical reactions. Finally, there will be a discussion of several important
applications of photochemistry.

Contributors
John D. Robert and Marjorie C. Caserio (1977) Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry, second
edition. W. A. Benjamin, Inc. Menlo Park, CA. ISBN 0-8053-8329-8. This content is
copyrighted under the following conditions, "You are granted permission for individual,
educational, research and non-commercial reproduction, distribution, display and performance
of this work in any format."

5.2. Photosensitisers (Jablonski Diagramme)

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Aleksander Jablonski was a Polish academic who devoted his life to the study of molecular
absorbance and emission of light. He developed a written representation that generally shows
a portion of the possible consequences of applying photons from the visible spectrum of light
to a particular molecule. These schematics are referred to as Jablonski diagrams.

5.2.1 Introduction

A Jablonski diagram is basically an energy diagram, arranged with energy on a vertical axis.
The energy levels can be quantitatively denoted, but most of these diagrams use energy levels
schematically. The rest of the diagram is arranged into columns. Every column usually
represents a specific spin multiplicity for a particular species. However, some diagrams divide
energy levels within the same spin multiplicity into different columns. Within each column,
horizontal lines represent eigenstates for that particular molecule. Bold horizontal lines are
representations of the limits of electronic energy states. Within each electronic energy state are
multiple vibrationala energy states that may be coupled with the electronic state. Usually only
a portion of these vibrational eigenstates are represented due to the massive number of possible
vibrations in a molecule. Each of these vibrational energy states can be subdivided even further
into rotational energy levels; however, typical Jablonski diagrams omit such intense levels of
 69

detail. As electronic energy states increase, the difference in energy becomes continually less,
eventually becoming a continuum that can be approach with classical mechanics. Additionally,
as the electronic energy levels get closer together, the overlap of vibrational energy levels
increases.

Figure 11: The Foundation of a typical Jablonski Diagram

Through the use of straight and curved lines, these figures show transitions that occur from the
exposure of a molecule to a particular wavelength of light. Straight lines show the conversion
between a photon of light and the energy of an electron. Curved lines show transitions of
electrons without any interaction with light. Within a Jablonski diagram several different
pathways show how an electron may accept and then dissipate the energy from a photon of a
particular wavelength. Thus, most diagrams start with arrows going from the ground electronic
state and finish with arrows going to the ground electronic state.

5.2.2 Absorbance

The first transition in most Jablonski diagrams is the absorbance of a photon of a particular
energy by the molecule of interest. This is indicated by a straight arrow pointing up.
Absorbance is the method by which an electron is excited from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level. The energy of the photon is transferred to the particular electron. That electron
then transitions to a different eigenstate corresponding to the amount of energy transferred.
Only certain wavelengths of light are possible for absorbance, that is, wavelengths that have
energies that correspond to the energy difference between two different eigenstates of the
particular molecule. Absorbance is a very fast transition, on the order of 10-15 seconds. Most
Jablonski diagrams, however, do not indicate a time scale for the phenomenon being indicated.
This transition will usually occur from the lowest (ground) electronic state due to the statistical
mechanical issue of most electrons occupying a low lying state at reasonable temperatures.
There is a Boltzmann distribution of electrons within this low lying levels, based on the the
energy available to the molecules. This energy available is a function of the Boltzmann's
constant and the temperature of the system. These low lying electrons will transition to an
excited electronic state as well as some excited vibrational state.
 70

Figure 22: Three possible absorption transitions represented.

5.2.3 Vibrational Relaxation and Internal Conversion

Once an electron is excited, there are a multitude of ways that energy may be dissipated. The
first is through vibrational relaxation, a non-radiative process. This is indicated on the Jablonski
diagram as a curved arrow between vibrational levels. Vibrational relaxation is where the
energy deposited by the photon into the electron is given away to other vibrational modes as
kinetic energy. This kinetic energy may stay within the same molecule, or it may be transferred
to other molecules around the excited molecule, largely depending on the phase of the probed
sample. This process is also very fast, between 10-14 and 10-11 seconds. Since this is a very fast
transition, it is extremely likely to occur immediately following absorbance. This relaxation
occurs between vibrational levels, so generally electrons will not change from one electronic
level to another through this method.

However, if vibrational energy levels strongly overlap electronic energy levels, a possibility
exists that the excited electron can transition from a vibration level in one electronic state to
another vibration level in a lower electronic state. This process is called internal conversion
and mechanistically is identical to vibrational relaxation. It is also indicated as a curved line on
a Jablonski diagram, between two vibrational levels in different electronic states. Internal
Conversion occurs because of the overlap of vibrational and electronic energy states. As
energies increase, the manifold of vibrational and electronic eigenstates becomes ever closer
distributed. At energy levels greater than the first excited state, the manifold of vibrational
energy levels strongly overlap with the electronic levels. This overlap gives a higher degree of
probability that the electron can transition between vibrational levels that will lower the
electronic state. Internal conversion occurs in the same time frame as vibrational relaxation,
therefore, is a very likely way for molecules to dissipate energy from light perturbation.
However, due to a lack of vibrational and electronic energy state overlap and a large energy
difference between the ground state and first excited state, internal conversion is very slow for
an electron to return to the ground state. This slow return to the ground state lets other transitive
processes compete with internal conversion at the first electronically excited state. Both
vibrational relaxation and internal conversion occur in most perturbations, yet are seldom the
final transition.
 71

Figure 5.2.3: Possible scenario with absorption, internal conversion, and vibrational
relaxation processes shown.

5.2.4 Fluorescence

Another pathway for molecules to deal with energy received from photons is to emit a photon.
This is termed fluorescence. It is indicated on a Jablonski diagram as a straight line going down
on the energy axis between electronic states. Fluorescence is a slow process on the order of 10-
9
to 10-7 seconds; therefore, it is not a very likely path for an electron to dissipate energy
especially at electronic energy states higher than the first excited state. While this transition is
slow, it is an allowed transition with the electron staying in the same multiplicity manifold.
Fluorescence is most often observed between the first excited electron state and the ground
state for any particular molecule because at higher energies it is more likely that energy will be
dissipated through internal conversion and vibrational relaxation. At the first excited state,
fluorescence can compete in regard to timescales with other non-radiative processes. The
energy of the photon emitted in fluorescence is the same energy as the difference between the
eigenstates of the transition; however, the energy of fluorescent photons is always less than
that of the exciting photons. This difference is because energy is lost in internal conversion and
vibrational relaxation, where it is transferred away from the electron. Due to the large number
of vibrational levels that can be coupled into the transition between electronic states, measured
emission is usually distributed over a range of wavelengths.

Figure 5.2.4: Possible scenario with absorption, internal conversion and vibrational
relaxation, and fluorescence processes shown.

5.2.5 Intersystem Crossing

Yet another path a molecule may take in the dissipation of energy is called intersystem crossing.
This where the electron changes spin multiplicity from an excited singlet state to an excited
 72

triplet state. It is indicated by a horizontal, curved arrow from one column to another. This is
the slowest process in the Jablonski diagram, several orders of magnitude slower than
fluorescence. This slow transition is a forbidden transition, that is, a transition that based strictly
on electronic selection rules should not happen. However, by coupling vibrational factors into
the selection rules, the transition become weakly allowed and able to compete with the time
scale of fluorescence. Intersystem crossing leads to several interesting routes back to the
ground electronic state. One direct transition is phosphorescence, where a radiative transition
from an excited triplet state to a singlet ground state occurs. This is also a very slow, forbidden
transition. Another possibility is delayed fluorescence, the transition back to the first excited
singlet level, leading to the emitting transition to the ground electronic state.

Figure 5: Possible scenario with absorption, internal conversion, vibrational

relaxation, intersystem crossing, and phosphorescence processes shown.

Other non-emitting transitions from excited state to ground state exist and account for the
majority of molecules not exhibiting fluorescence or phosphorescent behavior. One process is
the energy transfer between molecules through molecular collisions (e.g., external conversion).
Another path is through quenching, energy transfer between molecules through overlap in
absorption and fluorescence spectra. These are non-emitting processes that will compete with
fluorescence as the molecule relaxes back down to the ground electronic state. In a Jablonski
diagram, each of these processes are indicated with a curved line going down to on the energy
scale.

5.2.5 Time Scales

It is important to note that a Jablonski diagram shows what sorts of transitions that can possibly
happen in a particular molecule. Each of these possibilities is dependent on the time scales of
each transition. The faster the transition, the more likely it is to happen as determined by
selection rules. Therefore, understanding the time scales each process can happen is imperative
to understanding if the process may happen. Below is a table of average time scales for basic
radiative and non-radiative processes.

Table 5.2.5: Average timescales for radiative and non-radiative processes

Transition Time Scale Radiative Process?
Internal Conversion 10-14 - 10-11 s no
Vibrational Relaxation 10-14 - 10-11 s no
Absorption 10-15 s yes
 73

Table 5.2.5: Average timescales for radiative and non-radiative processes

Transition Time Scale Radiative Process?
Phosphorescence 10-4 - 10-1 s yes
Intersystem Crossing 10-8 - 10-3 s no
Fluorescence 10-9 - 10-7 s yes

The exact values of the time scales are NOT examinable.

Each process outlined above can be combined into a single Jablonski diagram for a particular
molecule to give a overall picture of possible results of perturbation of a molecule by light
energy. Jablonski diagrams are used to easily visualize the complex inner workings of how
electrons change eigenstates in different conditions. Through this simple model, specific
quantum mechanical phenomena are easily communicated.

References
H. H. Jaffe and Albert L. Miller "The fates of electronic excitation energy" J. Chem. Educ.,
1966, 43 (9), p 469 DOI:10.1021/ed043p469
E. B. Priestley and A. Haug "Phosphorescence Spectrum of Pure Crystalline Naphthalene" J.
Chem. Phys. 49, 622 (1968), DOI:10.1063/1.1670118
Contributors Jordan McEwen (UCD)
 74

S2
IC Energy Absorption
VR
S1 ISC Non-radiative process
RELATIVE ENERGY

Absorption of light energy (hv) T1 Radiative process

e
nc
s ce IC: Internal Conversion
fluorescence
r e
ho VR: Vibrational Relaxation
osp ISC: Inter System Crossing
ph

S0

Above is a simplified Jablonski diagramme for the different energy states of an organic
molecule, e.g. a drug molecule or a photosensitiser.
You may use for study and assessment purposes.
It also includes the electron configurations of the highest occupied molecular orbitals to
illustrate the differences between the different singlet states and the triplet state.

5.3. Examples of reactions where light interacts with drug molecules, affecting
their stability.

5.3.1Indirect Electronic Excitation Energy Transfer

It is possible to produce electronic excited states of molecules indirectly by way of energy

transfer from other excited molecules. An example is provided by excitation of naphthalene as
the result of energy transfer from excited benzophenone. Benzophenone, C6H5COC6H5,
absorbs ultraviolet light with λmax=330nmλmax=330nm in an n→π∗n→π∗ transition.
Naphthalene does not absorb appreciably in this region. Yet irradiation of a mixture of
benzophenone and naphthalene with 330330-nmnm light produces phosphorescent emission
from naphthalene. Thus, benzophenone absorbs the light and transfers its excess energy to
naphthalene, which returns to the ground state by emission. Because the emission is from the
triplet state of naphthalene, benzophenone must be involved in exciting the naphthalene to the
triplet state. We may write the process as follows:
 75

Energy transfer does not involve a net change in electron spin. For this to hold for excitation
of naphthalene from S0 to T1, the energy transfer must come from triplet (not singlet)
benzophenone). The process of producing excited states in this way is
called photosensitization. Singlet-singlet, as well as triplet-triplet, energy transfers are
possible, but in all cases there is no net change in spin

Contributors

John D. Robert and Marjorie C. Caserio (1977) Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry,
second edition. W. A. Benjamin, Inc. , Menlo Park, CA. ISBN 0-8053-8329-8. This content
is copyrighted under the following conditions, "You are granted permission for individual,
educational, research and non-commercial reproduction, distribution, display and
performance of this work in any format."

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An extraordinary variety of reactions of organic compounds are known to occur under the
influence of visible and ultraviolet light. Some of these, such as the photochemical
halogenation of alkanes and photosynthesis in green plants, already have been discussed It is
not our purpose here to review organic photochemistry in detail - rather, we shall mention a
few types of important photochemical reactions and show how these can be explained by the
principles discussed in the preceding section.

Compounds have very different chemical behavior in their excited states compared to their
ground states. Not only is the energy much higher, but the molecular geometry and electronic
configurations are different. Intuitively, we expect that excited states of molecules, in which
two electrons occupy separate unfilled orbitals, would have substantial diradical character.
This is the case, especially for triplet states, as we shall see.
 76

5.3.2 Photodissociation Reactions

We have mentioned how chlorine molecules dissociate to chlorine atoms on absorption of near-
ultraviolet light and thereby cause radical-chain chlorination of saturated hydrocarbons 2-
Absorption of light by 2-propanone results in the formation of an excited state that has
sufficient energy to undergo cleavage of a C−C bond (the weakest bond in the molecule) and
form a methyl radical and an ethanoyl radical. This is a primary photochemical reaction:

The subsequent steps are dark reactions.

At temperatures much above room temperature, the ethanoyl radical breaks down to give
another methyl radical and carbon monoxide:

If this reaction goes to completion, the principal reaction products are ethane and carbon
monoxide:

2CH3⋅→CH3−CH3

If the ethanoyl radical does not decompose completely, then some 2,3-butanedione also is
formed. This reaction is quite important at room temperature or below:

Lesser amounts of methane and ketene also are formed as the result of disproportionation
reactions involving hydrogen-atom transfers of the types we have encountered previously in
radical reactions

The product-forming reactions, all depend on the first reaction above.

 77

5.3.3 Photoreduction of Diaryl Ketones

Diaryl ketones do not undergo photodissociation in the same way as alkyl ketones, probably
because cleavage to phenyl and other aryl radicals is unfavorable. Nevertheless, aromatic
ketones are photochemically reactive in the presence of compounds that can donate a hydrogen
atom, with the result that the carbonyl group is reduced.

The light is absorbed by 2 and the resulting activated ketone, 2∗, removes a hydrogen from
isopropyl alcohol:

Benzopinacol results from dimerization of the radicals 4,:

 78

Here is another example

The mechanism is similar to that for isopropyl alcohol as the reducing agent:

5.4 Singlet Oxygen Reactions

The ground state of molecular oxygen is unusual because it is a triplet state. Two electrons of
parallel spin occupy separate π orbitals of equal energy (degenerate), as shown schematically
in the next figure. From this we can understand why ordinary oxygen has the properties of a
diradical and reacts rapidly with many radicals, as in the radical-chain oxidation of
hydrocarbons

Figure 28-5: Electronic configurations of the two highest occupied (degenerate) ππ orbitals
of oxygen (O2)(O2) in the ground and excited states.
 79

Oxygen also efficiently quenches excited triplet states of other molecules (3A∗)(3A∗) and, in
accepting triplet energy, is itself promoted to an excited singlet state. Notice that the total spin
orientation is conserved:

Singlet oxygen is highly reactive toward many organic molecules and will form oxygenated
addition or substitution products. We will learn about that in the second semester.

We will continue with singlet oxygen reactions in the second semester