10th Standard Social Science EM 2020 Edition

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
STANDARD TEN
SOCIAL SCIENCE
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
00_Front_Page_EM.indd 1 11-04-2020 12:16:11

Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2019
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II

HOW TO USE THE BOOK
Learning Objectives
The scope of the lesson is presented.
Introduction
The subject to be discussed in the lesson is Introduced.
QR Code
Leads the students to animated audio,
video aids for getting experiential learning.
Do You Know?
Provides additional information related to the
subject in boxes to stir up the curiosity of students.
Infographs
Visual representations intended to make the complex simple and
make the students grasp difﬁcult concepts easily.
Fun with History

Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups.
Summary
Describes the main points brieﬂy in bullets for recapitulation.
Exercise
For self-study and self evaluation.
Glossary
Key words and technical terms
explained at the end of the lesson for clarity.
Reference
List of books and net sources for further reading.
ICT Corner
Using technology for learning activites, which enables
the students to access degital sources relevant to their lessons.
III

Table of Contents
Page.
Unit Contents Month
no.
History
1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01 June
2 The World between two World Wars 16 July
3 World war II 27 July
4 The World after World War II 40 August
Social and Religious Reform Movements in the August &

5 53
19th Century September
6 Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu 63 October
Anti-Colonial Movements and the Birth of

7 75 October
Nationalism
8 Nationalism: Gandhian Phase 89 November
9 Freedom Struggle in Tamil Nadu 105 November
November &
10 Social Transformation in Tamil Nadu 115
December
Geography
1 India - Location, Relief and Drainage 129 June
2 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 144 June
3 India - Agriculture 154 July
4 India - Resources and Industries 170 August
India - Population, Transport, Communication

5 186 August
and Trade
6 Physical Geography of Tamil Nadu 200 October
7 Human Geography of Tamil Nadu 219 November
IV

Civics
1 Indian Constitution 239 June
2 Central Government 248 July
3 State Government 259 August
4 India’s Foreign Policy 269 October
5 India’s International Relations 278 November
Economics
Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an
1 292 June
Introduction
2 Globalization and Trade 303 July
3 Food Security and Nutrition 311 August
4 Government and Taxes 321 October
5 Industrial Clusters in Tamil Nadu 328 November
Let's use the QR code in the text books!

• Download DIKSHA app from the Google Play Store.
• Tap the QR code icon to scan QR codes in the textbook.
• Point the device and focus on the QR code.
• On successful scan, content linked to the QR code gets listed.
• Note: For ICT corner, Digi Links QR codes use any other QR scanner.

HISTORY

Unit - 1
Outbreak of
World War I and
Its Aftermath
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
The race for colonies leading to rivalry and clashes among the great powers of Europe
Emergence of Japan as the strongest and most aggressive power in East Asia
Colonialism's impact on Africa
Causes, course and results of the First World War
Treaty of Versailles and its provisions
Causes, course and outcome of the Russian Revolution
Foundation, functioning and failure of the League of Nations
Introduction international peace organisation, namely the

League of Nations.
1914 is a turning point in world history. The
political and social processes that began in 1789 1.1 Scramble for Colonies
culminated in the First World War that broke
Capitalist Countries’ Race for
out in that year and decisively shaped the course
Markets
of the twentieth century. Historians therefore
The aim of capitalistic industry was to
call this as ‘the long nineteenth century’. This
produce more and more. The surplus wealth
was the first industrial war that drew on the
thus produced was used to build more factories,
economic resources of the entire world, and also
railways, steamships and other such undertakings.
affected large sections of the civilian population. Revolution in the means of communication and
The political map of the world was redrawn. transportation in the latter half of the nineteenth
Three major empires lay shattered by the end century facilitated the process of European
of the War: Germany, Austria–Hungary, and expansion in Africa and other places.
the Ottomans. The biggest outcome of the War
A striking feature of nineteenth century
was the Russian Revolution. It was a unique
was that Europe emerged as the dominant
event as well as the first revolution of its kind power while Asia and Africa were colonized
in world history. For the first time, countries and exploited. Within Europe, England held
tried to bring about world peace through the a pre-eminent position as the world leader of
League of Nations. In this lesson, we discuss the capitalism. An ever-growing demand for markets
circumstances leading to the outbreak of the and raw materials made the capitalist powers race
First World War and its repercussions, including around the world for expanding their empire for
the Russian Revolution and the formation of an exploitation.
1
01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 1 11-04-2020 12:19:35

Rise of Monopoly Capitalism Asia: The Rise of Japan
After 1870, the alliance of industry and In Asia, Japan during this period (Meiji
finance seeking profits in markets for goods and era from 1867 to 1912), imitating Western
capital, which was an essential characteristic of nations had become their equal in many
imperialism, became evident in the latter half respects. Though the outlook of the rulers
of the nineteenth century. The old ideas of free still remained feudal, Japan took to Western
trade collapsed. There were trusts in the USA education and machinery. With a modern army
and cartels in Germany. and navy, Japan had emerged as an advanced
industrialised power. In 1894 she forced a war
A trust is an industrial organisation engaged
on China. The crushing defeat of China by
in the production or distribution of any
little Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
commodity. The trust would possess adequate
surprised the world. Despite the warning of the
control over the supply and price of that
three great powers Russia, Germany and France
commodity to its own advantage.
– Japan annexed the Liaotung peninsula with
Port Arthur. By this action Japan proved that it
Imperialism and its Essential
was the strongest nation of the East Asia.
Characteristics
Capitalism inevitably led to imperialism. Japan, however, in view of the pressure
According to Lenin, imperialism is the highest mounted by European Powers, soon gave up its
claim over Port Arthur. Russia took advantage
stage of capitalism. Besides being a market for
of this and sent a large army to Manchuria.
surplus goods, colonies served another purpose.
Japan entered into an alliance with England
Imperialism was not just about colonies. It
in 1902 and demanded that Russia withdraw
became a total system, the logic of which was
troops from Manchuria. Russia underestimated
total militarisation and total war.
Japan. In 1904 the war began between the two
1.2 Rivalry of Great Powers countries. In this Russo-Japanese War, Japan
defeated Russia and got back Port Arthur. After
Europe this War Japan entered the “circle of the great
In the nineteenth century, European powers Powers”.
had colonised many other countries. By1880, Strong-arm Diplomacy of Japan
most of the Asian countries had been colonised. After 1905 Japan took control of Korean
Only Africa was left. The occupation, division domestic and foreign policy. The assassination
and colonisation of Africa took place from 1881 of a prominent Japanese diplomat provided the
to 1914. After 1870, England, France, Belgium, excuse in 1910 for Japan’s annexation of Korea.
Italy and Germany joined in the scramble for The confusion in China following the downfall
colonies. of the Manchu dynasty in 1912 provided
Japan an opportunity for further expansion.
Clashes amongst Great Powers
Japan demanded the transfer of German rights
Despite the lead in industrial growth and in Shantung to Japan and the recognition of
the control of a vast empire England was not Japanese hold over Manchuria. This strong-arm
satisfied. England was in competition with diplomacy aroused the hostility of both China
Germany and the United States, which were and the European Powers.
producing cheaper manufactured goods and
Colonisation and its Fallout
thus capturing England’s markets. National
rivalry led to frequent clashes between these In 1876 barely 10 percent of Africa was
great powers in Asia and Africa and Europe. under European rule. By 1900 practically the
Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 2

N
THE WORLD WAR I W E
01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 3
S
AUSTRIA - HUNGARY
BELGIUM
RUSSIA
GREAT BRITAIN
CANADA
GERMANY
BOSNIA
FRANCE
3
SERBIA
ITALY TURKEY JAPAN
MOROCCO GREECE
LEGEND INDIA
TRIPLE ENTENTE AFRICA
BRITISH EMPIRE
FRENCH EMPIRE
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA
GERMAN EMPIRE
ITALIAN EMPIRE
NEW ZEALAND
AUSTRO -
HUNGARIAN EMPIRE
OTHERS Not to Scale
Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath
11-04-2020 12:19:35
whole of Africa was colonised. Britain, France Thus was formed the Triple Entente of Britain,
and Belgium had divided the continent between France and Russia.
them, leaving a few areas for Germany and Violent Forms of Nationalism
Italy. Britain, France, Russia and Germany also
established “spheres of influence” in China. With the growth of nationalism, the attitude
Japan took over Korea and Taiwan. France of “my country right or wrong I support it”
conquered Indo-China. The US took the developed. The love for one country demanded
Philippines from Spain, and Britain and Russia hatred for another country. England’s jingoism,
agreed to partition Iran. France’s chauvinism and Germany’s Kultur were
militant forms of nationalism, contributing
The first European attempts to carve out decisively to the outbreak of War.
colonies in Africa resulted in bloody battles.
The French had to fight a long and bitter war Aggressive Attitude of German
to conquer Algeria and Senegal. The British lost Emperor
to the Zulus (1879) and to the Sudanese Army Emperor Kaiser
(1884). The Italian army suffered a devastating Wilhelm II of Germany
defeat at the hands of an Ethiopian army at proclaimed that Germany
Adowa (1896). would be the leader of
the world. The German
1.3 Causes, Course and navy was expanded. The
Results of World War I sea being considered a
preserve of England ever
(a) Causes
since Napoleon’s defeat Kaiser Wilhelm II
European Alliances and
at Trafalgar (1805), Germany’s aggressive
Counter-Alliances
diplomacy and rapid building of naval bases
In 1900 five of the European Great Powers convinced Britain that a German navy could
were divided into two armed camps. One camp be directed only against her. Therefore, Britain
consisted of the Central Powers-Germany, embarked on a naval race, which heightened
Austria-Hungary and Italy. Under the guidance the tension between the two powers.
of Bismarck, they had formed the Triple Alliance Hostility of France towards
in 1882. The understanding was that Germany Germany
and Austria would help each other. The other
France and Germany were old rivals.
camp consisted of France and Russia. Their
Bitter memories of the defeat of 1871 and loss
alliance was formed in 1894 with the promise of
of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany rankled in
mutual help if Germany attacked either of them.
the minds of the French. German interference
An isolated Britain wanted to break her isolation
in Morocco added to the bitterness. The British
and approached Germany twice but in vain. As
agreement with France over Morocco was not
Japan was increasingly hostile towards Russia,
consented by Germany. So Kaiser Wilhelm
as France was the ally of Russia, it preferred to
II intentionally recognised the independence
ally with Britain (1902). The Anglo-Japanese
of the Sultan and demanded an international
Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance
conference to decide on the future of Morocco.
with Britain to resolve colonial disputes over
Morocco and Egypt. This resulted in the Entente Imperial Power Politics in the
Cordiale (1904). In return for letting the French Balkans
have a free hand in Morocco, France agreed
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908,
to recognize the British occupation of Egypt.
an attempt at creating a strong and modern
Britain subsequently reached an agreement
government in Turkey, provided both Austria
with Russia over Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet.

and Russia with the opportunity to resume attacked and defeated Turkish forces in the first
their activities in the Balkans. Austria and Balkan War (1912–13). According to the Treaty
Russia met and agreed that Austria should of London signed in May 1913 the new state of
annexe Bosnia and Herzegovina, while Russia Albania was created and the other Balkan states
should have freedom to move her warships, divided up Macedonia between them. Turkey
through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, was reduced to the area around Constantinople.
to the Mediterranean. Soon after this, Austria The division of Macedonia, however, did
announced the annexation of Bosnia and not satisfy Bulgaria. Bulgaria attacked Serbia
Herzegovina. Austria’s action aroused intense and Greece. But Bulgaria was easily defeated.
opposition from Serbia. Germany gave Austria The Second Balkan War ended with the signing
firm support. Germany went to the extent of of the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.
promising that if Austria invaded Serbia and
in consequence Russia helped Serbia, Germany Immediate Cause
would come to Austria’s assistance. The enmity The climax to these events in the Balkans
between Austria and Serbia led to the outbreak occurred in Sarajevo in Bosnia. On 28 June
of war in 1914. 1914 the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to
Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, was
The Balkan Wars
assassinated by Princip, a Bosnian Serb. Austria
Turkey was a powerful country in the south saw in this an opportunity to eliminate Serbia
west of Europe in the first half of eighteenth as an independent state. Germany thought
century. The Ottoman empire extended over that it should strike first. It declared war on
the Balkans and across Hungary to Poland. The Russia on 1 August. Germany had no quarrel
Empire contained many non-Turkish people in with France, but because of the Franco-Russian
the Balkans. Both the Turks and their subjects Alliance, the German army which was planning
of different nationalities in the Balkans indulged a war against both France and Russia wanted to
in the most frightful massacres and atrocities. use the occasion to its advantage. The German
The Armenian genocide is a frightful example. violation of Belgian neutrality forced Britain to
enter War.

(b) Course of the War

Two Warring Camps
Black Sea

Central Powers

The warring nations were divided into
two. The Central powers consisted of Germany,

Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Italy
which was earlier with Germany and Austria
Mediterranean Sea

had left, as her attempt to recover Trentino in
north east Italy, where Italians lived in majority
Taking advantage of the political and but remained as part and parcel of Austria-
economic instability of the Turkish Empire Hungary, was not supported by Germany. Italy
from the second half of the eighteenth century, remained a neutral country when the War broke
Greeks followed by others began to secede, one out. But it decided to enter the War hoping to
after another, from Turkish control. Macedonia gain the territory in the north - east. Britain,
had a mixed population. There were rivalries France and Italy signed the secret Treaty of
among Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and later London in April 1915, by which Italy agreed
Montenegro for the control of it. In March 1912 to enter the War against the Central Powers in
they formed the Balkan League. The League return for this territory after the War.
5 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

Allies the Germans. Paris was thus saved. The battle of
Nine states that opposed the Central Marne is a memorable for trench warfare.
powers were: Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the
United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and
Greece. Romania and Greece declared war on
the Central Powers in 1916 and 1917 respectively
but played little part in the war. Most Americans
wanted their country to remain neutral and so
in the first three years the United States gave
only moral support and valuable material aid to
Britain and France.
Tsar’s Abortive Attempts Battle of Tannenberg
for Peace
Battle of Verdun
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia suggested to the
Powers that they meet together to bring about Between February and July 1916, the
an era of universal peace. In response, two Peace Germans attacked Verdun, the famous fortress
Conferences were held at The Hague in Holland in the French line. In the five-month Battle of
in 1899 and 1907 but in vain. Verdun two million men took part and half of
War in Western or French Front them were killed. The British offensive against
Germans occurred near the River Somme.
Germany steamrolled and smashed the
In this four-month Battle of Somme Britain
resistance of the people of Belgium. On the side
lost 20,000 men on the first day. The battle of
of the Allies, the burden of the fighting fell on
the French army. Within a month Paris seemed Verdun, however, decided the fortunes of the
almost doomed. War in favour of the Allies.
Battles of Tannenberg and Marne War in Eastern or Russian front
Meanwhile Russian forces invaded East In the eastern front, Russian troops
Prussia. Germany defeated them decisively. repeatedly defeated the Austrians. But the
At the Battle of the Marne (early September Russians were in turn defeated by the Germans.
1914), the French succeeded in pushing back Russia had the worst trained and equipped
army and therefore Russian losses were the
Trench Warfare: Trenches or ditches dug by greatest. In 1917, the Tsarist regime in Russia
troops enabled soldiers to safely stand and was overthrown in a revolution. Russia wanted
protect themselves from enemy fire. The main
peace and consequently it signed the Treaty of
lines of trenches were connected to each other
Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany.
and to the rear by a series of linking trenches
through which food, ammunition, fresh troops, Minor Theatres of War
mail, and orders were delivered. In the Middle East
Turkey also fought on the side of the central
powers.Though Turkey met with initial success
and the Allies suffered reverses, particularly
in Mesopotamia and Gallipoli, ultimately
Turkey was defeated.The Turks tried to attack
Suez Canal, but were repulsed. Britain attacked
Turkey in Iraq, and later in Palestine and Syria.

In the Far East Naval Battles and America’s
China also joined the allies. Japan was able Entry into the War
to capture the province of Kiauchau given by the In 1916 a naval battle (Battle of Jutland)
Germans to China in the province of Shantung. had taken place in the North Sea. The British
There was no war in the Far East. Japan made won the battle. Thereafter Germany started
use of the occasion to threaten China into their submarine warfare and their cruisers
ceding valuable concessions and privileges. went roaming about, interfering with the
shipping of the Allies. One of these was the
In the Balkans
famous Emden, which bombarded Madras. As
The Austro-German army in coordination a counter measure to the blockade the Germans
with Bulgaria crushed Serbia. Serbia came proclaimed in January 1917 that they would sink
under German rule. Rumania watched the even neutral ships in certain waters. Lusitania,
course of the War and in August 1916 joined an American ship, was torpedoed by a German
the Allies. Rumania also passed under Austro- submarine. There was a lot of resentment in the
German occupation. USA and President Wilson declared war against
Germany in April 1917. America’s entry with
Fate of Colonies of Germany in
its enormous resources made Allied victory a
Africa
foregone conclusion.
The German colonies in western and
eastern Africa were also attacked by the Allies.
As these colonies were quite far from Germany
they could not receive any immediate help, and
therefore surrendered to the Allies.
Italy falls to Austrian onslaught
Italy formally joined the Allies in the
war in May 1916. Italians were fighting with
the Austrians and continued to sustain their
resistance. But when the Germans came to Sinking of Lusitania
Austria’s help, the Italians collapsed.
(c) The Armistice and Treaty of
Central Powers’ Victories Versailles
The Central Powers successfully occupied Germany ultimately surrendered in
Belgium and a part of France in the north-east, November 1918. The armistice took effect
Poland, Serbia and Romania. from 11 November 1918. Germany was
The epicentre of the struggle was the forced to accept harsh terms by the political
western front and the seas. As the Allies situation at home with the abdication of the
controlled the sea-routes, they cut off the supply Kaiser William II.
of food and other material reaching the Central Peace Conference in Paris
Powers. In Germany and Austria women and The Peace Conference
children suffered from hunger and privation. opened in Paris in January
Germany attacked England by air. Bombs were 1919, two months after the
thrown on London and places where there were signing of the armistice.
major factories. Later aeroplanes were used for Woodrow Wilson (USA),
targeting civilian population. The Germans Lloyd George (Prime
introduced poison gas and soon both sides Minister of England) and A News
resorted to its use. Clemenceau (Prime Minister paper Report

of France) played a very important part in Separate treaties were drawn up and signed
the deliberations. by the Allies with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria
and Turkey. The Treaty with Turkey (Treaty of
Sevres), though accepted by the Sultan, failed
because of the resistance of Mustafa Kemal
Pasha and his followers.
Fallout of the First World War
The First World War left a deep impact
on European society and polity. Through
Paris Peace Conference conscription, and through air raids, the War had
involved and affected far more of the population
Faced with a threat of a renewed war, the than in the past. 8 million had died in four years,
German government was forced to agree to the while more than twice as many were wounded,
terms. On 28 June, 1919 the peace treaty was and many crippled for life. Millions more had
signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. succumbed to the worldwide influenza of 1918.
Provisions of the Treaty The outcome, in all countries, was imbalance
1. Germany was found guilty of starting the between the sexes—a shortage of men. Soldiers
War and therefore was to pay reparations came to be placed above civilians.
for the losses suffered. All Central Powers The War and its aftermath turned out to be
were directed to pay war indemnity. a stirring period of history. The most striking of
2. The German army was to be limited to all was the rise and consolidation of the Soviet
100,000 men. A small navy was allowed. Union, the U.S.S.R or the Union of Socialist
3. The union of Austria and Germany was and Soviet Republics, as it was called. America
forbidden. entered the War as a debtor country but it
4. All German colonies became mandated emerged as the money-lender to the world in
territories under the League of Nations. the aftermath of the War.
5. Germany was forced to revoke the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk (with Russia) and Bucharest Another outstanding event of this period
(Bulgaria). was the awakening of the colonies and their
6. Alsace–Lorraine was returned to France. inspired attempts to gain freedom.
7. The former Russian territories of Finland, Mustafa Kemal Pasha played a remarkable
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be role for Turkey’s rebirth as a nation. Kemal
independent Pasha modernised Turkey and changed it out of
8. Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark all recognition.
and some small districts to Belgium. Impact on India
9. Poland was recreated.
10. The Rhineland was to be occupied by the The First World War had a significant
Allies. The area on the east bank of the impact on India. The British recruited a vast
Rhine was to be demilitarized. contingent of Indians to serve in Europe, Africa
and West Asia. After the War, the soldiers came
President Wilson laid down his Fourteen back with new ideas which had an impact on
Points, which were to be followed by the Allies. the Indian society. India contributed £ 230
The most important one he highlighted was the million in cash and over £ 125 million in loans
need for ‘a general association of nations for towards war expenses. India also sent war
the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of materials to the value £ 250 million. This caused
political independence and territorial integrity enormous economic distress. There were grain
to great and small states like’. riots as poor people looted shops. Towards the

end of the War India too suffered under the account of industrialisation were aggrieved as
world-wide epidemic of influenza. (£ - symbol they got very low wages.
of Pound sterling) Role of Revolutionaries
The War conditions led to the rise of Home The spread of revolutionary ideas among
Rule Movement in India. The Congress was the intelligentsia and their repression by the
reunited during the war. Tsar’s government made the socialistically
India and Indians had taken an active part inclined students to carry their propaganda
in the War believing that Britain would reward to the peasantry. Soon, based on the Marxist
India's loyalty. But only disappointment was philosophy, new ideas began to take shape and
in store.Thus the War had multiple effects on a Social and Democratic Labour Party was
Indian society, economy and polity. formed.
1.4 Russian Revolution Autocracy of the Tsar

and its Impact Tsar Nicholas II
of Romanov dynasty
Introduction had little experience of
The biggest outcome government. His wife
of the War, the Russian Tsarina Alexandra was
revolution, was unique in a dominant personality
world history. The socio- and Nicholas was under
political and economic her strong influence. Tsar Nicholas II
conditions prevailing in Determined that Russia
Russia were brought to a should not be left out in the scramble for
head by the vast losses and sufferings caused colonial possessions, Nicholas encouraged
by the War. There were really two revolutions Russian expansion in Manchuria. This
in the year 1917, one in March and the other in provoked a war with Japan in 1904. The
November. On the abdication of the Tsar the resulting Russian defeat led to strikes and
bourgeois government which followed, wanted riots. On 22 January 1905 Father Gapon, a
to continue the war. But the people were priest, organised a march of men, women
against it. So there was a second great uprising and children on the Tsar’s Winter Palace in
under the guidance their leader Lenin, who St. Petersburg demanding a representative
seized power and established a communist national assembly and agrarian and industrial
government in Russia. reforms. But police and soldiers fired on the
procession. Hundreds were killed and many
Causes of the Revolution
thousands wounded. The events of this day
Social Causes (known as Bloody Sunday) led to riots, strikes
In Russia Peter the Great and Catherine and violence. Nicholas was forced to grant a
II attempted westernisation without changing constitution and establish a parliament, the
the social conditions. The Russian peasants Duma. This was no longer satisfactory to the
were serfs tied to lands owned by wealthy left-wing parties that formed a Soviet (council)
Russians. After Russia’s defeat in the Crimean of worker's delegates in St Petersburg, led by
War, some reforms were introduced. In 1861 Trotsky.
Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom and Opposition to Tsar and
emancipated the serfs. But they were not given Dissolution of Duma
enough land to subsist. These peasants became
the powder keg for the revolution. The labourers The outbreak of the First World War had
and workers whose number had increased on temporarily strengthened the monarchy, as

Russia allied to France and Britain. As there The revolutionary Tamil poet
was rumour of a palace revolution. Nicholas Bharathiyar cheerfully welcomed the
made himself the Commander-in-Chief of the revolution in Russia by penning these
army. At the end of 1916, Rasputin, who had poetic lines…..
a domineering influence over the Tsar and the
The Mother Great, the Power supreme,
Tsarina, was murdered by a member of the Tsar’s
family. The members of the St. Petersburg Soviet Turned her glance benign towards Russia,
were arrested. Whenever the Duma opposed the The Revolution of the Age,
Tsar’s move, it was dissolved and fresh elections Behold the wonder, rises high
held. Without change of government policy, the The tyrant howling falls down limp,
fourth Duma ended with the revolution of 1917. The shoulders of the heavenly gods,
Popular Uprisings Are swelling now with joy and pride,
The bread shortages among women textile Eyes hot with unshed tears, the demons,
workers, many with husbands in the army, Perish. O people of the world,
forced them to go on strike anyway and march Behold this mighty change!
through the factory areas of Petrograd, the
capital of the Russian Empire. Masses of women Provisional Government
workers demanding “Bread for workers” waved There were two parallel bodies to take
their arms towards factory workers and shouted on government functions. One was of the
“Come out!” “Stop work!” The city’s 400,000 bourgeois politicians of the old state Duma,
workers joined the movement the next day (24 comprising propertied classes. On the other
February). there were workers’ delegates drawn together in
a workers’ council, or Soviet. Those in the Duma
were able to form a provincial government
with the consent of the Soviets. The Soviet was
dominated by Mensheviks and the minority
Bolsheviks were timid and undecided. The
situation changed with the arrival of Lenin.
Failure of Provisional Government
Lenin was in Switzerland when the
revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued
Revolution of 1917 revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the Soviets’
soon won over the workers’ leaders. Devastated
Abdication of Tsar by war time shortages, the people were attracted
The government used the troops to break by the slogan of ‘Bread, Peace and Land.’ But
the strike. But soon mutinies broke out in the the Provisional government made two grave
barracks. The Tsar ordered a declaration of mistakes. First, it postponed a decision on the
martial law. But his order was not broadcast demand for the redistribution of land and the
in the city, as there was no one to do this job. other was government decided to continue with
The Tsar then tried to return to Petrograd. The the war. Frustrated peasant soldiers deserted
railway workers stopped his train. The generals their posts and joined those who had resorted
at the front and some leaders in Petrograd, to land grabbing. This intensified the rising in
frightened by these developments pleaded with Petrograd led by Bolsheviks. The government
the Tsar to abdicate. On 15 March, Nicholas II banned Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks.
abdicated. Trotsky was also arrested.

Takeover by the Bolshevik Party Global Influence of the Russian
under Lenin’s leadership Revolution
In October Lenin persuaded the The revolution fired people’s imagination

Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on across the world. In many countries, communist
immediate revolution. Trotsky prepared parties were formed. The Russian communist
a detailed plan. On 7 November the key government encouraged the colonies to fight
government buildings, including the Winter for their freedom. Debates over key issues, land
Palace, the Prime Minister’s headquarters, reforms, social welfare, workers’ rights, and
were seized by armed factory workers and gender equality started taking place in a global
revolutionary troops. On 8 November 1917 context.
a new Communist government was in office Pravda is a Russian word meaning “Truth”.
in Russia. Its head this time was Lenin. The It was the official newspaper of the
Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party of the Soviet Union from
Communist Party. 1918 to 1991.
Lenin was born in
1870 near the Middle 1.5 League of Nations
Volga to educated
parents. Influenced by Structure and Composition
the ideas of Karl Marx,
The Covenant of the League was worked
Lenin believed that
out at the Paris Peace Conference and included
the way for freedom Lenin
in each of the treaties that were signed after
was through mass action. Lenin gained the
the First World War. It was largely due to the
support of a small majority (bolshinstvo),
pressure from President Wilson that this
known as Bolsheviks, which became the
task was accomplished. In drawing up the
Bolshevik Party. His opponents, in minority
constitution of this organization, the ideas of
(menshinstvo), were called Mensheviks.
Britain and America prevailed.
The League which was formed in 1920
Outcome of the Revolution
consisted of five bodies: the Assembly, the
The Russian Communist Party Council, the Secretariat, the Permanent
eliminated illiteracy and poverty in Russia Court of Justice, and the International Labour
within a record time. Russian industry and Organisation. Each member-country was
agriculture developed remarkably. Women represented in the Assembly. The Council was
were given equal rights, including rights to the executive of the League. Britain, France,
vote. Industries and banks were nationalised. Italy, Japan and the United States were originally
Land was announced as social property. declared permanent members of the Council.
Land was distributed to poor peasants. Lenin Each member had one vote and since all
thought the most important factor for the decisions had to be unanimous, even the small
fall of Provisional government was its failure nations possessed the right of veto.
to withdraw from World War. So Lenin The secretariat of the League of Nations
immediately appealed for peace. Unmindful was located at Geneva. Its first Secretary General
of the harsh terms dictated by the Central was Sir Eric Drummond from Britain. The staff
Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from of the secretariat was appointed by the Secretary
the War to concentrate on the formation of General in consultation with the Council.
new government. In March 1918 the Treaty of The International Court of Justice was set up
Brest– Litovsk was signed.

in The Hague. The court was made of fifteen After two years the US and Russia began to
judges. The International Labour Organisation participate in the non-political activities of the
comprised a secretariat and general conference League.
which included four representatives from each
country. Violations
Objectives of the League One of the major problems confronting

the European powers was how to achieve
The two-fold objective of the League of disarmament. In 1925 the Council of the League
Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace set up a commission to hold a Disarmament
in the world and to promote international Conference to sort out the problem. But the
cooperation in economic and social affairs. proposed conference materialised only in
The League intended to act as conciliator February 1932. In this Conference, Germany’s
and arbitrator and thereby resolve a dispute demand of equality of arms with France was
in its early stages. If wars should break out rejected. In October Hitler withdrew Germany
despite arbitration, the members should apply from the Conference and the League.
sanctions to the aggressor first economic and
Japan attacked Manchuria in September
then military.
1931 and the League condemned Japan. So
The difficulty in achieving the objectives Japan also followed the example of Germany
was increased from the beginning by the and resigned from the League. In the context
absence of three Great Powers namely USA (did of Italy’s attack on Ethiopia, the League applied
not become a member), Germany (a defeated sanctions. As the sanctions came into effect, Italy
nation) and Russia. The latter two joined in resigned from the League in 1937. Thereafter
1926 and 1934. While Germany resigned in the League was a passive witness to events,
1933, Russia was expelled in 1939. taking no part in the crises over the Rhineland,
Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. The last
Activities of the League decisive action it took was in December 1939
The League was called in to settle a number when Russia was expelled for her attack on
of disputes between 1920 and 1925. The League Finland. The Assembly did not meet again and
was successful in three issues. In 1920 a dispute the League of Nations was finally dissolved in
arose between Sweden and Finland over the 1946.
sovereignty of the Aaland Islands. The League
ruled that the islands should go to Finland. In Causes of Failure
the following year the League was asked to settle The League appeared to be an organisation
the frontier between Poland and Germany in of those who were victorious in the First World
Upper Silesia, which was successfully resolved War.
by the League. The third dispute was between
Since it lacked the military power of its
Greece and Bulgaria in 1925. Greece invaded
own, it could not enforce its decisions.
Bulgaria, and the League ordered a ceasefire.
After investigation it blamed Greece and The founders of this peace organisation
decided that Greece was to pay reparations. underestimated the power of nationalism. The
Thus the League had been successful until principle of “collective security’ could not be
signing of the Locarno Treaty in 1925. By this applied in actual practice.
treaty, Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, When Italy, Japan and Germany, headed
and Italy mutually guaranteed peace in Western by dictators, refused to be bound by the orders
Europe. Thereafter Germany joined the League of the League, Britain and France were the only
and was given a permanent seat on the Council. major powers to act decisively.

SUMMARY
Capitalistic countries’ ever growing demand for markets and raw materials leading to scramble
for colonies and the resultant clashes amongst great powers in Europe are discussed.
Rise of Japan as an Imperial Power in Asia is highlighted
Division of Europe into two warring camps and the resultant alliances and counter-alliances
are detailed.
Important factors responsible for the outbreak of World War I such as growth of violent forms
of Nationalism, aggressive attitude of Germany, France’s hostility towards Germany for the loss
of its territories, Alsace and Lorrain, power politics in Balkans are explained.
America’s entry into the War in the context of launch of submarine battles by Germany and the
decisive victory won by the Allies are outlined.
Paris Peace Conference and the provisions of Versailles Treaty are analysed.
Fallout of the First World War, with focus on Russian Revolution causes, course and impact are
elaborated.
First world peace organisation the League of Nations and its role in preventing wars and
promoting peace are critically examined.
GLOSSARY
monopoly exclusive possession or control முற்றுரிமை
devastating highly destructive or damage பேரழிவு
blind patriotism, especially in the கண்மூடித்தனமான

jingoism
pursuit of aggressive foreign policy நாட்டுப்பற்று
chauvinism extreme patriotism அதிதீவிரப்பற்று
thinking highly of German civilization ஜெர்மானியக் கலாச்சாரத்தை

kultur
and culture மிக உயர்வாக நினைப்பது
repulse drive back எதிரியை விரட்டிஅடித்தல்
torpedo attack or sink (a ship) with a torpedo மூழ்கடி
characteristic of the middle class,

typically with reference to its perceived
bourgeois முதலாளித்துவம்
materialistic values or conventional
attitudes
intellectuals or highly educated people
as a group, especially when regarded அறிவுஜீவிகள்,
intelligentsia
as possessing culture and political நுண்ணறிவாளர்கள்
influence

5. In the battle of Tannenberg suffered
heavy losses.
EXERCISE
6. as Prime Minister represented
France in Paris Peace Conference.
I C
hoose the correct 7. Locarno Treaty was signed in the year
answer .
1. What were the three
major empires shattered by the end of III Choose the correct statement
First World War? 1. i) The Turkish Empire contained many
a)
G ermany, Austria Hungary, and the non-Turkish people in the Balkans.
Ottomans ii) Turkey fought on the side of the central
b) Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia powers
c) Spain, Portugal and Italy iii) Britain attacked Turkey and captured
d) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy Constantinople
2. Which country emerged as the strongest in iv) Turkey’s attempt to attack Suez Canal but
East Asia towards the close of nineteenth were repulsed.
century? a) i) and ii) are correct
a) China b) Japan b) i) and iii) are correct
c) Korea d) Mongolia c) iv) is correct
3. Who said “imperialism is the highest d) i), ii) and iv) are correct
stage of capitalism”? 2. Assertion: Germany and the United States
a) Lenin b) Marx were producing cheaper manufactured
c) Sun Yat-sen d) Mao Tsetung goods and capturing England’s markets.
4. What is the Battle of Marne remembered Reason: Both the countries produced
for? required raw material for their industries.
a) air warfare b) trench warfare a) Both A and R are correct
c) submarine warfare d) ship warfare b) A is right but R is not the correct reason
5. To which country did the first Secretary c) Both A and R are wrong
General of League of Nations belong? d) R is right but A is wrong.
a) Britain b) France 3. Assertion: The first European attempts
c) Dutch d) USA to carve out colonies in Africa resulted in
6. Which country was expelled from the bloody battles.
League of Nations for attacking Finland? Reason: There was stiff resistance from the
a) Germany b) Russia native population.
c) Italy d) France a) Both A and R are correct
II Fill in the blanks b) A is right but R is not the correct reason
1. Japan forced a war on China in the year c) Both A and R are wrong
. d) R is right but A is wrong.
2. The new state of Albania was created IV Match the following
according to the Treaty of signed in 1. Treaty of Brest- Litovsk - Versailles
May 1913. 2. Jingoism - Turkey
3. Japan entered into an alliance with 3. Kemal Pasha - Russia with
England in the year . Germany
4. In the Balkans had mixed 4. Emden - England
population. 5. Hall of Mirrors - Madras

V Answer briefly VIII Map Work
1. How do you assess the importance of Mark the following countries on the
Sino-Japanese War? world map.
2. Name the countries in the Triple Entente. 1. Great Britain 2. Germany
3. What were the three militant forms of 3. France 4. Italy
nationalism in Europe?
5. Morocco 6. Turkey
4. What do you know of trench warfare?
7. Serbia 8. Bosnia
5. What was the role of Mustafa Kemal
Pasha? 9. Greece 10. Austria-Hungary
6. List out any two causes for the failure of 11. Bulgaria 12. Rumania
the League of Nations.
VI Answer the following in detail
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Discuss the main causes of the First 1. R.D. Cormvell, World History in the
World War. Twentieth Century, London: Longman,
2. Highlight the provisions of the Treaty of 1972
Versailles relating to Germany.
2. David Thomson, Europe since Napoleon,
3. Explain the course of the Russian
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990
Revolution under the leadership of
Lenin. 3. Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of extremes,
4. Estimate the work done by the League of 1914 – 1991, London: Abacus, 1994.
Nations. 4. Hew Strachan, The Oxford Illustrated
VII Activity History of the First World War. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2014).
1. Students can be taught to mark the places
of battles and the capital cities of the
countries that were engaged in the War.
ICT CORNER
Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath
Through this activity you will learn

about Time Line Events of World War -I
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Click on ‘Learn’ in menu and Select ‘Interactive Timeline’
• Drag the Time line bar and click to see the events
Website URL: https://www.theworldwar.org/

Unit - 2
The World
between Two
World Wars
Learning Objectives
 T he post-World War I developments leading to the Great Depression.
 T he unjust provisions of Treaty of Versailles and the rise of fascist
governments led by Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany.
 A nti-colonial struggles and the decolonisation process in the colonized
world: Case Studies of Indo-French in South-East Asia and India in
South Asia.
 E uropean Colonisation in Africa – The case of Britain in South Africa.
 I ndependence struggles and political developments in South America
Introduction war-time boom would continue. However,

when the War came to an end, the industries
The First World War shattered the global that grew to meet war-time requirements had
capitalist system based on European imperialism.
to be abandoned or modified. The situation
The European powers were gravely weakened by
was made worse by the political complications
the War, financially and politically. The conflict
caused by the Treaty of Versailles. A new wave
between the workers and the ruling classes that
of economic nationalism which expressed
controlled the government became intense.
As a result of this Fascism emerged in Italy and itself in protectionism or in tariff barriers
Germany. Anti-colonial struggles got intensified affected world trade. The war also placed
as the colonial powers were weakened by the War. a heavy burden of debt on every European
country.
As we saw in the last chapter, the crisis in the
Western world had led to the outbreak of World Stock Market Crash in the US
War I. We now turn to the social and political The first huge crash occurred on 24
developments in the world after the end of the October 1929. This discouraged investors
War. and consumers to such an extent that more
2.1 The Great Depression and more people began to sell their shares
and dispose of their stocks. But there were
Developments in the post-World no buyers. This was followed by the failure
War I of American banks. The American financiers
The First World War led to the expansion were forced to recall their own funds invested
of certain industries in the hope that the abroad.
16

Breakdown of the International marginal gain in territory from the Treaty of
System of Exchange Versailles. The War resulted in inflation. There
were frequent protests and strikes. People held
Despite emergency measures such as
the rulers responsible for the humiliation at
cutbacks in expenditure and increased taxation,
Versailles.
the situation did not improve in England. So
England decided to leave the Gold Standard. Emergence of Mussolini
Immediately a great number of countries left In the elections held November 1919 in
the gold standard. Each nation adopted a policy the aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles, Italian
of protectionism and devaluation of currency. socialists, proclaiming that they were following
Devaluation forced creditors to stop lending. Bolshevism (Communism in Soviet Russia),
This led to a world-wide credit contraction. won about a third of the seats. Mussolini, son
Thus the defensive measures adopted by various of a blacksmith and qualified as an elementary
nations to safeguard their economic interests school master, in the end became a journalist with
led to an unprecedented decline in world socialist views. A forceful speaker, Mussolini
economic activity. As its effect was deep and began to support the use of violence and broke
prolonged economists and historians call it the with the socialists when they opposed Italy’s
Great Depression. entry into the War. When the Fascist Party was
Gold Standard is a monetary system where a founded in 1919 Mussolini immediately joined
country’s currency or paper money carried a it. As Fascists stood for authority, strength and
value directly linked to gold. discipline, support came from industrialists,
nationalists, ex-soldiers, the middle classes and
Repercussion in Politics discontented youth. The Fascists resorted to
The Depression changed the political violence freely. In October 1922, in the context
conditions in several countries. In England, of a long ministerial crisis, Mussolini organised
the Labour Party was defeated in the general the Fascist March on Rome. Impressed by
elections of 1931. In the USA, the Republican the show of force, the King invited Mussolini
Party was rejected by the people in successive to form a government. The inability of the
elections for about twenty years after the Democratic Party leaders to combine and act
Depression. with resolution facilitated Mussolini’s triumph.
2.2 Rise of Fascism and Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian

Nazism ultra-nationalism, characterised by dictatorial
(a) The Impact of War in Italy power, forcible suppression of opposition and
strong regimentation of society and of the
The first of the nations of Western Europe economy, which came to prominence in early
to turn against the old ruling regime was Italy. 20th-century Europe. –Wikipedia.
During World War I the primary task of Italy was
to keep the Austrians occupied on the Southern Fascists under Mussolini
Front, while the British, French and Americans
cornered Germany into submission along the In the 1924 elections,
battle lines in Flanders. The financial cost of the after intimidation of the
participation in the War was huge. Moreover, electors, 65 per cent of
after the War, in the sharing of the spoils, Italy the votes were cast for
got less than she expected. The country suffered the Fascists. Matteotti,
heavy losses in a war that was unpopular with a socialist leader, who
both socialists and pro-Austrian Catholics. questioned the fairness
The nationalists were equally unhappy with the of the elections was Mussolini
17 The World between Two World Wars

murdered. The opposition parties boycotted Germany’s defeat and humiliation at the
the Parliament in protest. Mussolini reacted end of World War I caused a deep shock to the of
by banning opposition parties and censoring German people. The Great Depression further
the press. Opposition leaders were killed or deepened their frustration and prompted them
imprisoned. Assuming the title of Il Duce (the to turn against the Republican government.
leader), in 1926 he became a dictator with Evolution of German Fascism
power to legislate. He passed a law forbidding
strikes and lockouts. Unions and employers The origin of German fascism goes back to
were organized into corporations. In 1938 1919 when a group of seven men met in Munich
Parliament was abolished and was replaced by and founded the National Socialist German
a body representing the Fascist Party and the Workers’ Party (abbreviated as Nazi Party). One
corporations. This new arrangement bolstered of them was Adolf Hitler. During World War I,
Mussolini’s dictatorial control of the economy, he served in the Bavarian army. A gifted speaker,
as well as enabling him to wield enormous he could whip up the passion of the audience.
power as head of the administration and the In 1923 Hitler attempted to capture power in
armed forces. Bavaria. His launch of the National Revolution
on the outskirts of Munich landed him in prison.
Mussolini’s Pact with Pope During his time in prison wrote Mein Kampf (My
In order to give respectability to the Fascist Struggle), an autobiographical book containing
Party, Mussolini won over the Roman Catholic his political ideas. In the Presidential election
Church by recognising the Vatican City as of 1932, the Communist Party polled about
an independent state. In return the Church 6,000,000 votes. Alarmed capitalists and property
recognised the Kingdom of Italy. The Roman owners tilted towards supporting fascism Hitler
Catholic faith was made the religion of Italy and exploited this opportunity to usurp powers.
compulsory religious teaching in school was
ordered. The Lateran Treaty incorporating the
said provisions was signed in 1929.
Italy during the Great Depression
During the years of the Great Depression the
much publicised public works of building new
bridges, roads and canals, hospitals and schools
did not provide solution to the unemployment
Hitler
problem. In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia.
This was useful to divert attention of the people Social Democratic Party was founded as
away from the economic troubles. the General German Workers Association
(b) Germany in the post-War on 23 May 1863 in Leipzig. Founder was
Ferdinand Lassalle. German elites of the late
From 1918 to 1993 Germany was a
19th century considered the very existence of
republic. The factors which led to the eventual
a socialist party a threat to the security and
triumph of Fascism in Germany were many.
stability of the newly unified Reich, and so
Between 1871 and 1914 Germany had risen to
Bismark outlawed this party from 1878 to
dizzy heights of economic, political and cultural
1890.
accomplishments. Germany’s universities, its
science, philosophy and music were known all However, in 1945, with the fall of Hitler, the
over the world. Germany had surpassed even Social Democratic Party was revived. It was
Britain and the US in several fields of industrial the only surviving party from the Weimar
production. period with a record of opposition to Hitler.
The World between Two World Wars 18

The Nazi State of Hitler Defiance of the Treaty of
Versailles
Republican government fell, as the
Communists refused to collaborate with the In August 1934 Hindenburg died and
Social Democrats. Thereupon industrialists, Hitler, apart from being Chancellor, became
bankers and Junkers prevailed upon President both President and Commander–in-Chief of
Von Hindenburg to designate Hitler as the armed forces. Hitler’s foreign policy aimed
Chancellor in 1933. The Nazi state of Hitler, at restoring the armed strength of Germany and
known as Third Reich, brought an end to the annulling provisions of Versailles Treaty.
parliamentary democracy.
2.3 Anti-Colonial Movements
Hitler replaced the flag of the Weimar
republic by the swastika banners ( ) of National
and Decolonisation
Socialism. Germany was converted into a highly Processes in Asia
centralised state. All political parties except the
(a) French Indo-China
Nazi party were declared illegal. The army of
brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-troopers Rise of Anti-Colonialism
was expanded. The Hitler Youth was created, Indo-China (today’s Cambodia, Laos and
and the Labour Front set up. Trade unions Vietnam) had shown its discontent right from
were abolished, their leaders arrested. Strikes the beginning of the French occupation (1887).
were made illegal, wages were fixed by the While the Indo-Chinese resisted the imposition
government. Total state control was extended of French language and culture, they learned
over the press, the theatre, the cinema, radio from them the ideas of revolution. During the
and over education. First World War about 100,000 Indo-Chinese
fought in France and returned with first-hand
The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led knowledge of how the French had fought and
by Josef Goebbels, who manipulated public suffered during the War. Communist ideas from
opinion through planned propaganda. The mainland China were also a major influence.
Gestapo or Secret State Police was formed and Many became convinced that the considerable
run by Himmler. wealth of Indo-China was benefiting only the
colonial power.
Nazi Policy towards Jews
Decolonisation is a process through which
Along with the repressive measures, Hitler’s
colonial powers transferred institutional
government followed a policy of repressing
and legal control over their colonies to the
Jewish people. The Jews were removed from
indigenous nationalist governments.
government positions, excluded from the
universities and deprived of citizenship. The Emergence of Viet Minh
Jewish businesses were closed down, and their
The mainstream
establishments were attacked. After the outbreak
political party in Indo-
of World War II concentration camps, barracks
China was the Vietnam
surrounded by electrified fences and watch Nationalist Party. Formed
towers, were built where Jews were interred and in 1927, it was composed
used as forced labour. Later they were turned of the wealthy and
into extermination camps where industrial middle class sections of
means of murder such as gas chambers were the population. In 1929
used to kill them in what the Nazis termed ‘The the Vietnamese soldiers Ho Chi Minh
Final Solution’.

Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) was born in Tongking. When Ho Chi Minh was twenty one, he went to
Europe. After working as a cook in a London hotel, he went to Paris. In the Paris peace conference, he
lobbied for the independence for Vietnam. His articles in newspapers and especially the pamphlet,
French Colonialism on Trial, made him well known as a Vietnam nationalist. In 1921 he became a
founder-member of the French Communist party. Two years later he went to Moscow and learnt
revolutionary techniques then. In 1925, he founded the Revolutionary Youth Movement.
mutinied, and there was a failed attempt to the form of providing “technical advice and
assassinate the French Governor-General. This education, and the establishment of pioneer
was followed by a large scale peasant revolt led factories in new industries”. However, even this
by the Communists. The revolt was crushed policy was soon abandoned as many British
followed by what is called “White Terror.” enterprises were opposed to this .
Thousands of rebels were killed.
Impact of Depression on Indian
After the White Terror, Ho Chi Minh left Agriculture
for Moscow and spent the 1930s in Moscow and
The ‘Great Depression’ also dealt a death
China. When France was defeated by Germany
blow to Indian agriculture and the indigenous
in 1940, Ho Chi Minh and his lieutenants used
manufacturing sector. The value of farm
this turn of events to advance the Vietnamese
produce, declined by half while the land rent to
cause. Crossing over the border into Vietnam in
be paid by the peasant remained unchanged. In
January 1941, they organized the League for the
terms of prices of agricultural commodities, the
Independence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh. This
obligation of the farmers to the state doubled.
gave renewed emphasis to a distinct Vietnamese
The great fall in prices prompted Indian
nationalism.
nationalists to demand protection for the
(b) Decolonisation in India internal economy. The 1930s saw the emergence
Dyarchy in Provinces of the Indian National Congress as a militant
mass movement.
The decolonization process started
in India from the beginning of the twentieth Government of India Act, 1935
century with the launch of the Swadeshi The British had to appease the Indian
Movement in 1905. The outbreak of the First nationalists and the outcome was the passage
World War brought about rapid political of the Government of India Act, 1935. This
as well as economic changes. In 1919, provided for greater power to the local
the Government of India Act introduced governments and the introduction of direct
Dyarchy that provided for elected provincial elections. In the 1937 elections the Congress
assemblies as well as for Indian ministers to won a resounding victory in most of the
hold certain portfolios under Transferred provinces. However the decision of Britain to
Subjects. The Indian National Congress involve India in the Second World War, without
rejected Dyarchy and decided to boycott the consulting the popular Congress ministries,
legislature. forced the latter to resign from office.
Lack of Measures to Industrialise
2.4 Anti-Colonial
India
Movements in Africa
Despite the discriminating protection
given to certain select industries such as sugar, Colonisation of Africa
cement, and chemicals, there was no change in The African coastline had been explored
the colonial economic policy. But in the case in the sixteenth century and a few European
of indigenous industries, support was only in settlements had come about. But the interior of

Africa was unknown to the outside world until self-government in due course. In 1907 full
the last quarter of nineteenth century. European responsible government was given to the
colonisation began after about 1875. The Berlin Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The four
Colonial Conference of 1884–85 resolved states formed into a union and the South Africa
that Africa should be divided into spheres of Act passed by the British parliament in 1909
influence of various colonial powers. The war provided for a Union Parliament at Cape Town.
between the British and Boers in South Africa, The Union of South Africa came into being in
however, was in defiance of this resolution. May 1910.
Boer Wars The descendents of original Dutch settlers of
The relations between the two British South Africa, also known as Afrikaners, were
colonies of Natal and Cape Colony and the two called Boers. Their language is Afrikaans.
independent Boer states of the Transvaal and
Nationalist Politics in South
the Orange Free State had long been unfriendly.
Africa
The discovery of gold in Transvaal, in 1886,
led to large numbers of British miners settling There were two main political parties:
in and around Johannesburg. The Boers hated the Unionist Party which was mainly British,
these people whom they referred to as Uitlanders and the South Africa Party which had largely
(foreigners). The Boers taxed them heavily apart Afrikaners (Boers). The first Prime Minister,
from denying political rights. So the question Botha belonged to the South Africa Party ruled
was whether the British or the Boers were to be in cooperation with the British. But a militant
supreme in South Africa. Fearing attacks from section of the South Africa Party formed the
the British, the Boers armed themselves and National Party under Herzog. In the 1920
decided to attack. elections the National Party gained forty-
four seats. The South Africa Party, now led by
The Boer War lasted for three years, 1899-
Smuts, secured forty-one
1902. Initially, the Boers were successful. But
seats. At this juncture
by the first half of 1900, the Boer army was
the British-dominated
defeated. Pretoria was occupied. The Boers took
Unionist Party merged
to guerrilla fighting. This continued for about
with the South Africa
two years. In retaliation the British destroyed
Party. This gave Smuts a
farms and crops. They set up internment camps
majority over the militant
for Boer women and children. Shortage of food,
A f r i k an e r- c ont rol l e d Smuts
medical and sanitary facilities caused the death
National Party.
of 26,000 people. The British annexed the two
Boer states. Boers were however promised Racist Policy against the Blacks
The Afrikaners pursued a harsher,
racist policy towards the blacks and the
minority Indians. In 1923 an Act was passed
to confine the native residents to certain
parts of towns. Already an Act of 1913 had
segregated black and white farmers, which
made it impossible for the blacks to acquire
land in most parts of the country. The 1924
elections were won by the National Party
with the support of the Labour movement,
composed mainly of white miners. The
Boer War

Act passed in 1924 prevented blacks from Mexico in Central America and in Peru in
striking work and from joining trade unions. South America. The Maya, the Inca and the
In the Cape Province the voting right to Aztec Civilizations were highly advanced.
There were several states in each of these areas
blacks was abolished. Native Blacks suffered
of civilisation. Well organised and strong
in all spheres: social, economic and politics. governments existed. Around the eleventh
century, large cities formed into a league
Apartheid in South Africa of Mayapan (centre of Maya civilisation of
Apartheid, which means Native Americans American Indians). For over
separateness, became hundred years the League of Mayapan lasted.
the racial policy of the Though Mayapan was destroyed towards the
Nationalist Party in 1947. close of twelth century, other cities continued.
From 1950 onwards a Aztecs from Mexico conquered the Maya
series of laws came to country in the fourteenth century and founded
be enforced. The whole Nelson Mandela their capital city of Tenochtitlan. For nearly two
country was divided hundred years the Aztecs ruled their empire.
into separate areas for the different races.
Marriage between white and non-white was European Colonisation and its
forbidden. Nearly all schools were brought Impact
under government control so that education In the sixteenth century (around 1519)
different from that of the Whites could when the Aztecs were at the height of their
be implemented for Africans. University power, the whole empire collapsed before
education was also segregated. Apartheid is a handful of adventurers led by a Spaniard
based on the belief that the political equality named Hernan Cortes. Mexican civilisation
of White and Black in South Africa would collapsed. With it the great city of Tenochtitlan
mean Black rule. The ANC which fought also perished. This is one of the world's worst
the practice of racism was banned and its genocides. The other famous Conquistador
leader Nelson Mandela was put behind bars. (conqueror) was also a Spaniard by name
Mounting pressure at the global level helped Francisco Pizarro. who led the conquest of the
to end the racist regime in South Africa. In Incan Empire. Later the Spaniards made Peru
1990 the ban on ANC was lifted and Mandela a part of their dominions.
freed after 27 years. In the elections held
subsequently the Africans were allowed to By the late 18th century,
vote and ANC won the election and Mandela demand for political
became the first black freedom, administrative
president of South Africa. autonomy and economic
Even though apartheid self-determination was
was dismantled the Whites articulated throughout
completely dominate the Latin America. There were
economic sphere. bloody conflicts between
Haitian slaves, colonists, Pizarro
the armies of the British and the French
2.5 Political Developments colonizers. These struggles led by Toussaint
in South America L'Ouverture during 1791-1804 ended in the
Haitian people’s independence from the
Mayas and Aztecs colonial control of France. Haiti thus became
Before the European discovery of America the first Caribbean country to throw off slavery
three centres of civilisations existed there in and French colonial control.

Impact of Napoleonic Invasion of The Monroe Doctrine
Spain and Portugal The fight for independence intensified
when Napoleon fell in 1815. But Monroe,
the President of the USA, came up with his
famous Monroe doctrine, which declared that
if Europeans interfered anywhere in America,
north or south, it would amount to waging
a war against the United States. This threat
frightened the European powers. By 1830 the
Simon Bolivar- Pedro I whole of South America was free from European
The American and French Revolutions domination. Thus the U.S. protected the South
provided inspiration to the Latin Americans. American republics from Europe; but there was
The Napoleonic invasion of Spain and no one to protect them from the Protector, the
Portugal in 1808 quickened the process of United States.
liberation Struggle in South America. Already Disunity among Latin American
the spirit of independence was growing under Nationalists
the leadership of Simon Bolivar, called El
Latin American nationalists fought not
Liberator, the liberator. In the case of Brazil,
only Spain and Portugal but also each other. In
the Portuguese royal family in the context of
1821 Central America seceded from Mexico.
conquest of Portugal by Napoleon fled from
Later (1839) Central America itself split into five
Lisbon and thereby assisted the transition
republics (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
of Brazil from colony to independent
Honduras, and Nicaragua). Uruguay split from
nation. Pedro I renouncing the claim to the
Brazil in 1828. In 1830 Venezuela and Ecuador
Portuguese throne declared independence of
seceded from Gran Columbia, the republic
Brazil.
created by Bolivar.
Bahamas N
Caribbean Sea W E
S
Cuba
M
ex
i
Jamaica
co
Belize
Honduras
Costa Rica
Guyana Suriname
Guatemala
Venezuela
El Salvador French Guyana
Colombia (France)
Nicaragua
Panama
Pe
Brazil
ru
Atlantic Ocean
Bolivia
Pacific Ocean Paraguay

a
tin
Chile
gen
Uruguay
Ar
Strait of Magellan
Not to Scale
Latin America

US Imperial Interests peasant communities. Elsewhere electoral
reform enabled newer social groups to obtain
At the dawn of the twentieth century the
political power through the ballot box.
United States had occupied Cuba and Puerto
Rico, after defeating the Spanish in 1898. From Latin America
1898 to 1902 Cuba was under US military rule. protested American
When the Americans finally left they retained inter vension and
a naval station in Cuba. Roosevelt made an disliked their “dollar
important amendment to the doctrine in imperialism”. The
1904. It authorised US intervention in Latin opposition to political
America ‘in order to maintain order.’ After intervention produced
effecting this amendment, the US became the a change in US policy
dominant influence not only politically but also after 1933. Franklin
in economics. Roosevelt in his “Good Theodore Roosevelt
Neighbour” policy agreed that the US would
Great Depression in South
not intervene in the internal affairs of any
America
state, and would give economic and technical
The situation created by the Great assistance to Latin America.
Depression made it impossible for oligarchic
regimes to accommodate the rising Dollar Imperialism, the term used
expectations of several assertive groups. In to describe the policy of the USA in
Mexico, there was violent social protest maintaining and dominating over distant
involving dissatisfied segments of the lands through economic aid.
oligarchy, middle-class intellectuals, and
SUMMARY
 I
ntensification of anti-colonial struggles commenced from the end of the First
World War
 Th
e harsh decisions in the Paris Peace Conference against the defeated countries destabilised
the ruling regimes and created a climate for the rise of fascism especially in Italy and Germany.
 Th
e economic slump originating in the US in 1929 and subsequently affecting all capitalist
countries in the world resulted in changes in polity and society.
 D
ecolonisation process was quickened during the inter-war period in India.
 Th
e Munroe Doctrine prevented colonisation of Latin American countries by European powers
and thereby ensured early sovereign status to them. Later this was regarded by Latin Americans as a
cover for American intervention and exploitation of the resources of their countries.
GLOSSARY
solidarity a bond of unity, support for a common cause ஒற்றுமை உணர்வு,

ப�ொதுக்காரியத்திற்கான ஆதரவு
slump a sudden severe or prolonged fall in the price விலைவீழ்ச்சி, சரிவு
bankruptcy insolvency, financial ruin திவால், கடன் தீர்க்க முடியா நிலை
devaluation a decrease in the value of a country's currency பணமதிப்புக் குறைதல்
intimidation threat, the act of making fearful மிரட்டல், அச்சுறுத்தல்

bolstered strengthened வலுப்படுத்தினர்
demoralized having lost confidence or hope, disheartened மனத்தளர்ச்சி அடைதல், நம்பிக்கை

இழத்தல்
manipulate
control or influence a person or situation கெட்டிக்காரத்தனமாய் அல்லது
cleverly, unfairly to achieve a specific purpose சூழ்ச்சியாய் கையாளு
annulling declaring invalid or null and void செல்லாதாக்கல், ரத்துசெய்தல்
EXERCISE
I Choose the correct II Fill in the blanks

answer 1. The founder of the Social Democratic
1. With whom of the following was the Party was .
Lateran Treaty signed by Italy? 2. The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led by
a) Germany b) Russia .
c) Pope d) Spain 3. The Vietnam Nationalist Party was formed
2. With whose conquest did the Mexican in .
civilization collapse? 4. The Secret State Police in Nazi Germany
a) Hernan Cortes was known as .
b) Francisco Pizarro 5. The Union of South Africa came into
c) Toussaint Louverture being in May .
d) Pedro I 6. The ANC leader Nelson Mandela was put
3. Who made Peru as part of their dominions? behind the bars for years
a) English 7. Boers were also known as .
b) Spaniards
III Choose the correct statement
c) Russians
d) French 1. i) During World War I the primary task of
4. Which President of the USA pursued Italy was to keep the Austrians occupied
“Good Neighbour” policy towards Latin on the Southern Front
America? ii) Germany took to Fascism much later
than Italy.
a) Roosevelt
iii) The first huge market crash in the US
b) Truman occurred on 24 October 1929.
c) Woodrow Wilson iv) The ban on African National Congress
d) Eisenhower was lifted in 1966.
5. Which part of the world disliked dollar a) i) and ii) are correct
imperialism? b) iii) is correct
a) Europe b) Latin America c) iii) and iv) are correct
c) India d) China d) i), ii) and iii) are correct

2. Assertion: A new wave of economic VI Answer in detail
nationalism which expressed itself in
protectionism affected the world trade. 1. Trace the circumstances that led to the rise
of Hitler in Germany.
Reason: This was because the USA was
not willing to provide economic aid to the 2. Attempt a narrative account of how the
debtor countries. process of decolonization happened
a) Both A and R are correct in India during the inter-war period
b)
A is right but R is not the correct (1919-39).
explanation
3. Describe the rise and growth of nationalist
c) Both A and R are wrong politics in South Africa.
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A
3. Assertion: The Berlin Colonial Conference VII Activity
of 1884–85 had resolved that Africa should 1. Each student may be asked to write an
be divided into spheres of influence of
assignment on how each sector and each
various colonial powers.
section of population in the USA came to
Reason: The war between the British and
be affected by the Stock Market Crash in
Boers in South Africa, however, was in
1929.
defiance of this resolution.
a) Both A and R are right 2. A group project work on Vietnam War
b) A is right but R is not the right reason is desirable. An album or pictures,
c) Both A and R are wrong portraying the air attacks of the US on
Vietnam and the brave resistance put up
d) A is wrong and R has no relevance to A
by the Vietnamese may be prepared.
IV Match the Following
1. Transvaal - Germany REFERENCE BOOKS
2. Tongking - Hitler
Richard Overy (ed.) Complete History of
1.
3. Hindenburg - Italy
the World (London: HarperCollins, 2007)
4. Third Reich - gold
5. Matteotti - guerilla activities Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
2.
World (New Delhi: Orient Longman,
V Answer briefly
2007).
1. What do you know of the White Terror in R.D. Cornwell, World History in the
3.
Indo-China?
TwentiethCentury(London:Longman,1972).
2. Discuss the importance of Ottawa Economic
Summit. E.H. Gombrich, A Little History of the
4.
3. What was the result of Mussolini’s march on World (London: Yale University Press, 2008).
Rome? Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World
5.
4. Point out the essence of the Berlin Colonial History (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2004).
Conference, 1884-85.
5. How did Great Depression impact on the
Indian agriculture?
6. Define “Dollar Imperialism.”

Unit - 3
World War II
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves about the political and economic developments
after World War I which ultimately led to World War II
To understand the course of the War, in general; in particular, to learn
the main events which were turning points in the War
To know the effects of World War II
To understand the “holocaust”, and the mass killing of Jews in Nazi
To acquire knowledge about the international organisations established after the
to as The Great War, or The War to End All

Introduction
Wars. The belligerent nations, especially the
The first half of the twentieth century Allies, had no desire for a second prolonged
witnessed two wars which devastated the world. conflict, and this was the main driving force
World War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 and behind their actions after the end of World
World War II began in 1939 and ended in 1945. War I. The immediate and primary cause
While the world at large had experienced many of World War II was the aggressive military
wars, these two wars are referred to as “World” offensive undertaken by a resurgent Germany
wars because of the extended areas of the conflict and a fast developing Japan.
and the very high death toll of civilians as well
Germany and Treaty of Versailles,
as armed combatants. Both wars were fought on
several fronts across Europe, Asia and Africa. 1919
In both wars, the combined forces of Great The Treaty of Versailles ending World
Britain, France, Russia and the United States War I was signed in June 1919. Among the
fought against a war alliance led by Germany. many clauses of the Treaty, three in particular
Germany’s allies were Italy and Japan in World caused great resentment among the Germans.
War II. (i) Germany was forced to give up territories
to the west, north and east of the German
3.1 Causes, Course and border; (ii) Germany had to disarm and
Effects of World War II was allowed to retain only a very restricted
armed force; (iii) as reparations for the War,
(a) Causes Germany was expected to pay for the military
The devastation caused by World War I and civilian cost of the War to the Allied
was of such magnitude that it was referred nations.
27
10th_History_Unit_3.indd 27 11-04-2020 12:21:58

Failure of League of Nations In direct contravention of the clauses of
The Treaty also set up the League of Nations, the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler began to re-
on the initiative of President Woodrow Wilson arm Germany. The recruitment for the armed
of the United States. The League was expected forces and the manufacture of armaments and
to mediate between countries and take action machinery for the army, navy and air force
against countries which indulged in military with large amounts of government spending
aggression. The popular mood favoured the resulted in an economic revival and solved
traditional isolationist approach, and therefore the problem of unemployment in Germany.
the United States did not become a member of Italy’s break with Britain and France in
the League. The other Allied nations were also the wake of Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia
determined to maintain a non-interventionist resulted in better relationship between Italy
attitude and, in consequence, the League
and Germany. In 1936, before Germany
remained an ineffectual international body.
invaded the Rhineland, which was supposed
Post-War Crisis and Germany to be a demilitarised zone, Rome - Berlin
As mentioned above the three main Axis had come into being. Later, with Japan
clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, especially the joining this alliance, it became Rome-
imposition of penal reparations caused great Berlin-Tokyo Axis. In 1938, Hitler invaded
discontent in Germany. The problems which Austria and Czechoslovakia. Sudetenland in
many countries faced in the post-World War Czechoslovakia was German speaking, and
I decades led to the rise of extreme right wing Hitler’s claim was that the German speaking
dictatorships in Italy (Mussolini), Germany people should be united in to one nation.
(Hitler) and Spain (Franco).
Allies and Non-Intervention
Germany experienced both high
There were also acts of aggression by
unemployment and severe inflation after
Italy and Japan. Italy invaded Ethiopia in
the War, and its currency became practically
1935 and Albania in 1939. Emperor Haile
worthless. There are several pictures of the
1920s when ordinary people had to carry Selassie of Ethiopia appealed to the League of
money in wheelbarrows to buy bread. This Nations, but got no help. In the East, Japan was
was blamed on the war reparations which pursuing its policy of military expansion. In
Germany was forced to pay, though in the final 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, and in 1937
analysis, the demands for war reparations were it invaded China and seized Beijing. All these
moderated over several rounds of negotiations. were ignored by the Allies and the League of
Nations was unable to take any action.
The Rise of Adolf Hitler
In spite of all these manifestations of
Adolf Hitler was able to exploit the
military activity by Germany, Italy and Japan,
general discontent among the Germans. Gifted
with great oratorical skills, he was able to Britain and France continued to be non-
sway the people by his impassioned speeches, interventionist. The mood in Britain was
promising a return to the glorious military past not in favour of starting another war. Prime
of Germany. He founded the National Socialist Ministers Baldwin and Chamberlain did not
party, generally known as “the Nazis”. The feel justified in intervening in a region which
fundamental platform on which Hitler built his was not officially in their sphere of interest.
support was the notion of the racial superiority The United States was totally indifferent to
of the Germans as a pure, ‘Aryan’ race and a the outside world, and was concerned with
deep-seated hatred of the Jews. Hitler came to the revival of the economy after the Great
power in 1933 and ruled Germany till 1945. Depression.
World War II 28

N
ARCTIC OCEAN W E
WORLD WAR II AXIS VS ALLIED POWERS
10th_History_Unit_3.indd 29
S
UNITED
STATES U S S R
UNITED NORWAY
DENMARK
CANADA KINGDOM POLAND
MOSCOW
NETHERLANDS GERMANY
BELGIUM HUNGARY
29
UNITED NORTH FRANCE ROMANIA
SAN STATES ATLANTIC
NORTH FRANSICO BULGARIA
OCEAN CHINA JAPAN
PACIFIC ITALY GREECE
OCEAN
HAWAI
ISLAND
INDIAN
BRAZIL OCEAN
SOUTH SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PACIFIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN
NEW
Axis Power Countries ZEALAND
Allied Power Countries SOUTHERN OCEAN
Not to Scale
World War II
ANTARCTIC OCEAN
11-04-2020 12:21:58
Munich Pact submarines, battleships, aircraft carriers, fighter
planes and bomber planes. This involved a very
A further factor was that the western
large resource base, since all this equipment
powers and the Soviet Union distrusted each
needed to be manufactured. There had to be raw
other. In 1938, Prime Minister Chamberlain
materials, manufacturing capacity and technical
concluded the Munich Pact with Germany,
inputs to improve the military hardware. This
which was a shameful acceptance of Germany’s
was an expensive and prolonged war of attrition.
invasion of Czechoslovakia to annex German-
speaking Sudetenland. In 1939 the Soviet Union Outbreak of War
independently concluded a non-aggression Britain and France declared war on
pact with Germany. The continued passivity of Germany in September 1939. In June 1940, Italy
the Allies and the reluctance to start building joined Germany, and in September 1940, Japan
up their armies were also contributory causes of also joined the Axis powers.
the extended scale of World War II.
There was little
Though Hitler gave an assurance in the action immediately
Munich Pact that Germany would not attack after the declaration of
any other country, this was broken immediately. war. Britain had
In 1939 he invaded Czechoslovakia. Poland was already begun to build
attacked next, and this was the final act which up its military
resulted in the declaration of war by Britain capabilities, and all Blitzkrieg
and France against Germany. In Britain, Prime young men were conscripted for military duty.
Minister Chamberlain resigned in 1940 and The first years of the War were a time of
Winston Churchill, who had always warned spectacular successes of the Germany army
about Hitler and his military ambitions, became which occupied Denmark and Norway and later
Prime Minister. France. By 1941, all of mainland Europe till the
Russian frontier was under the Axis powers.
The German army followed a tactic of ‘lightning
strike’ (Blitzkrieg) to storm into various
countries and overrun them.
The British Royal
Navy continued to be the
most powerful among
the European naval
forces and ensured that
a sea-borne invasion of
Britain was not possible. British Royal Navy
Munich Pact
However, Britain depended on large scale imports
(b) Course of World War II of food, raw materials and industrial goods by
Nature of the War sea from its Empire and the US. To attack this,
Germany developed a fleet of submarines which
World War II was fought on two distinct
caused havoc, especially in the Atlantic Ocean
fronts - Europe and the Asia Pacific. In Europe,
area, by sinking a large number of civilian ships
the war was fought by the Allies against Germany
carrying supplies to Britain.
and Italy. In the Asia Pacific, the Allies fought
Japan. Important Events
World War II was a modern war fought Dunkirk – In May 1940 more than
with heavy military equipment such as tanks, 300,000 British and French soldiers were
World War II 30

forced back to the beaches in Dunkirk. Britain Invasion of Russia 1941-1942
would have found it difficult to regroup if so In June 1941 the German army invaded
many of her soldiers had been lost at Dunkirk. Russia. The long-term objectives of this move
Battle of Britain– By July 1940, it was were to seize prime land for settling Germans,
feared that the Germans were planning to to destroy the communist regime, and also
invade Britain. Hitler wanted to force Britain exploit Russia’s natural resources, especially oil.
to accept his proposals for peace by a prolonged The German strategy of lightning strikes was
air-borne bombing campaign. The German initially successful and the army penetrated
air force began to attack specific targets, 1000 miles into Russian territory very soon.
especially the ports, airfields and industrial The German army then marched on Moscow.
installations. In September 1940, London was But ultimately, the resistance by the Soviet
army, and the fierce Russian winter defeated
bombed mercilessly, an action known as The
the German army.
Blitz. By October 1940, night bombing raids
on London and other industrial cities began. Battle of Stalingrad (17 July
This campaign failed because with the 1942 to 2 February 1943)
aid of a newly developed and top secret device In August 1942, the Germans attacked
‘radar’ for detecting aircraft while still at a Stalingrad.Stretching about 30 miles (50 km)
distance, the fighter planes of the Royal Air along the banks of the Volga River, Stalingrad
Force (Spitfires and Hurricanes) were able to was a large industrial city producing armaments
inflict severe losses on the German bombers. and tractors. Capturing the city would cut
The raids stopped after October 1940. The Soviet transport links with southern Russia,
Germans dropped their plans to invade and Stalingrad would then enable the invading
Britain because of the failure of the air battle. Germans to have access to the oil fields of
the Caucasus. In addition, seizing the city that
bore the name of Soviet leader Stalin would
serve as a great personal and propaganda
victory for Hitler. German war planners hoped
to achieve that end with Fall Blau (“Operation
Blue”). On June 28, 1942, operations began with
significant German victories.
Hurricanes - Spitfires -
Russian people suffered not only from bad
Royal Air Force Royal Air Force working and living conditions, but also from
ill-treatment at German hands in the occupied
Lend Lease 1941–1945 areas. There were about 15 million civilian
President Roosevelt realized that the United deaths during the war, and about 10 million
States had to change its policy of isolation, members of the armed forces were killed. All
but could not intervene directly in the War in together over one-tenth of Russia’s population
Europe, because it was not politically feasible. died. Yet the people remained loyal to the
So he started a programme of “Lend Lease” in government, despite Hitler’s hopes of an anti-
Stalin revolution. They successfully defended
March 1941. Arms, food, military equipment
the city of Stalingrad.
and other supplies were sent to Britain, disguised
as a “loan”, which would be returned after use. Battle of El Alamein 1942
This augmented the resources of Britain to a
In the early years of the War, German
great extent. Between 1941 and 1945, the total
forces under General Rommel were remarkably
aid under Lend Lease amounted to $46.5 billion.
31 World War II

successful in occupying North Africa rapidly, (Canton) and many other parts of China were
leaving the British with only Egypt. The Allied overrun. The Chinese army, under Chiang Kai-
forces under General Montgomery counter- shek retreated to the west to the hilly country
attacked and defeated the German and Italian from where they continued to fight the Japanese.
forces at El Alamein in North Africa. The
German army was chased across the desert, out Pearl Harbour 1941
of North Africa. This provided the base for the On December 1941, Japan attacked
Allied forces to invade Italy. American naval installations in Pearl Harbour,
Hawaii, without warning. The idea was to cripple
Surrender of Italy 1943 America’s Pacific fleet so that Japan would not
Mussolini had been thrown out and the new face any opposition in its offensive against
government of Italy surrendered to the Allies in South-east Asian countries. Many battleships
1943. However, the Germans set Mussolini up and numerous fighter planes were destroyed.
in a puppet regime in the north. Mussolini was The United States declared war on Japan, with
killed in April 1945, by Italian partisans. Britain and China also joining in. This brought
together both the Asia Pacific and the European
End of Hitler
war into one common cause. Most importantly,
The Allied forces under the command of it brought the United States with its enormous
General Eisenhower invaded Normandy in resources into the war as a part of the Allies.
France. Slowly, the German army was forced
back. But the Germans fought back and the War
continued for nearly another year, and finally
ended in May 1945. Hitler committed suicide in
April 1945.
From 1944, the Russian army began to
attack Germany from the East and captured
much of Eastern Europe and Poland. In 1945,
they occupied parts of Berlin, so that Germany
Pearl Harbour attack
was divided into two sections after the War.
War in the Asia-Pacific Region Japanese Aggression in
South-east Asia
Japan had entertained visions of a glorious
empire, very much on the same lines as Hitler. The Japanese had spectacular success in
The Japanese army invaded Manchuria in their plan to extend their empire throughout
1931.Though China appealed to the League of South-east Asia. Guam, the Philippines, Hong
Nations, this act of aggression did not attract Kong, Singapore, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies
the attention of the United States or Britain. In (Indonesia) and Burma, all fell to the Japanese.
1937, Japan invaded China, and seized Beijing
Battle of Midway and Battle of
(Peking, as it was then known) which had
Guadalcanal 1942
traditionally been the capital of China. The
region around Shanghai was also captured, and The US navy
Nanjing (Nanking), the capital was captured at defeated the Japanese
the end of the year. The Japanese army indulged navy in the Battle of
in the biggest slaughter ever known in history Midway, which turned
in Nanjing. Civilians were killed en masse for the tide in favour of
sport, and all females – from children to old the Allies. The Battle
women – were tortured and killed. Guangzhou of Guadalcanal in Battle of Guadalcanal
World War II 32

the Solomon Islands was a combined offensive The world was polarized into two main blocs led
involving the army and the navy, and lasted for by superpowers, one led by the United States with
several months. Both were crushing defeats for a pronounced anti-Communist ideology, and the
the Japanese. other by Soviet Russia. Europe was divided into
After this, the American forces were able to two: Communist and non-Communist.
re-take the Philippines. Gradually the Japanese Nuclear proliferation: The United States
were thrown out of most of their conquered and the Soviet Union entered into a race to
territories. In 1944, the combined British have more nuclear powered weapons. They
and Indian armies were able to push back the built a large stockpile of such weapons. Defence
Japanese who attempted to invade the north- spending sky-rocketed in many countries.
east of India. Then, along with the Chinese, they International agencies: Many international
pushed the Japanese out of Burma, and liberated agencies, in particular the United Nations, the
Malaya and Singapore. World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund came into existence providing a forum for
Hiroshima and Nagasaki,August
countries large and small.
1945
Colonial powers were forced to give
As a top secret
independence to former colonies in a process
project, using the latest
of decolonization. India was the first to achieve
scientific advances, the
independence.
US developed an atomic
bomb immensely more
3.2 Holocaust and
powerful than conventional
explosives. The Japanese Its Fallout
generals refused to surrender and finally the After Hitler came to power, the Jews were
US dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. persecuted in many ways. They were deprived
As the Japanese still refused to surrender, of their civil rights, their properties were
another atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. confiscated and many were confined to ghettos.
Japan ultimately announced surrender on Eventually, the Nazis came up with the notion
15 August 1945 and formally signed 2 September of the Final Solution, which was to exterminate
1945 bringing an end to World War II. the Jews completely.
N
ATOM BOMB BLAST AT JAPAN 1945 W E The word ‘holocaust’ is used to describe the
CHINA S genocide of nearly six million Jews by the
IA
SS
Germans during World War II. Annihilating

RU
the Jews was one of the main items on the

JAPAN political agenda of Hitler and the Nazis. Hitler
NORTH PACIFIC
KOREA OCEAN
was able to play on the anti-Jewish feelings
(anti-Semitism) which were common in
SOUTH Germany and, in fact, throughout Europe.
KOREA
HIROSHIMA TOKYO Jews were scattered all across Europe and
many had become prominent in business,
in performing arts and professional fields.
NAGASAKI Not to Scale
Money-lending was a major business activity
among Jews and this strengthened the
(c) Effects of the War prejudice against them. Shakespeare’s play,
The Merchant of Venice clearly depicts the
New geo-political power alignment: World
dislike and distrust of Jews among the people.
War II changed the world in fundamental ways.
33 World War II

Universal Declaration of Human associated organizations which deal with
Rights basic issues of importance for all societies and
countries.
In the aftermath of the Holocaust the UNO
in its Charter, pledged to promote universal United Nations
respect for and observance of human rights The first initiative for
and fundamental freedoms for all without the United Nations came
distinction to race, sex, language and religion. from the United States and
The UN efforts to protect human rights on a Britain in 1941 when they
global basis resulted in the constitution of UN issued a joint declaration
Commission on Human Rights. A committee known as the Atlantic Symbol of UN
constituted under its auspices was chaired by Charter. This Declaration
Eleanor Roosevelt wife of late President Franklin of the United Nations was accepted by all the
Roosevelt. The members of the Commission 26 countries which were fighting against the
included Charles Malik of Lebanon, P.C. Chang Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) on
of Nationalist China, John Humphrey of Canada, New Year’s Day, 1942.The Charter of the United
and Rene Cassin of France. The Universal Nations was signed on June 26, 1945 by 51
Declaration of Human Rights was its important nations. India which was not an independent
contribution. The Universal Declaration of country then also was a signatory to the Charter.
Human Rights set forth fundamental human Now the United Nations has 193 member states
rights in 30 articles. The UN adopted this and each one - big or small - has an equal vote
historic Charter on 10 December 1948. This in the United Nations.
day (10 December) is observed globally as
Human Rights Day. Provisions of some ninety "We, the peoples of the United Nations,
national constitutions since 1948, according to determined to save succeeding generations
the Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute in from scourge of war, which twice in our
New York, can be traced to this Declaration. lifetime has brought untold sorrow to
mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental
Birth of Israel
human rights, in the dignity and worth of the
A major outcome of the Holocaust was the human person, in the equal rights of men and
creation of the state of Israel as a homeland for women, and of nations large and small …”. -
the Jews. While this was historically the original from The Preamble to the United Nations
home of the Jews during Roman times.
3.3 New International General Assembly and Security
Order Council
By 1941 the United States and Britain The United Nations
began to give serious consideration to the need functions almost like any
for international cooperation for achieving government, through its
lasting peace among all nations. International principal organs which are
economic and financial stability were also similar to the legislative,
important objectives. All these would need executive and judicial wings
international organizations with members of of a state. In the General
the various nations across the world working Assembly is the body in UN Headquarters,
together for these common objectives. This which each member state New York
ultimately resulted in the establishment of is represented. It meets once a year and issues
the United Nations, the World Bank and the of interest and points of conflict are discussed
International Monetary Fund, with many in the Assembly. The Security Council has
World War II 34

fifteen members. Five countries - the United Development Programme), which focuses on
States, Britain, France, Russia and China - development.
are permanent members, and there are ten Activities of the UN
temporary members who are elected in rotation.
These two bodies function like a legislature. Over the decades, the United Nations
Each of the permanent members has the right has expanded its activities in response to the
to veto any decision by the other members of changing problems facing the world. Thus, in
the Security Council. This right has often been the 1960s, decolonization was an important
used to block major decisions, especially by the issue. Human rights, the problems of refugees,
superpowers, the US and Russia. Major issues climate change, gender equality are all now
and conflicts are discussed in the Security within the ambit of the activities of the United
Council. Nations. A special mention must be made of
the UN Peacekeeping force, which has acted in
Administrative Structure many areas of conflict all over the world. The
The executive wing of the United Nations is Indian army has been an important part of the
the UN Secretariat. It is headed by the Secretary peacekeeping force and has been deployed in
General, who is elected by the General Assembly many parts of the world.
on the recommendation of the Security Council. World Bank
The Secretary General, along with his cabinet
and other officials, runs the United Nations. The The World Bank and the International
International Court of Justice, headquartered at Monetary Fund, referred to as the “Bretton
The Hague in Holland, is the judicial wing of Woods Twins”, were both established in 1945
the United Nations. The Economic and Social after the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944.
Council (ECOSOC), the fifth organ of the Located in Washington D.C. in the United
United Nations, is responsible for coordinating States, they have the same membership,
all the economic and social work of the United since a country cannot be a member of the
Nations. The regional Economic Commissions Bank without being a member of the Fund.
functioning for regional development across
the various regions of the world (Asia Pacific,
West Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America)
are organs of ECOSOC. They have been very
successful, and have been headed by eminent
economists like Gunnar Myrdal.
Other Important Organs of the
UN
Associated organizations deal with areas
of critical interest to the world at large like Bretton Woods Conference
food, health and education, and culture. The two main organs of the World Bank
These are: Food and Agriculture Organisation are the International Bank for Reconstruction
(FAO), World Health Organisation (WHO), and Development (IBRD) and the International
UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific and Development Agency (IDA), Together they are
Cultural Organisation). There are also special often referred to as the World Bank. The main
organizations funded voluntarily by member responsibility of the IBRD in the initial years
countries. The two best known among them was to fund the reconstruction activities under
are UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) the Marshall Plan in the European countries
which promotes child health and welfare across devastated by the war. The agenda later expanded
the world, and the UNDP (United Nations to promote economic development in poorer
35 World War II

countries and the Bank lends money to various The objectives of the IMF are: “to foster
countries for developmental projects. A further global monetary cooperation, secure financial
area of interest is poverty alleviation, especially stability, facilitate international trade, promote
in the rural areas of developing countries. The high employment and sustainable economic
International Development Agency (IDA) also growth and reduce poverty around the world.”
lends money to governments for developmental
activities. These loans are “soft” loans, and are 3.4 Post-War Welfare
given at very low rates of interest for a period of
50 years. The International Finance Corporation States in Europe
(IFC) mainly functions with private enterprises The term Welfare State refers to the concept
in developing countries. that the government is responsible for the
In recent years the Bank is actively social and economic welfare of the people, thus
promoting the achievement of the Millennium expanding the role of the state beyond providing
Development Goals which aim at improving defence and maintaining law and order.
living standards, removing illiteracy,
In 1942, the Report commonly known
empowering women and improving maternal
as the Beveridge Report was published in the
and child health, improving the environment
United Kingdom which proposed a series of
and eradicating AIDS.
measures which the government should adopt
International Monetary Fund to provide citizens with adequate income, health
(IMF) care, education, housing and employment to
The International Monetary Fund was overcome poverty and disease which were the
primarily the brainchild of Harry Dexter major impediments to general welfare.
White and John Maynard Keynes, the famous
After the War, the Labour party was voted
economist. It was formally organized in
1945 with 29 member countries. It now has into power in Britain. It promised to undertake
a membership of 189 countries. Its primary steps to look after the people “from the cradle to
objective is to ensure financial stability and the grave”. Legislation was enacted to provide
development across the world. The main comprehensive free health coverage to the
agenda is to promote international monetary citizens through the National Health Service and
cooperation, expansion of international trade monetary benefits like old page pensions and
and exchange stability. The Fund lends money unemployment benefits, childcare services and
from its resources to countries facing balance family welfare services. These are in addition to
of payments problems (because they are unable universal, free school education to all children.
to pay for their imports). It however imposes
stringent conditions on the borrowing nations The benefits can either be achieved
to tighten their budgets, practice fiscal prudence through cash transfers, like old age pensions
and reduce their expenditure. This is often and unemployment compensation, or through
unpopular, especially among the developing free services. In addition, these countries also
countries which may have to cut down on try to minimize economic disparities through
various programmes which provide subsidies progressive taxation by taxing the higher
to the people. income groups at relatively high rates.
World War II 36

SUMMARY
The War lasted from 1939 till 1945 and was fought in almost every part of the world, in Europe,
Africa and the Asia Pacific. The Allies, initially Britain and France, and subsequently the USSR
(Russia) and the United States, fought against the Axis powers - Germany, Italy and Japan.
Initially both the German army in Europe and Japan in the East were very successful. However, after
the United States with its enormous resources also joined the Allies, both Germany and Japan were
defeated after many prolonged fighting.
The post-War world saw the rise of two superpowers, namely the United States and the USSR. Both
countries were in an arms race, especially to build their nuclear weapons.
GLOSSARY
devastation/ havoc total destruction பேரழிவு

belligerent one eager to fight / aggressive ப�ோர் நாட்டம்
resurgent rising again மீண்டெழுகிற
reparations compensation exacted from a defeated இழப்பீடுகள்
nation by the victors
armaments weapons ப�ோர்த்தளவாடங்கள்
conscripted compulsory military service கட்டாய இராணுவ
சேவைக்கு அழைக்கப்பட்ட
slaughter kill a large number of people வதைத்துக் க�ொல்லுதல்
indiscriminately
proliferation a rapid increase பல்கிப் பெருகுதல்
ghettos slums குடிசைத்தொகுதி
veto a vote that blocks a decision / negative மறுப்பாணை / எதிர்வாக்கு
vote
ambit range வரம்பு / எல்லை
scourge eternal suffering மீளாத்துயரம்
stringent tough கடுமையான
EXERCISE 2. Who initiated the formation of League of

Nations?
I Choose the a) Roosevelt
correct answer b) Chamberlain
1. When did the Japanese formally sign of c) Woodrow Wilson
their surrender? d) Baldwin
a) 2 September, 1945 3.
Where was the Japanese Navy defeated by
b) 2 October, 1945 the US Navy?
c) 15 August, 1945 a) Battle of Guadalcanal
d) 12 October, 1945 b) Battle of Midway
37 World War II

c) Battle of Leningrad III Choose the correct statement
d) Battle of El Alamein Assertion: President Roosevelt realised
1.
that the United States had to change its
4.
Where did the US drop its first atomic
policy of isolation.
bomb?
Reason: He started a programme of Lend
a) Kavashaki Lease in 1941.
b) Innoshima a) Both A and R are correct
b) A is right but R is not the correct reason
c) Hiroshima c) Both A and R are wrong
d) Nagasaki d) R is right but it has no relevance to A
5.
Who were mainly persecuted by Hitler? IV Match the Following
a) Russians 1. Blitzkrieg - Roosevelt

2. Royal Navy - Stalingrad
b) Arabs
3. Lend Lease - Solomon Island
c) Turks 4. Volga - Britain
d) Jews 5. Guadalcanal - lightning strike
6.
Which Prime Minister of England who V Answer the questions briefly
signed the Munich Pact with Germany ? 1.
Who were the three prominent dictators
a) Chamberlain of the post World War I ?
b) Winston Churchill 2.
How did Hitler get the support from the
people of Germany?
c) Lloyd George
3. Describe the Pearl Harbour incident.
d) Stanley Baldwin
4.
What do you know of Beveridge Report?.
7. When was the Charter of the UN signed?
5. Name the Bretton Woods Twins.
a) June 26, 1942
6. What are the objectives of IMF?
b) June 26, 1945
VI Answer in detail
c) January 1, 1942
1.
Analyse the effects of the World War II.
d) January 1, 1945
2.
Assess the structure and the activities of
II Fill in the blanks the UN.
VII Students Activity
1. Hitler attacked which was a
demilitarised zone. 1.
Marking the Allies and Axis countries,
as well as important battlefields of World
2. The alliance between Italy, Germany and
War II in a world map.
Japan is known as .
VIII Map Work
3. started the Lend Lease
programme. Mark the following on the world map.
4.
Britain Prime Minister 1. Axis Power Countries
resigned in 1940. 2. Allied Power Countries
5. is a device used to find out the 3.
Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Hawai Island,
enemy aircraft from a distance. Moscow, San Fransico
World War II 38

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the Twentieth Century, London: Longman, 1972.
2. C.V. Narasimhan, The United Nations - An Inside View, New Delhi: Vikas, 1988.
3. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 23 (1962 edition).
4. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the World (Delhi: Orient Longman, 2007)
ICT CORNER
World War II
Steps
• Click on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location
• Select any year from the bottom time line (Ex.1939) and select the ‘box’ to learn more
about the World War II events.
Website URL:
https://www.abmc.gov/sites/default/files/interactive/interactive_files/WW2/
index.html
39 World War II

Unit - 4
The World After

World War II
Learning Objectives
Communist Revolution in China
Cold War and the Non-Aligned Movement
Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis
Arab–Israeli Wars and Vietnam War
European Economic Community and European Union
Fall of Berlin Wall and the End of Cold War Era
Introduction of US control, European countries started the

European movement in the form of Council
In the aftermath of Second World War
of Europe. This developed into the European
a new era began. It was the beginning of the
Common Market and finally into what is today
decline of European colonial empires and the
the European Union. The Cold War period
independence of colonies in Asia and Africa. If
ended with the fall of Berlin Wall.
the effects of World War I led to the communist
revolution of Russia, the Second World War
played a big part in the communist revolution in 4.1 Chinese Revolution
China. The emergence of the US and the USSR (a) China in the Pre-War Period
as super powers resulted in the division of the
world into two antagonistic blocs. A cold war In its long history, Chinese civilization
situation triggered deadly conflicts in Korea, was more advanced than that of Europe. But by
Cuba, Vietnam and West Asia. the end of the nineteenth century, its progress
had halted. The Manchus, the ruling dynasty,
Under the Marshall Plan for had governed China since about 1650. The
reconstruction of the war-ravaged Europe, the entire administration system was in the hands
US won the trust of the great powers in Europe. of a bureaucracy of scholar-officials called
Soviet Russia, by demonstrating solidarity with mandarins who came from the landed gentry.
the liberation struggles of countries in Asia and The mass of peasant population was poverty-
Africa, earned the goodwill of the latter. stricken, and suffered from high rents, high
The Non-Aligned Movement played a taxes, and shortage of land. There was very little
limited role in containing the conflict between industry, though some railways and engineering
the two power blocs. In a bid to wriggle out works had been built.
40

Discontent with the political and economic and proclaimed their independence. Already
system resulted in a number of peasant uprisings. there were a few middle-class leaders. Dr. Sun
The Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) was a major Yat-sen was one among them. On hearing the
rebellion. In the two opium wars of 1832 and news of the rising in a newspaper in the United
1848, China was defeated and was compelled to States Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai and was
open its ports to western powers. The opening of immediately elected provisional president of
China to western imperialism led to economic the new Chinese Republic.
exploitation and the impoverishment of the
Chinese people. (c) Yuan Shih-kai and After
The European presence produced a The unity of China under

profound hatred of foreigners. This combined Yuan Shih-kai lasted for four
with military defeat, led to more pressing years. On his death in 1916 a
demands for reforms from the Western- new President was appointed
educated intellectuals. In 1898, the young for the next twelve years but
Emperor, initiated a series of reforms known the government was central
as the Hundred Days of Reform. But these only in name. Yuan Shih-kai
reforms aroused tremendous opposition
(d) Communist Party of China
from the powerful conservatives and the
Dowager-Empress Tzú Hsi. She imprisoned the With the Revolution
Emperor and reversed the reforms. and the breakup of the old
society, Confucian thought
(b) The Chinese Revolution 1911 was generally side-lined and
The disintegration of the Manchu dynasty after the Russian Revolution
began with the death of the Dowager-Empress of 1917, the ideas of Marx and
in 1908. The new emperor was two-years old Lenin became popular among
and the provincial governors began to assert intellectuals. In 1918 a Society Chou En Lai
their independence. In October 1911 the local for the Study of Marxism was formed in Peking
army mutinied and the revolt spread. Provincial University. Among the students who attended
governors removed the Manchu garrisons was Mao Tse-tung.
Dr. Sun Yat-sen Mao Tse-tung

(1866–1925) (1893–1976)
Born in a poor family Mao was born in
near Canton, Dr. Sun Yat- Hunan in south-east
sen, the father of modern China. His father was a
china was educated in a wealthy peasant, and a firm
mission school and became supporter of the Manchus.
a Christian. He was then trained as a doctor Mao, who was very fond of reading, soon
of medicine in Hong Kong. Evincing interest showed his ability and entered the Junior
in politics he took part in a rising against College at Changsha. This was the year
the Manchus in 1895. In 1905 he founded (1911) when the Revolution had broken
in Tokyo the political party which in 1912 out in China. Mao joined the revolutionary
became the Kuomintang or the National army but soon left and enrolled in the
People’s Party. Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s three Teachers’ Training College in Changsha.
principles were Nationalism, Democracy, In the following year Mao began his full-
and People’s livelihood with Socialism as the fledged political activities of Hunan and
ultimate object. emerged as a staunch Communist.
41 The World After World War II

Kuomintang and armies. By 1937 Mao had become the leader
Chiang Kai Shek of over 10 million people.
After the death of
Sun Yat Sen the leader
of the Kuomintang was
Chiang Kai-shek. While
the Communist Party was
under Mao Tse Tung and
Chou En Lai. As an avowed
critic of Communists, Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang removed all of them
from important positions in the party. The Mao’s Long March
communists increased their influence among
Japanese Aggression
the workers and peasants and obtained recruits
for their army. The Kuomintang represented the Japan continued to occupy north Chinese
interests of the landlords and capitalists. provinces while developing Manchuria as a
military base. Mao believed that Chiang Kai-
In 1928 he was successful in capturing shek was necessary for some time to hold
Peking. Once again there was a central together Kuomintang to fight the Japanese. As
government in China. a consequence of this pragmatic policy, the
Mao as Organizer of Peasants attacks on the communists gradually stopped.
Communist Victory
Mao had understood that the Kuomintang
grip on the towns was very strong. So he With the surrender of the Japanese (1945),
concentrated his energies on organizing the both the Kuomintang and the communists
peasantry. A few hundred Communists led by sought to occupy the Japanese areas. In this race
Mao retreated into the wild mountains. Here the Kuomintang was successful. The cities and
they stayed for the next seven years. As the army railways soon fell into their hands. Even the area
of Mao was gradually growing, the Kuomintang around Peking was soon controlled by Chiang
was unable to penetrate the mountains. Kai-shek’s forces, largely because of the military
The campaign against the communists was aid given by the USA.
distracted as Chiang Kai-shek had to deal with With the massive support provided by
the constant threat from Japan and also the the USA Kuomintang government controlled
attacks from war lords. the administration, ports and communication
The Long March 1934 system. But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the
peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
As Chiang Kai-shek had built a circle Mao was keen on obtaining the support of
of fortified posts around the communist the middle class. So he declared that what the
positions, Mao wanted to move out of Hunan communists wanted was the rule of the people,
for safer territory. By 1933 Mao had gained full not the dictatorship of the proletariat; the end of
control of the Chinese Communist party. In exploitation, not absolute equality.
1934, the Communist army of about 100,000
National People’s Congress
set out on the Long March. This march has
become legendary. Of the 100000 who set out, In September 1949, before fighting had
only 20,000 finally reached northern Sheni ended in the south of China, the people’s
late in 1935, after crossing nearly 6000 miles. Political Consultative Conference met in
They were soon joined by other communist Peking. Consisting of over 650 delegates from
The World After World War II 42

the Communist Party and other left-wing from the destruction caused by the Second
organizations, the conference elected the World War.
Central Governing Council with Mao as its
Chairman. The United States was
much concerned that
The establishment of the People’s Republic poverty, unemployment,
of China under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung and dislocation caused
was a world-shaking event. There were now two by the post-World War
mighty Communist powers in the world —the II period were increasing
Soviet Union and People’s Republic of China. the appeal of communist
Denial of UNO Membership parties in western Europe.
Marshall
The Secretary of State,
The United-States refused to recognize the
George C. Marshall, advanced the idea of a
People’s Republic of China for more than two
European self-help programme to be financed
decades.
by the United States. Sixteen nations, became
4.2 Cold War: Rivalry part of this programme. Administrative and
technical assistance was offered through
between the US and
the Economic Cooperation Administration
the Soviet Union (ECA) of the United States. Marshall Plan
1. Truman’s Policy of funding ended in 1951.
Containment of Communism
In 1948 the Soviets 4.3 Formation of Military
had established socialist Alliances
governments in the countries
of eastern Europe that had (a) NATO
been liberated from the Nazis The United States and its European allies
by the Soviet Army. Truman, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
the president of USA, pursued Truman (NATO) to resist Soviet aggression in Europe
a policy of containment of communism. (1949). It was an inter-state military alliance
The Soviets were however determined not between the countries of North America and
only to maintain control of eastern Europe, Europe. The major member countries included
but also keen on spreading Communism Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland,
world-wide. Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway,
Cold War: The rivalry that developed after Portugal and the United Kingdom. Later Greece
World War II between the US and the USSR and Turkey joined the organization (1952).
and their respective allies created tension Germany joined the NATO in 1955. The chief
which is referred to as Cold War. They did not objective of NATO was the peace and security
take recourse to weapons. Instead they waged in the North Atlantic region.
war on political, economic and ideological (b) SEATO or Manila Pact (1954)
fronts.
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
2. Marshall Plan (SEATO) was organized for the collective
The US conceived the Marshall Plan security of countries in Southeast Asia. Following
to bring the countries in western Europe the signing of the Manila Pact (1954) by the US,
under its influence. The plan sought to help France, England, New Zealand, Australia, the
the countries of Europe with American Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan. Member
dollars to facilitate their early recovery countries of SEATO were committed to prevent

communism from gaining ground in the region. the communist states led by the Soviet Union
Unlike the NATO alliance, SEATO had no joint came to be known as the Second world. States
commands with standing forces. outside these two were called Third World.
(c) Warsaw Pact 4.5 Non-Aligned Movement
As a counter to the NATO, Soviet Union The Non-Alignment Movement (NAM)
organized the Soviet-bloc countries for a emerged in the wake of decolonization that
united military action, under the Warsaw followed World War II. At the Bandung (a city
Pact. In December 1954, a conference of in Indonesia) conference (1955), the newly
eight European nations namely, Albania, independent countries of Asia and Africa gave
Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East a call for abstaining from allying with any of the
Germany, Poland, Romania and Russia two Super Powers. It also pledged to fight all
took place in Moscow. They concluded the forms of colonialism and imperialism.
treaty on May 14, 1955. This is known as the
Warsaw pact. A joint command of armed forces The NAM held its first conference at
of the member countries with its headquarters Belgrade in 1961 under the leadership of Tito
in Moscow was setup. The Warsaw Pact was (Yugoslavia), Nasser (Egypt), Nehru (India),
dissolved in 1991 following the break-up of Nkrumah (Ghana) and Sukarno (Indonesia).
USSR. The basic principles of non-alignment, as listed
in the statement issued at the Belgrade (a Serbian
(d) CENTO or the Baghdad Pact city, then part of Yugoslavia) Conference, were:
In 1955 Turkey, Iraq, Great Britain, peaceful co-existence, commitment to peace
Pakistan and Iran signed a pact known as and security, no military alliance with any super
Baghdad Pact. In 1958 the United States joined power, no permission for any super power to
the organisation and thereafter it came to be build its military base in its territories. With
known as the Central Treaty Organization. This the collapse of Soviet Union, the idea of non-
treaty was open to any Arab nation desiring alignment lost relevance.
peace and security in the region. CENTO was
dissolved in 1979.
4.4 Korean War
The Korean War made the Cold War really
hot. Since Korea was partitioned as North and
South (1945), each side sought to win legitimacy
by unifying the country. The President of
North Korea Kim II (People’s Republic of
Korea) decided to act before his southern rival,
Syngman Rhee (the Republic of Korea), got the
chance. He launched an attack in June 1950, 4.6 The Cuban Revolution
with the tacit support of Stalin. Both Kim and The United States had
Stalin did not expect the US to intervene. The its satellite states in Central
war lasted for three years. The human cost America (Honduras, El
was enormous. But the Korean people gained Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama
nothing. and Guatemala), the Caribbean
(Cuba, the Dominion Republic
Third World Countries
and Haiti) and east Asia (the Fidel Castro
The capitalist countries led by the U.S. were Philippines, South Korea,
politically designated as the First World, while South Vietnam and Thailand). These states were

governed by ruling groups made up of military Leumi (Zionist Para-military Organization) and
personnel, landed gentry and occasionally of the Stern Gang (Zionist Terrorist Organization)
local capitalists. began to launch terror attacks on a large scale.
After Castro took power, the US-owned Railways, bridges, airfields and government
oil refineries on the island refused to process offices were blown up. The British government,
Russian oil. Castro nationalized them. The presented the dispute to the UN for a decision.
US retaliated by ending the arrangement by Succumbing to the pressure of great
which it bought the bulk of Cuba’s sugar. Castro powers, the UN resolved to partition the
nationalized the US-owned sugar companies. British mandate of Palestine into a Jewish state
and ended the US monopolies in electricity and an Arab state (29 November 1947). Clashes
and telephones. All these gravely threatened broke out almost immediately between Jews
American economic interests. and Arabs in Palestine.
Cuban Missile Crisis Zionist Movement: In Palestine, the ancient
In April 1961, while landing an army of home of Jews, only a few thousand Jews were
Cuban exiles on the island of Bay of Pigs, the living in 1900. Some 15 million were scattered
US bombed Cuban airfields with the objective around Europe and North America. (This is
of overthrowing Castro’s regime. US warships referred to as the Diaspora.) In 1896 Thodore
surrounded Cuba. The Kennedy government Herzel, a Viennese journalist, published a
had received intelligence that the USSR was pamphlet called The Jewish State in which he
secretly installing nuclear missiles in Cuba. called for the creation of a Jewish national
Finally, the Soviet President Khrushchev agreed home. Next year (1897) the World Zionist
to withdraw the missiles and thus the Missile Organisation was founded.
Crisis was defused.
The Israelis, won control of the main road
Eventually the two sides reached an to Jerusalem and successfully repulsed repeated
agreement. The Soviet Union removed the Arab attacks. As a result of separate armistice
missiles from Cuba on an understanding that agreements (1947 Feb-June) between Israel and
the US would never invade Cuba again.
each of the Arab states, a temporary frontier
was fixed between Israel and its neighbours.
4.7 Arab-Israeli War In Israel, the war is remembered as its War of
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) had Independence. In the Arab world, it is treated as
provided for mandates in Turkish Arab Empire. the Nakbah (“Catastrophe”) as a large number
France was given the mandate for Syria and of Arabs became refugees. Israel was admitted
Lebanon, and Britain for Iraq, Palestine and into the UN immediately much against the
Jordan. This arrangement upset the Arabs since wishes of Arabs.
they had expected independence at the end of
World War I. Britain’s promise to Zionist leaders Suez Canal Crisis (1956)
that it would allocate one of the Arab lands, In Egypt, in a coup in 1952, Colonel Nasser
Palestine, to Jewish settlers from Europe further became its President. In 1956 he nationalized
embittered the Arabs. There was growing Arab the Suez Canal, which undermined British
antagonism towards Zionist settlers, as they interests. With the failure of diplomacy, Britain
bought land from rich Arabs and evicted the and France decided to use force. Israel saw this
local peasant families who had been cultivating as an opportunity to open the Gulf of Aqaba
it for centuries. to Israeli shipping and put a stop to Egyptian
At the end of October 1945, the Jewish border raids. On 29 October Israeli forces
underground organizations like Irgun Zvai invaded Egypt. Britain used this opportunity to

demand that its troops be allowed to occupy the Egypt. Accordingly, it was decided to place
canal zone to protect the canal. Egypt refused Jordanian forces under Egyptian command.
and on 31 October Britain and France bombed Soon, Iraq too joined the alliance.
Egyptian airfields and other installations as well
as the Suez Canal area. However, under pressure Israel’s Offensive
of world opinion, Britain and France ended Following the mobilization of Arab states
hostilities on 6 November. India represented by Nasser, on June 5, Israel staged a sudden
by Nehru played a crucial role in resolving the pre-emptive air strike that destroyed more
crisis. than 90 percent of Egypt’s air force on the
tarmac. A similar air assault incapacitated the
Syrian air force. Within three days the Israelis
had achieved an overwhelming victory on
the ground, capturing the Gaza Strip and all
of the Sinai Peninsula up to the east bank of
the Suez Canal.
Yasser Arafat
(1924–2004)
Suez Canal crisis In 1969, Yasser Arafat
became chairman of the
Arab–Israeli War 1967 PLO’s executive committee
Ever since the formation of the Palestinian a position he held until his
Liberation Organization (PLO), Israel came death in 2004. Yasser Arafat
to be attacked frequently by Palestinian was appointed commander-
guerrilla groups based in Syria, Lebanon and in-chief of the all Palestinian Arab guerilla
Jordan. Israeli resorted to violent reprisals. In forces in September 1970. Wearing a disguised
November 1966 an Israeli strike on the village pistol and carrying an olive branch and
of Al-Samū in the Jordanian West Bank, left dressed in a military uniform, his appearance
18 dead and 54 wounded. Israel’s air battle raised world awareness of the Palestinian
with Syria in April 1967 ended in the shooting cause. Arafat was elected by the central
down six Syrian MiG fighter jets. In his bid to council of the PLO as the first president of the
demonstrate Egypt’s support for Syria Nasser state of Palestine on April 2, 1989.
mobilized Egyptian forces in the Sinai, seeking
the removal of UN emergency forces stationed Arab–Israeli War 1973
there on May 18. On May 22 he closed the Gulf
of Aqaba to Israeli shipping. King Hussein of Egypt and
Jordan signed a mutual defence pact with Syria under
Presidents Anwar
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)- Sadat and Hafez al-
It is an umbrella political organization Assad respectively
representing the world’s Palestinians – concluded a secret
all Arabs and their descendants who lived agreement in
in mandated Palestine before the creation January 1973 to Anwar Sadat and
of the State of Israel in 1948. It was formed Hafez al-Assad
bring their armies
in 1964 to federate various Palestinian under one command. Sadat offered the Israelis
groups that previously had operated a peace deal, if they withdrew from Sinai. Israel
as clandestine resistance movements. Yasser rejected the offer. Egypt and Syria launched a
Arafat was its most prominent leader. sudden and surprise attack on the Yom Kippur

religious holiday (6 October 1973). Though The government’s survival in South
Israel suffered heavy casualties it finally pushed Vietnam depended on increasing amounts of
back the Arab forces. Arabs gained nothing US support. In 1965 marines landed at Danang
out of this war too. By way of mediation the naval base, and there were 33,500 US troops
USsucceeded in asserting its hegemony over the in the country within a month. The number
region and its oil. increased and there were 210,000 by the end of
year. The US bombed both North and South in
4.8 Vietnam War the hope that it could force the liberation forces
By the end of Second World War Viet to abandon the struggle. The fighters of North
Minh controlled the northern half of Vietnam. Vietnam, trained in guerilla warfare, had grown
Viet Minh formed a government led by Ho Chi out of spontaneous struggles against a repressive
Minh in Hanoi. This Viet Minh government regime. They sustained their resistance without
quickly occupied the southern half of Vietnam. bowing to the US. The American troops also
However, the Allied Powers decided at Potsdam used bacteriological weapons. Incendiary
that the British in the south and the Chinese in bombs such as napalm and Agent Orange (to
defoliate the forest cover) were used. Vast areas
the north should defend Indo-China from the
of Vietnam were devastated and hundreds of
Japanese. But Ho Chi Minh had established his
thousands of people killed. The American forces
control very firmly and so, early in 1946, the
too suffered heavy casualties.
British and Chinese troops had to withdraw,
leaving the French and Viet Minh to confront
each other. In March the two governments
(French and Viet Minh) reached an agreement
by which North Vietnam was to be a free state,
within an Indo-Chinese Federation.
In 1949 the French attempted to secure the
support of the population by declaring Vietnam,
Laos and Cambodia independent within the
French Union, retaining only foreign affairs and
defence under French control. American Bombing of North Vietnam
Early in 1975, the war took a decisive turn.
While the French were receiving
The armies of North Vietnam and of the National
considerable financial aid from America, the
Liberation Front of South Vietnam swept across
Viet Minh were helped by the new Chinese
the country routing the American supported
communist government. The French troops
troops of South Vietnam. By 30 April 1975, all
were eventually defeated. The Geneva the American troops had withdrawn and the
Conference (1954) that met on Korea and capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was liberated.
Indo China decided that Vietnam was to be an North and South Vietnam were formally united
independent state but temporarily divided; the as one country
Viet Minh to control the north and Bao Dai to in 1976. The city
head the government the south. Cambodia and of Saigon was
Laos were to be independent. renamed as Ho Chi-
With a population of 16 million North Minh City after the
Vietnam became a Communist state with great leader of the
Ho Chi Minh as President. South Vietnam, Vietnamese people.
Ho Chin Minh City (Saigon)
approximately of the same size and population, The emergence
was ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem. of Vietnam as a united and independent

nation was an historic event. A small country competition. A common agricultural policy
had succeeded in winning independence and (CAP) and a common external trade policy
unification in the face of the armed opposition were evolved. European Common market was
of the greatest power in the world. The help a remarkable success.
given to Vietnam by the socialist countries, the
(d) Single European Act (SEA)
political support extended by a large number of
Asian and African countries, and the solidarity The Single European Act came into force
expressed by the peoples in all parts of the on July 1, 1987. It significantly expanded the
world, helped in achieving this. EEC’s scope giving the meetings of the EPC
a legal basis. It also called for more intensive
4.9 Towards European Union coordination of foreign policy among member
(a) Council of Europe countries. According to the SEA, each member
was given multiple votes, depending on the
One of the momentous decisions taken in country’s population. Approval of legislation
the post-War II era was to integrate the states required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all
of Western Europe. In doing so the Europeans members.
wanted (1) to prevent further European wars by
ending the rivalry between France and Germany. (e) European Union (EU)
(2) to create a united Europe to resist any threat The Maastricht (Netherlands) Treaty signed
from Soviet Russia. (3) to form a third force in the on February 7, 1992, created the European
world to counter-balance the strength of the US Union. The monetary policy and a common
and USSR. (4) to make full use of the economic currency (euro) to replace national currencies
and military resources of Europe by organizing managed by common monetary institutions
them on a continental scale. In May 1949 ten were subsequently planned and implemented.
countries met in London and signed to form a Today the European Union has 28 member
Council of Europe. The Council of Europe with states, and functions from its headquarters at
headquarters at Strasbourg was established with Brussels, Belgium.
a committee of foreign ministers of member
countries and a Consultative Assembly, drawn 4.10 Fall of Berlin Wall and
from the parliaments of foreign countries. End of Cold War Era
(b) European Coal and Steel The division of Germany
Community (ECSC) into West (Federal Republic of
The European Defence Community (EDC) Germany) and East (German
and the European Coal and Steel Community Democratic Republic) led to
(ECSC) were established. Six countries (France, glaring differences in living
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and standards. West Berlin’s
Luxemburg belonging to ECSC signed the economy became prosperous
treaty of Rome which established the European thanks to the support received from the West
Economic Community (EEC) or the European under the Marshall Plan. In contrast the USSR
Common Market, with headquarters at Brussels. had little interest in developing the economy
of East Berlin. Further, people in East Berlin
(c) E
uropean Economic suffered from lack of democracy and freedom.
Community (EEC) Therefore, people of East Berlin moved to West
The EEC eliminated barriers to the Berlin in large numbers. In West Berlin, on the
movement of goods, services, capital, and other hand, there was a fear that the Soviets
labour. It also prohibited public policies or could use military force to take West Berlin. In
private agreements that restricted market this context, East Germany began to construct

a wall in 1961 which virtually cut off West available to USSR. In the middle of the 1980s
Berlin from East Berlin and the surrounding about one third of the total GDP was going to
East German areas. It was heavily guarded with the military. In order to maintain a parity with
watch towers and other lethal impediments to the US, in the context of President Reagan’s
stop people from the East. In the late 1980s, as Star Wars programme, it became necessary for
USSR’s hold over Eastern European countries the Soviet Union to allocate more funds to the
was weakening, a mass of people assembled on military. The increase in military budget further
9 November 1989 on both sides of the wall and strained the Soviet economy.
began to demolish it. Germany was officially
The year 1988 saw the first mass protests
reunited on 3 October 1990. The Berlin Wall
–first in Armenia, and then in the Baltic States.
was more than just a physical barrier. It was a
symbolic boundary between communism and Earlier Soviet regimes had used severe repression
capitalism. With the fall of the Berlin Wall, to quell such uprisings. Gorbachev could not take
followed by the collapse of the Soviet Union, the recourse to such brutal measures. The Chernobyl
Cold War era came to an end. Disaster, a major accident in a nuclear plant in
Ukraine, in 1986, was another blow. Gorbachev
made moves to stabilise his position by reliance
on conservative forces in 1989 and 1991. But on
each occasion he was interrupted by massive
miners’ strike which came close to cripple the
country’s energy supplies.
The East European communist states,
under the Soviet umbrella, were also in a deep
economic and social crisis. Gorbachev’s decision
Demolition of Berlin wall to loosen the Soviet control on the countries
Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of West Germany of Eastern Europe created an independent,
from 1982 to 1990, and played a crucial democratic momentum. A series of workers’
role in integrating East Germany into West strikes undermined the communist regimes
Germany in 1990. He thus became the first first in Poland and then in Hungary. A wave
chancellor of a unified Germany after forty of demonstrations that swept East Germany
five years of division. With French president led to demolition of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
Mitterand, Kohl was the architect of the
Perestroika (‘restructuring’) refers to
Maastricht Treaty, which established the
the programme introduced by Mikhail
European Union (EU) and the euro currency.
Gorbachev in the late 1980s to restructure
Disintegration of the Soviet Union Soviet economic and political system. Along
with the policy of ‘Glasnost’ (‘openness),
In the 1970s and early 1980s the Soviet Perestroika was intended to energize Soviet
Union continued to retain a strong and economy which was lagging behind the
dominant position in international politics. developed countries of the capitalist world.
However, its economy was suffering, and was
unable to match the productive capacity of the Glasnost (‘openness’) was a policy of
first world. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev took ideologically openness introduced by
over as head of the USSR. Gorbachev spoke Mikhail Gorbachev along with Perestroika
about the need for openness (Glasnost) and in the 1980s. Under Glasnost there was more
reform (perestroika). But his commitment to openness, writers who had been censored
reform, apart from opposition within the ruling earlier were rehabilitated, and there was space
communist party, did not match the resources for criticism of politics and government.

Yeltsin was first an ally of Gorbachev. However, as Mayor of
Moscow, Yeltsin won great popularity as a champion of political and
economic freedom. With Gorbachev’s introduction of democratic
elections for the Soviet parliament, Yeltsin was returned to power
with overwhelming support of a Moscow constituency in 1989. The
following year he was elected President of Russia over Gorbachev’s
objections. President Yeltsin advocated greater autonomy of the
Yeltsin Gorbachev
Russian Republic, with executive presidential system that would
allow him to govern independently of parliament.
Subsequent to it, regimes in Czechoslovakia, other military units refused to back them and
followed by Bulgaria, fell. An attempt by as a result power fell into the hands of Boris
Romania’s Nicolae Ceaușescu to resist the wave of Yeltsin, a reformer backed by the West.
change by shooting down demonstrators ended
In the meantime, three Baltic States had
in his execution by a firing squad (December
1989) under the command of his own generals. formally left the Soviet Union. They were
The televised images of the shooting and the admitted to the U.N. as independent countries:
fall of the Berlin Wall galvanized the process of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In November
the breaking up of the communist world. In six 1991 eleven republics (Ukraine, Georgia,
months the political map of half of Europe had Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
been redrawn. Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan
and Uzbekistan) announced secession from the
Gorbachev made a last attempt to take a
hard line against the disruptionist only to be Soviet Union. Instead, they declared they would
challenged by a second great miners’ strike in establish a Commonwealth of Independent
1991and huge demonstrations in Moscow. In States. On 25 December Gorbachev announced
response, conservative forces in his government his resignation. For six days the Soviet Union
attempted to take a hard line without Gorbachev. continued to exist only in name and at midnight
They used troops in Moscow to stage a coup, on 31 December 1991, it was formally dissolved.
and held Gorbachev under house arrest. But The USSR was no more.
SUMMARY
The history of China becoming a Communist country in the aftermath of Second War is
narrated with the portrayal of developments there after the revolution of 1911.
Rivalry between the US and the USSR, leading to the division of world into two military
blocs and the significance of NATO and Warsaw Pact, are highlighted.
Cold War developments are illustrated with cases of Korean War, Cuban Missile Crisis,
Arab-Israeli Wars and Vietnam War.
Launch of Non-Alignment Movement, representing the view-points of Third World
countries, is described.
Establishment of Council of Europe to act independently of the influence of USA that later
developed into European Common Market and into European Union today is explained.

GLOSSARY
antagonistic acting against or indicating பகையுணர்வு க�ொண்ட
wriggle out to avoid doing something நழுவுதல்
the act of rising to an important position or a higher
ascension
level, a movement upward வளர்ச்சி, உயர்வு
disappointed on finding out something is not as

disillusioned
good as hoped அதிருப்தி
abstaining restrain oneself from doing something விலகியிருத்தல், ஒதுங்கியிருத்தல்

embitter cause to feel bitter – to make hateful வெறுப்புணர்ச்சி, கசப்புணர்வு
incapacitated lacking in or deprived of strength or power திறனற்றதாக்குதல், முடமாக்குதல்
bacteriological
weapons
the use of harmful bacteria as a weapon நுண்ணுயிரியல் ஆயுதங்கள்
5. When was North and South Vietnam

united?
EXERCISE
a) 1975 b) 1976 c) 1973 d) 1974
I Choose the correct 6. When was the Warsaw Pact dissolved?
answer a) 1979 b) 1989 c) 1990 d) 1991
1. Which American II Fill in the blanks
President followed the policy of containment 1. was known as
of Communism?. the “Father of modern China”.
a) Woodrow Wilson 2. In 1918, the society for the study of Marxism
b) Truman was formed in University.
3. After the death of Dr. Sun Yat Sen, the
c) Theodore Roosevelt
leader of the Kuomintang party was
d) Franklin Roosevelt .
2. When was People’s Political Consultative 4. treaty is open to any Arab
Conference held in China? nation desiring peace and security in the
a) September 1959 b) September 1948 region.
5. The treaty of provided for
c) September 1954 d) September 1949
mandates in Turkish -Arab Empire.
3. The United States and European allies 6. Germany joined the NATO in
formed to resist any Soviet .
aggression in Europe. 7. was the Headquarters of
a) SEATO b) NATO the Council of Europe.
c) SENTO d) Warsaw Pact 8. treaty signed on February
4. Who became the Chairman of the PLO’s 7, 1992 created the European Union.
Executive Committee in 1969? III Choose the correct statement/statements
a) Hafez al-Assad 1. i) In China (1898) the young emperor, under
b) Yasser Arafat the influence of the educated minority,
c) Nasser initiated a series of reforms known as the
100 days of reforms.
d) Saddam Hussein

ii) The Kuomintang Party represented the IV Match the following
interests of the workers and peasants. 1. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen - South Vietnam
iii) Yuan Shih-Kai had lost prestige in the 2. Syngman Rhee - Kuomintung
eyes of Nationalists, when he agreed to 3. Anwar Sadat - South Korea
the demand of Japan to have economic 4. Ho-Chi Minh - Egypt
control of Manchuria and Shantung. 5. Ngo Dinh Diem - North Vietnam
iv) Soviet Union refused to recognize the V Answer briefly
People’s Republic of China for more than 1. Write any three causes for the Chinese
two decades. Revolution of 1911.
a) (i) and (ii) are correct 2. Write a note on Mao’s Long March.
b) (ii) and (iii) are correct 3. What do you know of Baghdad Pact?
c) (i) and (iii) are correct 4. What was Marshall Plan?
d) (i) and (iv) are correct 5. Write a note on Third World Countries.
2. i) In 1948, the Soviets had established left 6. How was the Cuban missile crisis defused?
wing government in the countries of VI Answer in detail
Eastern Europe that had been liberated by
1. Estimate the role of Mao Tse tung in
the Soviet Army. making China a communist country.
ii)
The chief objective of NATO was to 2. Narrate the history of transformation
preserve peace and security in the North of Council of Europe into an European
Atlantic region. Union.
iii) The member countries of SEATO were
committed to prevent democracy from VII Activity
gaining ground in the region. 1. Divide the class into two groups. Let one
group act as supporters of USA and the
iv) Britain used the atomic bomb against
other group act as supporters of Soviet
Japan to convey its destructive capability
Union, Organise a debate.
to the USSR.
2. Involving the entire class, an album may
a) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are correct be prepared with pictures relating to
b) (i) and (ii) are correct Korean, Arab-Israeli and Vietnam Wars to
c) (iii) and (iv) are correct highlight the human sufferings in terms
d) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct of death and devastation.
3. Assertion (A): America’s Marshall Plan
REFERENCE BOOKS
was for reconstruction of the war-ravaged
Europe. 1. R.D. Cornvell, World History in the
Reason (R): The US conceived the Marshal Twentieth Century (London: Longman,
Plan to bring the countries in the Western 1972)
Europe under its influence. 2. Richard Overy, Complete History of the
a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but R is not World (London: Harper Collins, 2006)
the correct explanation of A 3. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
b) B
oth (A) and (R) are wrong World (London: Orient Longman, 2007)
c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is the
correct explanation of A INTERNET RESOURCES
d) (A) is wrong and (R) is correct 1. https://www.brittanica.com

Unit - 5
Social and
Religious Reform
Movements in the
19th Century
Learning Objectives
The influence of Western ideas and Christianity in creating a new
awakening in 19th century British India
Contestation in the social and religious sphere – opposition to
practices like sati, slavery, untouchability, and child marriage
Opposition to idolatry, rituals and superstitious beliefs
Contribution of Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Theosophical
Society and Aligarh Movement to the regeneration of India
Role played by prominent personalities in bringing about this awakening amongst
Parsees and Sikhs
Social movement of Jyotiba Phule and reform movements in Kerala and Tamilnadu
Introduction like the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj

and the Aligarh Movement; and the revivalist
English education, introduced with the movements such as the Arya Samaj, the
object of producing clerks, also produced a Ramakrishna Mission and the Deoband
new English-educated middle class. This class Movement. There were also attempts to
came under the influence of western ideas and challenge the oppressive social structure by
thoughts. Christianity also had its effect on the
Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana Guru and
newly emerging middle class. Though small in
Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga Adigal, and
number, the educated middle class began to take
Iyothee Thassar of Tamil Nadu.
a lead in political as well as in reform movements.
The Indian reformers were, however, quite 5.1 Early Reform
hesitant to subject their old notions and habits Movements in Bengal
to critical scrutiny. Instead they attempted to
harmonize both Indian and Western cultures. (a) Raja Rammohan Roy and
Their ideas and their actions helped to mitigate Brahmo Samaj
social evils such as sati, female infanticide, and Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) was one
child marriage and various superstitious beliefs. of the earlier reformers influenced by the
The reform movements of nineteenth Western ideas to initiate reforms. He was a
century in the realm of religion fall under great scholar, well-versed in Sanskrit, Arabic,
two broad categories: reformist movements Persian, and English apart from his knowledge
53

in his mother tongue, (b) Maharishi Debendranath
Bengali. Rammohan Tagore
Roy was opposed to After the death of
meaningless religious Rammohan Roy (1833),
ceremonies and all forms Maharishi Debendranath
of pernicious social Tagore (1817–1905), the
customs. Yet he wanted poet Rabindranath Tagore’s
to preserve continuity father, carried on the work.
with the past. In his He laid down four articles
religio–philosophical Raja Rammohan Roy of faith: Debendranath
social outlook, he was deeply influenced by Tagore
monotheism and anti-idolatry. Based on his 1. In the beginning there
interpretation of the Upanishads, he argued was nothing. The one Supreme Being alone
that all the ancient texts of the Hindus preached existed who created the Universe.
monotheism or worship of one God. 2.
He alone is the God of Truth, Infinite
Deeply concerned with the prevailing Wisdom, Goodness, and Power, eternal,
omnipresent, the One without second.
customs of sati, child marriage, and polygamy
he published tracts against them and petitioned 3. Our salvation depends on belief in Him and
the government to legislate against them. He in His worship in this world and the next.
advocated the rights of widows to remarry. He 4. Belief consists in loving Him and doing His
wanted polygamy to end. He appealed to reason will.
and humanity and compassion of the people.
His campaign played a key role in forcing (c ) Keshab Chandra Sen &
the Governor-General William Bentinck’s Brahmo Samaj of India
legislation abolishing sati in 1829. Debendranath was
Rammohan Roy condemned the a moderate reformer. But
subjugation of women and opposed the his younger colleagues
prevailing ideas that women were inferior in the Sabha were for
rapid changes. The
to men. He strongly advocated education
greatest of these, Keshab
for women. He gave his full support for the
Chandra Sen, (1838–84)
introduction of English language and western
joined the movement in
sciences in schools and colleges.
1857. But in 1866 a split
Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo occurred in the ranks of Keshab Chandra Sen
Samaj on 20 August 1828. He opened a temple Brahmo Samaj. Keshab
in Calcutta, where there was no image. There left the Samaj and founded a new organization.
he laid down that ‘no religion should be reviled Debendranath’s organization, thereafter, came
or slightly or contemptuously spoken off or to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj. After
alluded to.’ The Samaj forbade idol-worship Keshab had his fourteen-year-old daughter
and condemned meaningless religious rites and married to an Indian prince, in contravention
ceremonies. However, from the beginning, the of the Samaj’s condemnation of child marriages,
appeal of the Brahmo Samaj remained limited the opponents of child marriage left the Brahmo
to the intellectuals and enlightened Bengalis. Samaj of India and started the Sadharan Samaj.
Though the Samaj failed to attract the people
from the lower sections of society, its impact (d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
on the culture of modern Bengal and its middle Another outstanding reformer in Bengal
class was quite significant. was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891).
Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 54

While Ram Mohan founder of the Widow Marriage Association
Roy and others looked (1861), the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) and
to western rationalist the Deccan Education Society (1884).
ideas to reform society,
Vidyasagar argued that
the Hindu scriptures
were progressive. He
provided evidence from
scriptures that there
was no sanction for Iswar Chandra
burning of widows or Vidyasagar
for the prohibition on
the remarriage of widows. He wrote a number
of polemical tracts, and was the pioneer of Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang M.G. Ranade
modern Bengali prose. He played a leading role
in promoting education of girls and helped them 5.2 Hindu Revivalism
in setting up a number of schools. He dedicated
his whole life for the betterment of the child (a) Swami Dayanand Saraswati
widows of the Hindu society. The movement and Arya Samaj 1875
led by Vidyasagar, resulted in the Widows’ In the Punjab,
Remarriage Reform Act of 1856. This Act was the reform movement
intended to improve the lot of child widows and was spearheaded by
save them from perpetual widowhood. the Arya Samaj. It was
It was also to the credit of Vidyasagar founded (1875) by a
that the first age of consent was included in wandering ascetic in
the Indian Penal code, which was enacted in the western Gangetic
1860. The age for marriage was fixed as ten plain, Swami Dayanand
years. It was raised to twelve and thirteen Saraswati (1824–83). Swami Dayanand
Swami Dayanand later Saraswati
years in 1891 and 1925 respectively. Sadly, as
reported in the Age of Consent Committee settled in the Punjab to preach his ideas.
(1929), the law remained on paper and the His book, Satyarthaprakash, enjoyed wide
knowledge of it was confined to judges, circulation. He declared the practices such
lawyers and a few educated men. as child marriage, the prohibition of widow
remarriage, and the alleged polluting effects of
(e) Prarthana Samaj foreign travel had no scriptural sanction. The
The Maharashtra region was another positive principles enunciated by Dayanand
region where reform activities gained steam. were: strict monotheism, condemnation of
A movement similar to the Brahmo Samaj, but idolatry, and rejection of Brahman domination
founded in Bombay in 1867, was Prarthana of ritual and social practices. He also rejected
Samaj. Its founder was Dr. Atma Ram superstitious beliefs in Hinduism and his cry
Pandurang (1825–1898). The two distinguished was “go back to Vedas.”
members of this Samaj were R.C. Bhandarkar Arya Samaj attempted to check the
and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade. They incidence of religious conversion in British
devoted themselves to activities such as inter- India. One of its main objectives was counter-
caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow conversion, prescribing a purificatory ceremony
remarriage and improvement of women and called suddhi, directed at Hindus who had
depressed classes. Ranade (1842–1901) was the converted to Islam and Christianity.
55 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century

The primary achievements of the Arya (c) Swami Vivekananda
Samaj were in the field of social reform and
Narendra Nath Datta
spread of education. The Samaj started a
(l863–1902), later known
number of Dayananda Anglo–Vedic schools
as Swami Vivekananda,
and colleges.
was the prime follower
(b) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa of R amakrishna
Paramahamsa. An
Ramakrishna (l836–86), a simple priest educated youth, he was
of Dakshineswar near Kolkata, emphasised drawn to Ramakrishna’s
the spiritual union with god through ecstatic message. Dissatisfied
practices such as singing bhajans. An ardent with conventional Swami
worshipper of goddess Kali, the sacred philosophical positions Vivekananada
mother, he declared that the manifestations of and practices, he advocated the practical
the divine mother were infinite. In his view, Vedanta of service to humanity and attacked
all religions contain the universal elements the tendency to defend every institution simply
which, if practised, would lead to salvation. because it was connected with religion. He
He said, “Jiva is Siva” (all living beings are emphasized a cultural nationalism and made
God). Service for man, must be regarded as a call to Indian youth to regenerate Hindu
God.’ society. His ideas bred a sense of self-confidence
among Indians who felt inferior in relation to
the materialist achievements of the West. He
became famous for his addresses on Hinduism
at the 1893 World Congress of Religions in
Chicago. Despite his fame, he was condemned
by orthodox Hindus for suggesting that the
lower castes should be allowed to engage
in the Hindu rituals from which they were
Ramakrishna Ramakrishna Mission,
traditionally excluded. Vivekananda’s activist
Paramahamsa Belur Math
ideology rekindled the desire for political
change among many western-education young
Ramakrishna Mission
Bengalis. Many of the youths who were involved
Ramakrishna’s primary achievement in the militant nationalist struggle during the
was his ability to attract educated youth Swadeshi movement following the Partition of
who were dissatisfied with the rational Bengal were inspired by Vivekananda.
orientation of religious reform organizations
such as the Brahmo Samaj. After his death (d) Theosophical Movement
in 1886, his disciples organised themselves The Theosophical Society was founded
as a religious community and undertook by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1831–1891) and
the task of making his life and teaching Colonel H.S Olcott (1832–1907). Founded
known in India and abroad. The chief spirit in the USA in 1875, it later shifted to India at
behind this task was Vivekananda. Following Adyar, Chennai in 1886.
the organizational structure of Christian
missionaries, Vivekananda established the Theosophical Society stimulated a study of
Ramakrishna Mission which did not restrict the Hindu classics, especially the Upanishads
itself to religious activities but was actively and the Bhagavad Gita. The Theosophical
involved in social causes such as education, Society also played an important role in the
health care and relief in times of calamities. revival of Buddhism in India. Western interest

in Hindu scriptures gave educated Hindus great scholar in Malayalam,
pride in their tradition and culture. Tamil and Sanskrit.
Disturbed by the
Contribution of Annie Besant
terrible caste tyranny,
In India the movement that the lower caste
became further popular people suffered, he
with the election of Annie dedicated his whole
Besant (1847–1933) as its life for the betterment
president after the death of of the oppressed. He Narayana Guru
Olcott. She played a role in set up the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana
Indian nationalist politics, Yogam, an organization to work for the uplift of
and formed the Home Rule the “depressed classes”. He established a grand
League demanding home Annie Besant temple at Aruvipuram and dedicated it to all.
rule to India on the lines of Ireland. Annie Thinkers and writers such as Kumaran Asan
Besant spread Theosophical ideas through her and Dr Palpu were influenced by his ideas and
newspapers called New India and Commonweal. carried forward the movement.
(c) Ayyankali
5.3 Anti-Caste Movements
Ayyankali was born in 1863 at Venganoor
(a) Jyotiba Phule in Thiruvananthapuram
then in the princely
Jyotiba Govindrao Phule was born in 1827
state of Travancore.
in Maharashtra. He opened the first school for
The discrimination he
“untouchables” in 1852 in Poona. He launched
faced as a child turned
the Satyashodak Samaj (Truth-Seekers Society)
him into a leader of an
in 1870 to stir the non-Brahman masses to
anti-caste movement
self-respect. Phule opposed child marriage and
and who later fought for
supported widow remarriage. Jyotiba and his
basic rights including
wife Savitribai Phule devoted their lives for the
access to public spaces
uplift of the depressed classes and women. Jotiba
and entry to schools. Ayyankali
opened orphanages and homes for widows. His
work, Gulamgiri (Slavery) is an important text Inspired by Sree Narayana Guru, Ayyankali
that summarized many of his radical ideas. founded the Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangam
(Association for the Protection of the Poor) in
1907.
5.4 Islamic Reforms

After the suppression of great revolt of 1857
Indian Muslims looked to Western culture with
suspicion. The community feared that Western
education, Western culture and Western ideas
would endanger their religion. Therefore only
a small section of Muslims accepted the new
Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule avenues for modern education.
(b) Narayana Guru Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan
Born to poor parents in Kerala, Narayana Born in Delhi into a noble Muslim
Guru (1854–1928) evolved into a poet and family, Sayyid Ahmed Khan thought that lack

of education, especially Naoroji founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan
modern education, had Sabha (Parsis’ Reform Society) in 1851. Rast
harmed the Muslims greatly Goftar (The Truth Teller) was the main voice of
and kept them backward. the movement. Behrramji Malabari organized
He exhorted the Muslims a campaign for legislation against the practice
to accept Western science of child marriage. The community produced
and take up government many leaders such as Pherozeshah Mehta and
services. He founded Sayyid Ahmed Dinshaw Wacha who played a big role in the
a scientific society and Khan early Congress.
translated many English books, especially
science books into Urdu. He believed that the 5.6 Sikh Reform Movement
interest of the Muslims would be best served (Nirankaris and
if they bonded with the British Government Namdharis)
rather than pitch in with the rising nationalist
movement. So he advised the Muslims to take Among the Sikhs of Punjab too there were
to English education and to concentrate on it. attempts to reform. Baba Dayal Das, founder of
the Nirankari Movement, stressed the worship
Aligarh Movement of god as Nirankar (formless). Rejection of idols,
Sayyid Ahmed Khan’s movement, the rejection of rituals associated with idolatry,
“Aligarh movement,” is so called because it was reverence for the authority of Guru Nanak
centred around the Aligarh Mohammedan and of the Adi Granth formed the essence of
Anglo-Oriental college founded by him in 1875, his teachings. He reiterated the prohibition on
which is a landmark in the history of Indian meat-eating, and liquor consumption.
Muslim education. The college was raised to the
The Namdhari Movement, founded by
status of a university in 1920.
Baba Ram Singh, was another socio-religious
Deoband Movement movement among the Sikhs. The Namdharis
Deoband was a revivalist movement insisted on wearing the symbols of Sikhism
organized by the orthodox Muslim Ulema. The except the kirpan (sword). Instead Baba Ram
Ulema under the leadership of Muhammad Singh wanted his followers to carry a lathi. It
QasimWanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmad considered both men and women equal and
Gangotri (1828-1905) founded the school at accepted widow remarriage. It prohibited the
Deoband in the Saharanpur district of the U.P dowry system and child marriage.
in 1866. The school curricula shut out English In the wake of the gathering influence of
education and western culture. The instruction Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries,
imparted was in original Islamic religion and the Singh Sabha of Amritsar was established.
the aim was moral and religious regeneration of Its main objective was to restore the purity
the Muslim community. of Sikhism. With the support of British, it
Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hassan became the established Khalsa College for the Sikhs in
new Deoband leader. The Jamait-Ul-Ulema Amritsar. Singh Sabha was a forerunner of
(council of theologians) led by him gave a Akali Movement.
concrete shape to Hassan’s ideas of protection of
the religious and political rights of the Muslims 5.7 S
ocial Reformers of
in the overall context of Indian unity. Tamilnadu
5.5 Parsi Reform Movement (a) Ramalinga Swamigal
In the middle of the nineteenth century the Popularly known as Vallalar, Ramalinga
reform activities began in Mumbai. Furdunji Swamigal or Ramalinga Adigal (1823–1874),

was born in Marudhur, a b. Iyothee Thassar
village near Chidambaram.
Pandithar Iyothee
After his father’s death, his
Thassar (1845–1914)
family moved to his brother’s
was a radical Tamil
house at Chennai. Despite
scholar, writer, siddha
having no formal education
medicine practitioner,
he gained immense
journalist and socio-
scholarship. Ramalinga emphasised the bonds
political activist. Born in
of responsibility and compassion between living
Chennai, he was fluent in Iyothithassar
beings. He expressed the view that ‘those who
Tamil, English, Sanskrit
lack compassion for suffering beings are hard-
and Pali languages. He
hearted, their wisdom clouded’. He showed
campaigned for social justice and worked
his compassion and mercy on all living beings
for the emancipation of the “untouchables”
including plants. This he called jeevakarunya.
from the caste clutches. He worked for the
He established the Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga
construction of a casteless identity and
Sangam in 1865 and it was renamed “Samarasa
castigated caste hegemony and untouchability.
Suddha Sanmarga Satya Sanga” which means
He considered education as an important tool
“Society for Pure Truth in Universal self-hood”.
for empowerment and became the driving force
Ramalinga also established a free feeding house
behind the establishment of several schools for
for everyone irrespective of caste at Vadalur
the “untouchables” in Tamil Nadu.
(1867), in the wake of a terrible famine in
south India in 1866. His voluminous songs Pandithar Iyothee Thassar founded the
were compiled and published under the title Advaidananda Sabha to raise the voice for the
Thiruvarutpa (Songs of Grace). temple entry of the “untouchables”. In 1882,
John Rathinam and Iyothee Thassar established
a movement called, Dravida Kazhagam and
launched a magazine called Dravida Pandian in
1885. He founded the Dravida Mahajana Sabha
in 1891and organised the First Conference of
the association at Nilgiris.
Ramalinga Vadalur Satya Gnana Sabha Pandithar Iyothee Thassar was disappointed
Adigal with the Hindu dharma, which served as the
basis for propagating and validating caste in
Ramalinga bore witness to hunger and Hindu society. Influenced by the Theosophist
poverty in the country: “I saw poor people, organizer, Colonel H.S. Olcott, he went to Sri
emaciated with hunger and terribly weary, Lanka in 1898 and converted to Buddhism. In
going to every house, yet their hunger was the same year, he founded the Sakya Buddhist
not removed, and my heart suffered intensely. Society at Madras to construct the rational
Those who suffer with relentless disease, I saw religious philosophy through Buddhist religion.
them in front of me and my heart trembled.
I saw those people, poor and of unmatched He started a weekly journal, Oru Paisa
honor, their hearts weary, and I grew weak.” Tamilan, in 1907 and published it until his
demise in 1914.

SUMMARY
The foundation of Brahmo Samaj by Ram mohan Roy and the role played by Maharishi

Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen in carrying forward the Brahmo Samaj activities
after Roy’s death are discussed.
The contribution of M.G. Ranade and Prarthana Samaj with which he was associated are examined.

The attempts made by Arya Samaj under the aegis of Swami Dayanad Saraswati to reform Hinduism

as well as to win converts to the Hindu fold are highlighted.
The radical reformer Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his strivings for women’s cause are described.

The role of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple Swami Vivekananda in the transformation

of Hinduism is explained.
The work done by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra and IyotheeThassar in Tamilnadu to obtain social

justice for the marginalized and the deprived sections of the population is reviewed.
GLOSSARY
Alleged stated but not proved ச�ொல்லப்படும்
Ecstatic in a state of extreme happiness பரவசமான
Voluminous bulky அதிகப் பரிமாணமுள்ள
Reiterated repeat a statement for emphasis வலியுறுத்துதல்
Idolatry the practice of worshipping idols உருவ வழிபாடு
Tract a small booklet சிறு நூல்
Revelation disclosure திருவெளிப்பாடு
EXERCISE 3. Whose campaign and work led to the

enactment of Widow Remarriage Reform
Act of 1856?
I Choose the
correct answer a) Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
1. In which year was Sati abolished? b) Raja Rammohan Roy
a) 1827 b) 1829 c) 1826 d) 1927 c) Annie Besant
2. What was the name of the Samaj founded d) Jyotiba Phule

by Dayanand Saraswati? 4. Whose voice was Rast Goftar?
a) Arya Samaj a) Parsi Movement
b) Brahmo Samaj b) Aligarh Movement
c) Prarthana Samaj c) Ramakrishna Mission
d) Adi Brahmo Samaj d) Dravida Mahajana Sabha

5.
Who was the founder of Namdhari 2. i) Prarthana Samaj was founded by
Movement? Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang
a) Baba Dayal Das b) Baba Ramsingh ii) Prarthana Samaj encouraged inter-dining
and inter-caste marriage
c) Gurunanak d) Jyotiba Phule
iii) Jyotiba Phule worked for the upliftment
6.
Who was the founder of Widow of men.
Remarriage Association?
iv) Prarthana Samaj had it’s origin in the
a) M.G. Ranade Punjab.
b) Devendranath Tagore a) i) is correct
b) ii) is correct
c ) Jyotiba Phule
c) i) and ii) are correct
d) Ayyankali d) iii) and iv) are correct
7.
Who was the author of the book 3. i) R amakrishna Mission was actively
Satyarthaprakash ? involved in social causes such as
a) Dayananda Saraswathi education, health care, relief in time of
b) Iyothee Thassar calamities.
ii) Ramakrishna emphasised the spiritual
c) Annie Besant
union with god through ecstatic practices.
d) Swami Shradanatha iii) R amakrishna established the
II Fill in the blanks Ramakrishna Mission
iv) Ramakrishna opposed the Partition of
1. founded the Samarasa Vedha
Bengal
Sanmarga Sangam.
a) i) is correct b) i) and ii) are correct
2. The founder of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
c) iii) is correct d) i), iii) or iv) correct
was .
4. Assertion: Jyotiba Phule opened
3. Gulumgir was written by .
4. Ramakrishna Mission was established by orphanages and homes for widows
. Reason: Jyotiba Phule opposed child
5. was the forerunner of Akali marriage and supported widow remarriage
Movement. a)Assertion is correct but reason is not apt
6. O ru paisa Tamilan was started by to the assertion
. b) Assertion is correct and the reason is apt
III Choose the correct statement to the assertion
c) Both are wrong
1. i) R aja Rammohan Roy preached
d) Reason is correct but assertion is
monotheism
irrelevant
ii) He encouraged idolatry
iii) He published tracts condemning social IV Match the following
evils 1. Oru paisa - Widows Remarriage
iv) Raja Rammohan Roy was supported by Tamilan Reform Act
Governor General William Bentinck 2. Thiruvarutpa - Nirankari
a) i) is correct 3. Baba Dayal Das - Adi Bramo Samaj
b) i) and ii) are correct 4. Iswarchandra
c) i), ii) and iii) are correct Vidyasagar - Journal
d) i), iii) and iv) are correct 5. Debendranath - Songs of Grace

V Answer briefly 2. Debate Social evils of 19th century with
those of present day.
1. Mention the four articles of faith laid
down by Maharishi Debendranath REFERENCE BOOKS
Tagore?
1. Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-Religious Reform
2. Discuss Mahadev Govind Ranade’s
Movement in British India, New Edition,
contribution to social reforms.
Cambridge University Press, 2006.
3. Write a note on reforms of Ramalinga
Adigal. 2. Manickam, S., “Depressed Class
Movement in South India,” in Manikumar
4. List the social evils eradicated by Brahmo K.A. (ed.), History and Society,
Samaj. Tirunelveli, 1996.
5. Highlight the work done by Jyotiba
3. V. Geetha and S.V. Rajathurai, Towards
Phule for the welfare of the poor and the
a Non-Brahmin Millennium from Iyothee
marginalized. Thass to Periyar, Calcutta, 1998.
VI Answer in detail 4. Mohan, P. Sanal (2013), “Religion, Social
1. Discuss the circumstances that led to the Space, and Identity: The Prathyaksha
Reform movements of 19th century. Raksha Daiva Sabha and the Making of
Cultural Boundaries in Twentieth Century
2. Evaluate the contributions of Ramakrishna
Kerala”, in Joan Mencher(ed.), Life as a
Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda to
Dalit: Views from the Bottom on Caste in
regenerate Indian society. India, SAGE Publications.
3. Write an essay on the role played by the
19th century reformers towards the cause INTERNET RESOURCES
of Women.
VII Activity 1. https://www.deccanherald.com.
1. Role-play by students on Reformers and 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
their Reforms of the 19th century India. timesofindia.com
ICT CORNER
Social and Religious Reform
Movements in the 19th Century
Steps
• Type ‘History of modern India’ in the search box
• Explore the Timeline Events with Pictorial Descriptions.
Website URL:
https://www.timetoast.com/categories

Unit - 6
Early Revolts
against British
Rule in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
Palayakkarar system and the revolts of Palayakkarars against the British
Velunachiyar, Puli Thevar, Kattabomman and Marudhu Brothers in the
anti-British uprisings
Vellore Revolt as a response to British pacification of south India
Introduction (Poligar is how the British referred to them) in

Tamil refers to the holder of a little kingdom as
After defeating the French and their
a feudatory to a greater sovereign. Under this
Indian allies in the three Carnatic Wars, the
system, palayam was given for valuable military
East India Company began to consolidate
and extend its power and influence. However, services rendered by any individual. This type
local kings and feudal chieftains resisted this. of Palayakkarars system was in practice during
The first resistance to East India Company’s the rule of Prataba Rudhra of Warangal in the
territorial aggrandisement was from Puli Kakatiya kingdom. The system was put in place
Thevar of Nerkattumseval in the Tirunelveli in Tamilnadu by Viswanatha Nayaka, when he
region. This was followed by other chieftains became the Nayak ruler of Madurai in 1529,
in the Tamil country such as Velunachiyar, with the support of his minister Ariyanathar.
Veerapandiya Kattabomman, the Marudhu Traditionally there were supposed to be 72
brothers, and Dheeran Chinnamalai. Known Palayakkarars.
as the Palayakkarars Wars, the culmination of
The Palayakkarars were free to collect
which was Vellore Revolt of 1806, this early
revenue, administer the territory, settle disputes
resistance to British rule in Tamilnadu is dealt
with in this lesson. and maintain law and order. Their police duties
were known as Padikaval or Arasu Kaval. On
6.1 Resistance of many occasions the Palayakarars helped the
Regional Powers Nayak rulers to restore the kingdom to them.
against the British The personal relationship and an understanding
between the King and the Palayakkarars made
(a) Palayams and Palayakkarars the system to last for about two hundred years
The word “palayam” means a domain, a from the Nayaks of Madurai, until the takeover
military camp, or a little kingdom. Palayakkarars of these territories by the British.
63

Eastern and Western Palayams in getting the support of the rajas of
Among the 72 Palayakkarars, created by the Ramanathapuram and Pudukottai. Puli Thevar
Nayak rulers, there were two blocs, namely the tried to get the support of Hyder Ali of Mysore
prominent eastern and the western Palayams. and the French. Hyder Ali could not help Puli
The eastern Palayams were Sattur, Nagalapuram, Thevar as he was already locked in a serious
Ettayapuram, and Panchalamkurichi and the conflict with the Marathas.
prominent western palayams were Uthumalai, Kalakadu Battle
Thalavankottai, Naduvakurichi, Singampatti,
Seithur. The Nawab sent an additional contingent
of sepoys to Mahfuzkhan and the reinforced
6.2 Palayakkarars’ Revolt army proceeded to Tirunelveli. Besides the 1000
1755-1801 sepoys of the Company, Mahfuzkhan received
600 more sent by the Nawab. He also had the
(a) Revolt of Puli Thevar
support of cavalry and foot soldiers from the
1755–1767
Carnatic. Before Mahfuzkhan could station
In March 1755 his troops near Kalakadu, 2000 soldiers from
Mahfuzkhan (brother Travancore joined the forces of Puli Thevar.
of the Nawab of In the battle at Kalakadu, Mahfuzkhan's troops
Arcot) was sent with were routed.
a contingent of the
Company army under Yusuf Khan and Puli Thevar
Colonel Heron to The organized resistance of the
Tirunelveli. Madurai palayakkarars under Puli Thevar gave an
Puli Thevar
easily fell into their opportunity to the English to interfere directly
hands. Thereafter Colonel Heron was urged to in the affairs of Tirunelveli. Aided by the
deal with Puli Thevar as he continued to defy the Raja of Travancore, from 1756 to 1763, the
authority of the Company. Puli Thevar wielded palyakkarars of Tirunelveli led by Puli Thevar
much influence over the western palyakkarars. were in a constant state of rebellion against the
For want of cannon and of supplies and pay to Nawab’s authority. Yusuf Khan (also known
soldiers, Colonel Heron abandoned the plan as Khan Sahib or, before his conversion to
and retired to Madurai. Heron was recalled and Islam, Marudhanayagam) who had been
dismissed from service. sent by the Company was not prepared to
Confederacy and Alliance with attack Puli Thevar unless the big guns and
Enemies of the British ammunition from Tiruchirappalli arrived.
As the English were at war with the French,
Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda as well as with Hyder Ali and Marathas, the
Sahib’s agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah and
artillery arrived only in September 1760. Yusuf
Nabikhan Kattak commanded the Madurai
Khan began to batter the Nerkattumseval
and Tirunelveli regions. They supported the
fort and this attack continued for about two
Tamil playakkarars against Arcot Nawab
months. On 16 May 1761 Puli Thevar’s three
Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar had established
major forts (Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur
close relationships with them. Puli Thevar
and Panayur) came under the control of
also formed a confederacy of the Palayakkars
Yusuf Khan.
to fight the British. With the exception of the
Palayakkarars of Sivagiri, all other Maravar In the meantime, after taking Pondicherry
Palayams supported him. Ettayapuram and the English had eliminated the French from
Panchalamkurichi also did not join this the picture. As a result of this the unity of
confederacy. Further, the English succeeded palyakkarars began to break up as French
Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu 64

support was not forthcoming. Travancore, Gopala Nayak, the Palayakkarar of
Seithur, Uthumalai and Surandai switched their Virupachi: Gopala Nayak spearheaded the
loyalty to the opposite camp. Yusuf Khan who famous Dindigul League, which was formed
was negotiating with the palayakkarars, without with Lakshmi Nayak of Manaparai and Poojai
informing the Company administration, was Nayak of Devadanapatti. He drew inspiration
charged with treachery and hanged in 1764. from Tipu Sultan who sent a deputation to
Fall of Puli Thevar show his camaraderie. He led the resistance
After the death of Khan Sahib, Puli against the British from Coimbatore and
Thevar returned from exile and recaptured later joined Oomaidurai, Kattabomman’s
Nerkattumseval in 1764. However, he was brother. He put up a fierce fight at Aanamalai
defeated by Captain Campbell in 1767. Puli hills where the local peasants gave him full
Thevar escaped and died in exile. support. But Gopala Nayak was overpowered
by the British forces in 1801.
Ondiveeran: Ondiveeran led one of the army daughter and lived under the protection of
units of Puli Thevar. Fighting by the side of Gopala Nayak at Virupachi near Dindigul for
Puli Thevar, he caused much damage to the eight years.
Company’s army. According to oral tradition,
in one battle, Ondiveeran’s hand was During her period in hiding, Velunachiyar
chopped off and Puli Thevar was saddened. organised an army and succeeded in securing
But Ondiveeran said it was a reward for his an alliance with not only Gopala Nayakar
penetration into enemy’s fort causing many but Hyder Ali as well. Dalavay (military
heads to roll. chief) Thandavarayanar wrote a letter to
Sultan Hyder Ali on behalf of Velunachiyar
(b) Velunachiyar (1730–1796) asking for 5000 infantry and 5000 cavalry to
defeat the English. Velunachiyar explained
Born in 1730 to the Raja Sellamuthu
in detail in Urdu all the problems she had
Sethupathy of Ramanathapuram,
with East India Company. She conveyed her
Velunachiyar was the only daughter of this
strong determination to fight the English.
royal family. The king had no male heir. The
Impressed by her courage, Hyder Ali ordered
royal family brought up the princess
his Commandant Syed in Dindigul fort to
Velunachiyar, training her in martial arts like
provide the required military assistance.
valari, stick fighting and to wield weapons.
She was also adept in horse riding and Velunachiyar employed agents for
archery, apart from her proficiency in gathering intelligence to find where the
English, French and Urdu. British had stored their ammunition. With
military assistance from Gopala Nayak and
At the age of 16,
Velunachiyar was married Kuyili, a faithful friend
to Muthu Vadugar, the of Velunachiyar, is said
Raja of Sivagangai, and to have led the unit of
had a daughter by name women soldiers named
Vellachinachiar. In 1772, after Udaiyaal. Udaiyaal
the Nawab of Arcot and was a shepherd girl who
the Company troops was killed for not divulging
under the command of Lt. Velunachiyar Kuyili
information on Kuyili.
Col. Bon Jour stormed the Kalaiyar Kovil Kuyili is said to have walked into the British
Palace. In the ensuing battle Muthu Vadugar arsenal (1780) after setting herself on fire,
was killed. Velunachiyar escaped with her thus destroying all the ammunition.
65 Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu

Hyder Ali she recaptured Sivagangai. She was attempts to meet him in between proved futile,
crowned as Queen with the help of Marudhu as Jackson refused to give him audience both
brothers. She was the first female ruler or in Courtallam and Srivilliputhur. At last, an
queen to resist the British colonial power in interview was granted and Kattabomman met
India. Jackson in Ramanathapurm on 19 September
1798. It is said that Kattabomman had to stand
(c) Rebellion of Veerapandya
for three hours before the haughty Collector
Kattabomman 1790-1799
Jackson. Sensing danger, Kattabomman
Veerapandya Kattabomman became the tried to escape, along with his minister
Palayakkarar of Panchalamkurichi at the age Sivasubramanianar. Oomaithurai suddenly
of thirty on the death entered the fort with his men and helped the
of his father, Jagavira escape of Kattabomman. At the gate of the
Pandya Kattabomman. Ramanathapuram fort there was a clash, in
The Company’s which some people including Lieutenant
administrators, James Clarke were killed. Sivasubramanianar was
London and Colin Jackson, taken prisoner.
had considered him a man
Appearance before Madras Council
of peaceful disposition. Kattabomman
However, soon several On his return to Panchalamkurichi,
events led to conflicts between Veerapandya Kattabomman represented to the Madras
Kattabomman and the East India Company. Council about how he was ill-treated by
The Nawab, under the provisions of a treaty the collector Jackson. The Council asked
signed in 1781, had assigned the revenue of Kattabomman to appear before a committee
the Carnatic to the Company to be entirely with William Brown, William Oram and
under their management and control during John Casamajor as members. Meanwhile,
the war with Mysore Sultan. One-sixth of the Governor Edward Clive, ordered the release
revenue was to be allowed to meet the expenses of Sivasubramanianar and the suspension of
of Nawab and his family. The Company had the Collector Jackson. Kattabomman appeared
thus gained the right to collect taxes from before the Committee that sat on 15 December
Panchalamkurichi. The Company appointed its 1798 and reported on what transpired in
Collectors to collect taxes from all the palayams. Ramanathapuram. The Committee found
The Collectors humiliated the palayakkarars Kattabomman was not guilty. Jackson was
and adopted force to collect the taxes. This was dismissed from service and a new Collector S.R.
the bone of contention between the English and Lushington appointed. Kattabomman cleared
Kattabomman. almost all the revenue arrears leaving only a
balance of 1080 pagodas.
Confrontation with Jackson
Kattabomman and the
The land revenue arrear
Confederacy of Palayakkarars
from Kattabomman was 3310
pagodas in 1798. Collector In the meantime, Marudhu Pandiyar
Jackson, an arrogant English of Sivagangai formed the South Indian
officer, wanted to send an Confederacy of rebels against the British,
army to collect the revenue with the neighbouring palayakkars like
dues but the Madras Gopala Nayak of Dindigul and Yadul Nayak
Government did not give him permission. On 18 of Aanamalai. Marudhu Pandiyar acted as
August 1798, he ordered Kattabomman to meet its leader. The Tiruchirappalli Proclamation
him in Ramanathapuram. But Kattbomman’s had been made. Kattabomman was interested
in this confederacy. Collector Lushington

prevented Kattabomman from meeting the Betrayed by the rajas of Ettayapuram and
Marudhu Brothers. But Marudhu Brothers Pudukottai Kattabomman was finally
and Kattabomman jointly decided on a captured. Sivasubramanianar was executed at
confrontation with the English. Kattabomman
Nagalapuram on the 13 September. Bannerman
tried to influence Sivagiri Palayakkarars,
made a mockery of a trial for Kattabomman in
who refused to join. Kattabomman advanced
towards Sivagiri. But the Palayakkarars of front of the palayakarars on 16 October. During
Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company. So the trial Kattabomman bravely admitted all the
the Company considered the expedition of charges levelled against him. Kattabomman
Kattabomman as a challenge to their authority. was hanged from a tamarind tree in the old fort
The Company ordered the army to march on to of Kayathar, close to Tirunelveli, in front of the
Tirunelveli.
fellow Palayakkars. Thus ended the life of the
The Siege of Panchalamkurichi celebrated Palayakkarars of Panchalamkurichi.
In May 1799, Lord Wellesley issued orders Many folk ballads on Kattabomman helped
from Madras for the advance of forces from keep his memory alive among the people.
Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur and Madurai to
Tirunelveli. Major Bannerman commanded the (d) The Marudhu Brothers
troops. The Travancore troops too joined the Periya Marudhu or Vella Marudhu
British. On 1 September 1799, an ultimatum (1748–1801) and his younger brother Chinna
was served on Kattabomman to surrender. Marudhu (1753-1801) were able generals of
Kattabomman’s “evasive reply” prompted
Muthu Vadugar of Sivagangai. After Muthu
Bannerman to attack his fort. Bannerman
moved his entire army to Panchalamkurichi on 5 Vadugar's death in the Kalaiyar Kovil battle
September. They cut off all the communications Marudhu brothers assisted in restoring the
to the fort. Bannerman deputed Ramalinganar throne to Velunachiyar. In the last years of
to convey a message asking Kattabomman the eighteenth century Marudhu Brothers
to surrender. Kattabomman refused. organised resistance against the British. After
Ramalinganar gathered all the secrets of the the death of Kattabomman, they worked along
Fort, and on the basis of his report, Bannerman
with his brother Oomathurai. They plundered
decided the strategy of the operation. In a clash
at Kallarpatti, Sivasubramanianar was taken a the granaries of the Nawab and caused damage
prisoner. and destruction to Company troops.
Panchalamkurichi Fort
Execution of Kattabomman
Kattabomman escaped to Pudukottai.
The British put a prize on his head. Marudhu Brothers

Rebellion of Marudhu Brothers rushed from Bengal, Ceylon and Malaya.
(1800–1801) The rajas of Pudukkottai, Ettayapuram and
Thanjavur stood by the British. Divide and rule
Despite the suppression of Kattabomman’s
policy followed by the English spilt the forces of
revolt in 1799, rebellion broke out again in 1800.
the palayakkarars soon.
In the British records it is referred to as the
Second Palayakarar War. It was directed by a Fall of Sivagangai
confederacy consisting of Marudhu Pandyan of In May 1801, the English attacked the
Sivagangai, Gopala Nayak of Dindugal, Kerala rebels in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli. The
Verma of Malabar and Krishnappa Nayak rebels went to Piranmalai and Kalayarkoil. They
and Dhoondaji of Mysore. In April 1800 they were again defeated by the forces of the English.
meet at Virupachi and decided to organise an In the end the superior military strength and
uprising against the Company. The uprising, the able commanders of the English Company
which broke out in Coimbatore in June 1800, prevailed. The rebellion failed and Sivagangai
soon spread to Ramanathapuram and Madurai. was annexed in 1801. The Marudhu brothers
The Company got wind of it and declared war were executed in the Fort of Tirupathur
on Krishnappa Nayak of Mysore, Kerala Varma near Ramanathapuram on 24 October 1801.
of Malabar and others. The Palayakars of Oomathurai and Sevathaiah were captured and
Coimbatore, Sathyamangalam and Tarapuram beheaded at Panchalamkurichi on 16 November
were caught and hanged. 1801. Seventy-three rebels were exiled to
In February 1801 the two brothers of Penang in Malaya. Though the palayakkarars
Kattabomman, Oomathurai and Sevathaiah, fell to the English, their exploits and sacrifices
escaped from the Palayamkottai prison to inspired later generations. Thus the rebellion of
Kamudhi, from where Chinna Marudhu Marudhu brothers, which is called South Indian
took them to Siruvayal his capital. The fort at Rebellion, is a landmark event in the history of
Panchalamkurichi was reconstructed in record Tamil Nadu.
time. The British troops under Colin Macaulay Carnatic Treaty, 1801
retook the fort in April and the Marudhu
brothers sought shelter in Sivagangai. The The suppression of the Palayakkarars
English demanded that the Marudhu Pandyars rebellions of 1799 and 1800–1801 resulted
hand over the fugitives (Oomathurai and in the liquidation of all the local chieftains of
Sevathaiah). But they refused. Colonel Agnew Tamilnadu. Under the terms of the Carnatic
and Colonel Innes marched on Sivagangai. Treaty of 31 July 1801, the British assumed direct
In June 1801 Marudhu Pandyars issued a control over Tamilagam and the Palayakarar
proclamation of Independence which is called system came to an end with the demolition of
Tiruchirappalli Proclamation. all forts and disbandment of their army.
Proclamation of 1801 (e) Dheeran Chinnamalai

(1756–1805)
The Proclamation of 1801 was an early
call to the Indians to unite against the British, Born as
cutting across region, caste, creed and religion. Theerthagiri in 1756,
The proclamation was pasted on the walls of Dheeran was well
the Nawab’s palace in Tiruchirappalli fort and trained in silambu,
on the walls of the Srirangam temple. Many archery, horse riding
palayakkars of Tamil country rallied together and modern warfare.
to fight against the English. Chinna Marudhu He was involved in
collected nearly 20,000 men to challenge the resolving family and
English army. British reinforcements were land disputes in the Dheeran Chinnamalai

Kongu region. As this region was under the (a) Grievances of Indian Soldiers
control of the Mysore Sultan, tax was collected But the resistance did not die down. The
by Tipu’s Diwan Mohammed Ali. Once, dispossessed little kings and feudal chieftains
when the Diwan was returning to Mysore continued to deliberate on the future course
with the tax money, Theerthagiri blocked his of action against the Company Government.
way and confiscated all the tax money. He let The outcome was the Vellore Revolt of 1806.
Mohammed Ali go by instructing him to tell The objective conditions for a last ditch fight
his Sultan that “Chinnamalai”, who is between existed on the eve of the revolt. The sepoys in
Sivamalai and Chennimalai, was the one who the British Indian army nursed a strong sense of
took away taxes. Thus he gained the name resentment over low salary and poor prospects
“Dheeran Chinnamalai”. The offended Diwan of promotion. The English army officers’ scant
respect for the social and religious sentiments
sent a contingent to attack Chinnamalai and
of the Indian sepoys also angered them. The
both the forces met and fought at the Noyyal
state of peasantry from which class the sepoys
river bed. Chinnamalai emerged victorious. had been recruited also bothered them much.
After Tipu’s death Dheeran Chinnamalai With new experiments in land tenures causing
built a fort and fought the British without unsettled conditions and famine breaking out
leaving the place. Hence the place is called in 1805 many of the sepoys’ families were in dire
Odanilai. He launched guerrilla attacks and economic straits. The most opportune situation
evaded capture. Finally the English captured come with the sons and the family members of
Tipu being interned in Vellore Fort. The trigger
him and his brothers and kept them in prison in
for the revolt came in the form of a new military
Sankagiri. When they were asked to accept the
regulation notified by the Commander-in-
rule of the British, they refused. So they were Chief Sir John Cradock.
hanged at the top of the Sankagiri Fort on 31
According to the new regulations, the
July 1805.
Indian soldiers were asked not to wear caste
6.3 Vellore Revolt 1806 marks or ear rings when in uniform. They were
to be cleanly shaven on the chin and maintain
Before reducing all palayakkarars of south
uniformity about how their moustache looked.
Tamilnadu into submission the East India The new turban added fuel to fire. The most
Company had acquired the revenue districts objectionable addition was the leather cockade
of Salem, Dindigul at the conclusion of the war made of animal skin. The sepoys gave enough
with Tipu in 1792. Coimbatore was annexed forewarning by refusing to wear the new turban.
at the end of the Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. Yet the Company administration did not take
In the same year the Raja of Thanjavur whose heed.
status had been reduced to that of a vassal in (b) Outbreak of the Revolt
1798 gave up his sovereign rights over that
On 10 July 1806, in the early hours, guns
region to the English. After the suppression
were booming and the Indian sepoys of the
of resistance of Kattabomman (1799) and
1st and 23rd regiments raised their standard of
Marudhu Brothers (1801), the British charged revolt. Colonel Fancourt, who commanded the
the Nawab of Arcot with disloyalty and forced a garrison, was the first victim. Colonel MeKerras
treaty on him. According to this Treaty of 1801, of the 23rd regiment was killed next. Major
the Nawab was to cede the districts of North Armstrong who was passing the Fort heard the
Arcot, South Arcot, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai sound of firing. When he stopped to enquire
and Tirunelveli to the Company and transfer he was showered with bullets. About a dozen
all the administrative powers to it. other officers were killed within an hour or so.


Among them Lt. Elly and Lt. Popham belonged and men engaged in the suppression of the
to His Majesty’s battalion. revolt were rewarded with prize money and
promotion. Col. Gillespie was given 7,000
Gillespie’s Brutality
pagodas. However, the commander–in-chief
Major Cootes, who was outside the Sir John Cradock, the Adjutant General Agnew
Fort, informed Colonel Gillespie, the cavalry and Governor William Bentinck were held
commandant in Arcot. Gillespie reached the responsible for the revolt, removed from their
fort along with a squadron of cavalry under office, and recalled to England. The military
the command of Captain Young at 9.00 am. regulations were treated as withdrawn.
In the meantime, the rebels proclaimed Fateh
(d) Estimate of Revolt
Hyder, Tipu’s eldest son, as their new ruler
and hoisted the tiger flag of Mysore sultans in The Vellore Revolt failed because there was
the Fort. But the uprising was swiftly crushed no immediate help from outside. Recent studies
by Col. Gillespie, who threw to winds all war show that the organising part of the revolt
ethics. In the course of suppression, according was done perfectly by Subedars Sheik Adam
to an eyewitness account, eight hundred and Sheik Hamid and Jamedar Sheik Hussain
soldiers were found dead in the fort alone. Six of the 2nd battalion of 23rd regiment and two
hundred soldiers were kept in confinement in Subedars and the Jamedar Sheik Kasim of the
Tiruchirappalli and Vellore awaiting Inquiry. 1st battalion of the 1st regiment. Vellore Revolt
had all the forebodings of the Great Rebellion of
(c ) Consequences of Revolt
1857. The only difference was that there was no
Six of the rebels convicted by the Court civil rebellion following the mutiny. The 1806
of Enquiry were blown from the guns; five revolt was not confined to Vellore Fort. It had
were shot dead; eight hanged. Tipu’s sons were its echoes in Bellary, Walajabad, Hyderabad,
ordered to be sent to Calcutta. The officers Bengaluru, Nandydurg, and Sankaridurg.
SUMMARY
Prominent Palayakkarars of Tamil country and their resistance to the rule of East India

Company are discussed.
The wars waged by Puli Thevar, Velunachiyar, Veerapandya Kattabomman, followed

by Marudhu brothers of Sivagangai and Dheeran Chinnamalai against the British are
elaborated.
The reasons for the Vellore Revolt and the ruthless manner in which it was suppressed by

Gillespie are detailed.
GLOSSARY
dependent, a person who receives

protege பிறர் ஆதரவில் இருப்பவர்
support from a patron
the act of elevating or raising one’s செல்வாக்கை வளர்த்தல்,
aggrandizement
wealth, prestige and power ஆக்கிரமிப்பு செய்தல்
defiant resisting, disobedient பணிய மறுக்கும்

harmony, peace, free from
tranquillity அமைதி
disturbances
treachery disloyalty, betrayal, breach of trust வஞ்சித்தல்
audacious daring, fearless பயமற்ற, துணிவுமிக்க
ultimatum a final dominating demand இறுதி எச்சரிக்கை
payment or reward – something

bounty க�ொடை
given liberally
an ornament, especially a knot of த�ொப்பியை அணிசெய்யும்
cockade
ribbon worn on the hat குஞ்சம்
cognizance notice, having knowledge of கவனம்
trounce crush, defeat த�ோற்கடி
interned imprisoned சிறைப்படுத்தல்
4. Who issued the Tiruchirappalli

proclamation of Independence?
EXERCISE
a) Marudhu brothers
I Choose the correct b) Puli Thevar
answer c) Veerapandya Kattabomman
1. Who was the first d) Gopala Nayak
Palayakkarars to resist 5. When did the Vellore Revolt breakout?
the East India Company’s policy of a) 24 May 1805
territorial aggrandizement? b) 10 July 1805
a) Marudhu brothers c) 10 July 1806
b) Puli Thevar d) 10 September 1806
c) Velunachiyar 6. Who was the Commander-in-Chief
d) Veerapandya Kattabomman responsible for the new military regulations
2. Who had established close relationship with in Vellore fort?
the three agents of Chanda Sahib? a) Col. Fancourt
a) Velunachiyar b) Major Armstrong
b) Kattabomman c) Sir John Cradock
c) Puli Thevar d) Colonel Agnew
d) Oomai thurai 7. Where were the sons of Tipu Sultan sent
3. Where was Sivasubramanianar executed? after the Vellore Revolt?
a) Kayathar a) Calcutta
b) Nagalapuram b) Mumbai
c) Virupachi c) Delhi
d) Panchalamkurichi d) Mysore

II Fill in the blanks iv)
In May 1799 Cornwallis ordered
the advance of Company armies to
1. The Palayakkarars system was put in place
Tirunelveli.
in Tamil Nadu by .
a) (i) and (ii) are correct
2. Velunachiyar and her daughter were
b) (ii) and (iii) are correct
under the protection of for
eight years. c) (ii), (iii) and (iv )are correct
3. Bennerman deputed to d) (i) and (iv) are correct
convey his message, asking Kattabomman 3. Assertion (A):Puli Thevar tried to get the
to surrender. support of Hyder Ali and the French.
4. Kattabomman was hanged to death at Reason (R): Hyder Ali could not help Puli
. Thevar as he was already in a serious conflict
with the Marathas.
5. The Rebellion of Marudhu Brothers was
categorized in the British records as the a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) is
. not the correct explanation of (A)
6. was declared the new Sultan b) Both (A) and (R) are wrong
by the rebels in Vellore Fort. c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
the correct explanation of (A)
d) (A) is wrong and (R) is correct
1. i) Th
e Palayakkarars system was in practice
in the Kakatiya Kingdom. IV Match the following
ii) P
uli Thevar recaptured Nerkattumseval 1. Theerthagiri - Vellore Revolt
in 1764 after the death of Khan Sahib.
2. Gopala Nayak - Ramalinganar
iii) Yusuf Khan who was negotiating with
3. Bannerman - Dindigul
the Palayakkarars, without informing
the Company administration was 4. Subedar Sheik Adam - Vellore Fort
charged with treachery and hanged in 5. Col. Fancourt - Odanilai
1764.
V Answer the questions briefly
iv) Ondiveeran led one of the army units of
Kattabomman. 1. What were the duties of the Palayakkarars?
a) (i), (ii) and (iv) are correct 2. Identify the Palayams based on the division
b) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct of east and west.
c) (iii) and (iv) are correct 3. What was the significance of the Battle of
d) (i) and (iv) are correct Kalakadu?
2. i)
Under Colonel Campbell, the English 4. What was the bone of contention between
Army went along with Mahfuzkhan’s the Company and Kottabomman?
army.
5. Highlight the essence of the Tiruchirappalli
ii) After Muthu Vadugar’s death in Kalaiyar Procalamation of 1801.
Kovil battle, Marudhu Brothers assisted
Velunachiyar in restoring the throne to VI Answer in detail
her. 1. Attempt an essay of the heroic fight
iii) Gopala Nayak spearheaded the famous Veerapandya Kattabomman conducted
Dindigul League. against the East India Company.

2. Highlight the tragic fall of Sivagangai and its
outcome. REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Account for the outbreak of Vellore Revolt 1. Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society in
in 1806.
Medieval South India, New Delhi:Oxford
VII Activities University Press, 1980.
1. Teacher can ask the students to prepare an
2. P.M. Lalitha, Palayakararss as Feudatories
album of patriotic leaders of early revolts
against the British rule in Tamil Nadu. Under the Nayaks of Madurai, Chennai:
Using their imagination they can also draw Creative Enterprises, 2015.
pictures of different battles in which they 3. K. Rajayyan, South Indian Rebellion,
attained martyrdom
1800–1801, Madurai, Ratna Publication,
2. Stage play visualising the conversation 2000 (Reprint).
between Jackson and Kattabomman be
attempted by students with the help of 4. K.A. Manikumar, Vellore Revolt 1806
teachers. (Chennai: Allied Publishers, 2007).

Unit - 7 mத ேதcயவாtக
Anti-Colonial
Movements tvர ேதcயவாtக
and the Birth of
Nationalism
Learning Objectives
The nature of tribal and peasant revolts against the British
Contributory factors for the outbreak of the Great Rebellion of 1857 and the
subsequent changes in the British approach to governing India
Factors leading to the formation of the Indian National Congress and the perspectives of
the early nationalists
Divide and rule policy of the British behind the Partition of Bengal (1905) and the launch
of Swadeshi movement in Bengal
Background for the launch of Home Rule Movement
Introduction In this lesson the story of resistance and a

On 23 June 1757 the Nawab of Bengal varied range of response against the British rule
Siraj-ud-daulah was defeated by the East India in the Indian subcontinent from the early and
Company at the Battle of Plassey. The battle was mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth
orchestrated by Robert Clive, commander-in- century are outlined.
chief of the East India Company, who managed
to get the clandestine support from Mir Jafar, 7.1 Peasant and Tribal
the uncle of Siraj-ud-daulah and the chief of the Resistance
Nawab’s army. Clive was helped by the Jagat
Seths (moneylenders from Bengal) who were While the urban elite of India was busy
aggrieved by Siraj-ud-daulah’s policy. Between responding to the western ideas and rationality
1757 and 1760, the company received ₹ 22.5 by engaging in various socio-religious reform
million from Mir Jafar, who became the new movements, a far more aggressive response
Nawab of Bengal. The same money was later to the British rule emerged in rural India. The
invested to propel the industrial revolution in
traditional elite and peasantry along with the
Britain, which rapidly mechanised the British
tribals revolted. They were not necessarily
textile industry. On the other hand, India was
seeking the removal of British but rather the
led to the path of de-industrialisation and
restoration of the pre-colonial order.
forced to create a market for the products
manufactured in Britain. The plunder of India There were nearly a hundred peasant
by the East India Company continued for uprisings during British rule. They can be
another 190 years. classified into the following categories:
75

a. Restorative rebellions – Agitation of this and all wealth should be equally enjoyed by the
type relates to attempts to restore old order common folk. Dudu Mian laid emphasis on the
and old social relations. egalitarian nature of religion and declared that
b. Religious Movements – Such agitations “Land belongs to God”, and collecting rent or
were led by religious leaders who fought levying taxes on it was therefore against divine
for the liberation of the local populace by law. Large numbers of peasants were mobilised
through a network of village organisations.
restructuring society on certain religious
After the death of Dudu Mian in 1862, the was
principles.
revived in the 1870s by Noah Mian.
c. Social Banditry – The leaders of such
movements were considered criminal by Wahhabi Rebellion in Barasat
the British and the traditional elite but were The Wahhabi
looked upon by their people as heroes or rebellion was an anti-
champions of their cause. imperial and anti-landlord
d. Mass Insurrection – Usually leaderless and movement. It originated
spontaneous uprising. in and around 1827, in the
Changes in the Revenue System Barasat region of Bengal.
It was led by an Islamic
The East India Company restructured the preacher Titu Mir who Titu Mir
Mughal revenue system across India in such a was deeply influenced
manner that it increased the financial burden by the Wahhabi teachings. He became an
on the peasants. There was no widespread influential figure among the predominately
system of private ownership of the land in pre- Muslim peasantry oppressed under the coercive
British India. zamindari system.
Subletting of Land (b) Tribal Uprising
The practice of letting out and subletting Under colonial rule, for the first time in
of land complicated the agrarian relations. The Indian history, government claimed a direct
zamindar often sublet land to many subordinate proprietary right over forests. The British rule
lords who in return collected a fixed amount of and its encouragement of commercialisation of
revenue from the peasant. This increased the forest led to the disintegration of the traditional
tax burden on the peasants. tribal system. It encouraged the incursion of
(a) Peasant Uprising tribal areas by the non-tribal people such as
moneylenders, traders, land-grabbers, and
Peasant revolts began to erupt in the early
contractors. This led to the widespread loss of
19 century and continued till the very end of
th
adivasi land and their displacement from their
British rule in India.
traditional habitats.
Farazi Movement
Tribal resistance was therefore, a response
Farazi movement against those who either introduced changes in
was launched by Haji the peaceful tribal life or took undue advantage
Shariatullah in 1818. After of the innocence of the tribal people.
the death of Shariatullah
in 1839, the rebellion (i) Kol Revolt
was led by his son Dudu One major tribal revolt, the Kol uprising
Mian who called upon the of 1831-32, took place in Chota Nagpur and
peasants not to pay tax. Singbhum region of present day Jharkhand
It gained popularity on a and Odisha, under the leadership of Bindrai
simple doctrine that land Haji Shariatullah and Singhrai. The Raja of Chhota Nagpur had
Anti-Colonial Movements and the Birth of Nationalism 76

leased out to moneylenders the job of revenue divine message from the God, asking them to
collection. The usury and forcible eviction of lead the rebellion.
tribals from their land led to the resentment of By July 1855 the rebellion has taken the
Kols. The initial protest and resistance kols was form of open insurrection against the mahajans,
in the form of plunder, arson and attacks on the the zamindars and the British officials. They
properties of outsiders. This was followed by the marched with bows, poisoned arrows, axes and
killing of moneylenders and merchants. The swords taking over the Rajmahal and Bhagalpur
tribal leaders adopted varied methods to spread by proclaiming that the Company rule was
their message such as the beating of drums about to end. In response villages were raided
accompanied by a warning to all outsiders to and properties destroyed by the British. In 1855
leave. `The British suppressed the rebellion an act was passed to regulate the territories
with great violence. occupied by the Santhals. The Act formed the
territory into a separate division called Santhal
(ii) Santhal Hool (Insurrection) Pargana division.
Santhals, scattered in various parts of (c) Munda Rebellion
eastern India, when forced to move out of their One of the prominent tribal rebellions
homeland during the process of creation of of this period occurred in Ranchi, known as
zamins under Permanent Settlement, cleared Ulugulan rebellion (Great Tumult).The Munda
the forest area around the Rajmahal Hills. people were familiar with the co-operative or
They were oppressed by the local police and collective farming known as Khuntkatti (joint
the European officers engaged in the railway holding) land system. It was totally eroded
construction. Pushed out of their familiar by the introduction of private ownership
habitat, the Santhals were forced to rely of land and the intrusion of merchants and
on the moneylenders for their subsistence. moneylenders. The Munda people were also
Soon they were trapped in a vicious circle forcefully recruited as indentured labourers to
of debt and extortion. Besides this, Santhals work on plantations. In the 1890s tribal chiefs
also felt neglected under the corrupt British offered resistance against the alienation of
administration and their inability to render tribal people from their land and imposition of
justice to their legitimate grievances. bethbegari or forced labour.
Outbreak The movement received an impetus when
Around 1854 activities of social banditry Birsa Munda declared himself as the messenger
led by a person named Bir Singh was reported of God. Birsa claimed that he had a prophecy and
from different places. These were directed promised supernatural solutions to the problem
against mahajans and traders. of Munda people and the establishment of
Birsaite Raj. The Munda leaders utilised the cult
of Birsa Munda to recruit more people to their
cause. A series of night meetings were held and
a revolt was planned. On the Christmas day of
1889, they resorted to violence. Buildings were
burnt down and arrows were shot at Christian
missionaries and Munda Christian converts.
Soon police stations and government officials
were attacked. Similar attacks were carried out
Sidhu Kanu over the next few months. Finally the resistance
In 1855, two Santhal brothers Sidhu and was crushed and Birsa Munda was arrested
Kanu proclaimed that they had received a in February 1900 who later died in jail. Birsa
77 Anti-Colonial Movements and the Birth of Nationalism

Munda became a folk hero who is to this day Indians from wearing religious marks on their
celebrated in many folk songs. The Munda foreheads and having whiskers on their chin,
rebellion prompted the British to formulate while proposing to replace their turbans with
a policy on Tribal land. The Chotanagpur a round hat. It was feared that the dress code
Tenancy Act (1908) restricted the entry of non- was part of their effort to convert soldiers to
tribal people into the tribal land. Christianity.
7.2 The Great Rebellion Similarly, in 1824, the sepoys at Barrackpur

near Calcutta refused to go to Burma by sea,
of 1857
since crossing the sea meant the loss of their
In 1857, British rule witnessed the biggest caste.
challenge to its existence. Initially, it began as
The sepoys were also upset with
a mutiny of Bengal presidency sepoys but later
discrimination in salary and promotion. Indian
expanded to the other parts of India involving
sepoys were paid much less than their European
a large number of civilians, especially peasants.
counterparts. They felt humiliated and racially
The events of 1857–58 are significant for the
abused by their seniors.
following reasons:
1. This was the first major revolt of armed (b) The Revolt
forces accompanied by civilian rebellion. The precursor to the
2. The revolt witnessed unprecedented revolt was the circulation of
violence, perpetrated by both sides. rumors about the cartridges
3. The revolt ended the role of the East India of the new Enfield rifle. There
Company and the governance of the Indian was strong suspicion that
the new cartridges had been
subcontinent was taken over by the British
greased with cow and pig fat. The cartridge had
Crown.
to be bitten off before loading (pork is forbidden
(a) Causes to the Muslims and the cow is sacred to a large
1. Annexation Policy of British section of Hindus).
India On 29 March a sepoy named Mangal
In the 1840s and 1850s, more territories Pandey assaulted his European officer. His
were annexed through two major policies: fellow soldiers refused to arrest him when
ordered to do so. Mangal Pandey along with
The Doctrine of Paramountcy. British
others were court-martialled and hanged. This
claimed themselves as paramount, exercising
only fuelled the anger and in the following days
supreme authority. New territories were
there were increasing incidents of disobedience.
annexed on the grounds that the native rulers
Burning and arson were reported from the
were inept.
army cantonments in Ambala, Lucknow, and
The Doctrine of Lapse. If a native ruler did Meerut.
not have male heir to the throne, the territory
Bahadur Shah Proclaimed as
was to ‘lapse’ into British India upon the death
Emperor of Hindustan
of the ruler. Satara, Sambalpur, parts of the
Punjab, Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed by On 11 may 1857 a
the British through the Doctrine of Lapse. band of sepoys from Meerut
marched to the Red Fort
2. Insensitivity to Indian Cultural in Delhi. The sepoys were
Sentiments followed by an equally
In 1806 the sepoys at Vellore mutinied exuberant crowd who
against the new dress code, which prohibited gathered to ask the Mughal Bahadur Shah II

Important Centres of Great Rebellion - 1857 N
W E
S
Ambala
Meerut
Delhi
Bareilly
Agra
Lucknow
Gwalior Kanpur
Allahabad
Jhansi Banaras
Barrackpore
Arabian
Sea Bay of
Anda
Bengal
man and Nicobar I
Lakshad
(India)
(India)
weep Islands
sl a
ds
n
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean

Emperor Bahadur Shah II to become their Prominent Fighters against the
leader. After much hesitation he accepted the British
offer and was proclaimed as the Shahenshah-e-
Hindustan (the Emperor of Hindustan). Soon The mutiny provided a platform to
the rebels captured the north-western province aggrieved kings, nawabs, queens, and zamindars
and Awadh. As the news of the fall of Delhi to express the anti-British anger. Nana Sahib,
reached the Ganges valley, cantonment after the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao
cantonment mutinied till, by the beginning II, provided leadership in he Kanpur region.
of June, British rule in North India, except in He had been denied pension by the Company.
Punjab and Bengal, had disappeared. Similarly, Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow and
Khan Bahadur in Bareilly took the command
Civil Rebellion of their respective territories, which were once
The mutiny was equally supported by ruled either by them or by their ancestors.
an aggrieved rural society of north India. Another such significant leader was Rani
Sepoys working in the British army were in Lakshmi Bai, who assumed the leadership in
fact peasants in uniform. They were equally Jhansi. In her case Dalhousie, the Governor
affected by the restructuring of the revenue General of Bengal had refused her request to
administration. The sepoy revolt and the adopt a son as her successor after her husband
subsequent civil rebellion in various parts of died and the kingdom was annexed under the
India had a deep-rooted connection with rural Doctrine of Lapse. Rani Lakshmi Bai battled the
mass. The first civil rebellion broke out in parts mighty British Army until she was defeated.
of the North-Western provinces and Oudh.
These were the two regions from which the Bahadur Shah Jafar, Kunwar Singh, Khan
sepoys were predominately recruited. A large Bahadur, Rani Lakshmi Bai and many others
number of Zamindars and Taluqdars were were rebels against their will, compelled by the
also attracted to the rebellions as they had bravery of the sepoys who had defied the British
lost their various privileges under the British authority.
government. The talukdar–peasant collective (c) Suppression of Rebellion
was a common effort to recover what they By the beginning of June 1857, the Delhi,
had lost. Similarly, artisans and handicrafts Meerut, Rohilkhand, Agra, Allahabad and
persons were equally affected by the dethroning Banaras divisions of the army had been restored
of rulers of many Indian states, who were a to British control and placed under martial law.
major source of patronage. The dumping of
British manufactures had ruined the Indian (d) Causes of Failure
handicrafts and thrown thousands of weavers There is hardly any evidence to prove
out of employment. Collective anger against the that the rebellion of 1857 was organised and
British took the form of a people’s revolt. planned. It was spontaneous. However, soon
Hanging the rebels in a public place Blowing mutinous sepoys from the guns

after the siege of Delhi, there was an attempt important ranks and position. The British
to seek the support of the neighboring states. took control of the artillery and shifted their
Besides a few Indian states, there was a general recruiting effort to regions and communities
lack of enthusiasm among the Indian princes to that remained loyal during 1857. For instance,
participate in the rebellion. The Indian princes the British turned away from Rajputs, Brahmins
and zamindars either remained loyal or were and North Indian Muslims and looked towards
fearful of British power. Those involved in non-Hindu groups like the Gorkhas, Sikhs,and
the rebellion were left with either little or no Pathans. British also exploited the caste,
sources of arms and ammunition. The emerging religious, linguistic and regional differences
English-educated middle class too did not in the Indian society through what came to be
support the rebellion. known as “Divide and Rule” policy.
One of the important reasons for the failure 7.3 Peasant Revolts under
of the rebellion was the absence of a central
Crown
authority. There was no common agenda that
united the individuals and the aspirations of (a) Indigo Revolt 1859-60
the Indian princes and the various other feudal
elements fighting against the British. Before synthetic dyes were created, natural
indigo dye was highly valued by cloth makers
In the end, the rebellion was brutally around the world. Many Europeans employed
suppressed by the British army. The rebel peasants to grow the indigo, which was
leaders were defeated due to the lack of weapons, processed into dye at the planters factories. The
organisation, discipline, and betrayal by their dye was then exported to Europe. The peasants
aides. Delhi was captured by the British troops were forced to grow the crop. The British
in late 1857. Bahadur Shah was captured and planter gave the cultivator a cash advance to
transported to Burma. help pay for the rent of the land and other costs.
e) I
ndia Becomes a Crown This advance needed to be repaid with interest.
Colony The planters forced the peasant grow indigo,
rather than food crops. At the end of the season,
The British Parliament adopted the Indian
the planters paid the cultivators low prices for
Government Act, in November 1858, and
their indigo. Moreover, the small amount the
India was pronounced as one of the many
peasant earned was not enough to pay back the
crown colonies to be directly governed by
cash advance with interest. So they fell into debt.
the Parliament. The responsibility was given
However, the peasants again would be forced to
to a member of the cabinet, designated as the
enter into another contract to grow indigo. The
Secretary of State for India.
peasants were never able to clear their debts.
Changes in the Administration Debts were often passed from father to son.
British rule and its policies underwent a The Indigo Revolt began in 1859. The
major overhaul after 1857. British followed a rebellion began as a strike, as the peasants of
cautious approach to the issue of social reform. a village in Bengal’s Nadia district refused to
Queen Victoria proclaimed to the Indian grow any more indigo. The movement quickly
people that the British would not interfere in spread to the other indigo-growing districts
traditional institutions and religious matters. It of Bengal. The revolt then turned violent. The
was promised that Indians would be absorbed peasants, both Hindu and Muslim, participated
in government services. Two significant changes in the revolt, and women—armed with pots
were made to the structure of the Indian army. and pans—fought alongside the men. Indian
The number of Indians was significantly journalists in Calcutta wrote articles about
reduced. Indians were restrained from holding the brutality of the planters. The 1860 play

Nil Darpan (“Mirror of the Indigo”) by Dina India Association (1866), Madras Mahajana
Bandhu Mitra, did much to draw attention in Sabha (1884), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870),
India and Europe to the plight of the indigo The Bombay Presidency Association (1885)
growers. and many others.
(b) Deccan Riots 1875 (b) Economic Critique of Colonialism
One of the most significant contributions
Heavy taxation ruined agriculture.
of early Indian nationalists was the formulation
Famine deaths increased. The first recorded
of an economic critique of colonialism.
incident of rioting against the moneylenders
in the Deccan was in May 1875, in Supa a Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice Ranade, and
village near Poona. Similar cases of riots were Romesh Chandra Dutt, played a significant
reported from close to 30 villages in Poona role in making this criticism about colonial
and Ahmadnagar. The rioting was directed economy. They clearly understood that the
mostly at the Gujarat moneylenders. Under prosperity of the British lay in the economic and
British rule peasants were forced to pay revenue political subjugation of India. They concluded
directly to the government. Also, under a new that colonialism was the main obstacle to the
law moneylenders were allowed to attach the Indian’s economic development.
mortgaged land of the defaulters and auction (c) Objectives and Methods
it off. This resulted in a transfer of lands from
The formation of the
the cultivators to the non-cultivating classes.
Indian National Congress
Trapped in the vicious cycle of debt and unable
in 1885 was intended
to pay the outstanding amount the peasant was
to establish an all India
forced to abandon cultivation.
organisation. It was the
7.4 The Foundation culmination of attempts by
groups of educated Indians
of Indian National
politically active in three
Congress (1870 – 1885) presidencies: Bombay,
A.O. Hume
(a) Rise of Nationalism Madras, and Calcutta. A.O. Hume lent his
services to facilitate the formation of the
The second half of the 19th century saw the
Congress. Womash Chandra Banarjee was the
emergence of national political consciousness
first President (1885) Indian National Congress.
among a new social class of English educated
Indians. The Indian intelligentsia played The first session of the Indian National
a critical role in generating a national Congress was held on 28 December 1885. The
consciousness by exposing a large number of early objectives were to develop and consolidate
people to the idea of nation, nationalism and sentiments of national unity; but also professed
various democratic aspirations. The flourishing loyalty to Britain. The techniques included
of print media both in the vernacular and in appeals, petitions and delegations to Britain, all
English played a significant role in circulating done within a constitutional framework. Some
such ideas. of the key demands were the following:
Even though they were numerically small creation of legislative councils at provincial
they had a national character and capacity and central level
to establish contacts on an all India scale. increasing the number of elected members
They were working as lawyers, journalists, in the legislative council
government employees, teachers or doctors. separating judicial and executive functions
They took the initiative to float political outfits, reducing military expenditure
such as Madras Native Association (1852) East reduction of Home Charges

extension of trial by jury (b) Anti- Partition Movement
holding civil services exams in India as well With the failure to annul the partition
as in England. moderate leaders were forced to rethink their
police reforms strategy and look for new techniques of protest.
reconsideration of forest laws The boycott of British goods was one such
method. However, the agenda of Swadeshi
promotion of Indian industries and an end Movement was still restricted to secure an
to unfair tariffs and excise duties. annulment of partition and the moderates
(d) Militant Nationalism were very much against utilising the campaign
The methods of moderate leaders failed to start a full-fledged passive resistance. The
to yield any substantive change in the British militant nationalists, on the other hand, were
attitude towards the moderate demands of early in favour of extending the movement beyond
Indian nationalists. They were criticised by a Bengal and to initiate a full-scale mass struggle.
group of leaders known as “extremists”. Instead The day Bengal was officially partitioned –
of prayers and petitions, these militants were 16 Oct 1905 – was declared as a day of mourning.
more focused on self-help. Thousands of people took bath in the Ganga
and marched on the streets of Calcutta singing
7.5 Partition of Bengal
Bande Mataram.
Partition of Bengal in (c) Boycott and Swadeshi
1905 was the most unpopular Movement in Bengal
of all. The partition led to (1905–1911)
widespread protests all
across India, starting a new Boycott and swadeshi were always
phase of the Indian national interlinked to each other and part of the wider
movement. plan to make India self-sufficient. Four major
Lord Curzon trends can be discerned during the Swadeshi
The idea of partition
Movement in Bengal.
was devised to suppress the political activities
against the British rule in Bengal by creating a 1. The Moderate Trend
Hindu-Muslim divide. 2. Constructive Swadeshi
3. Militant Nationalism
(a) Hindu–Muslim Divide
4. Revolutionary terrorism
It was openly stated that the objective of
partition was to curtail Bengali influence and
weaken the nationalist movement. By placing
Bengal under two administrative units Curzon
reduced the Bengali - speaking people to a
linguistic minority in a divided Bengal. Curzon
assured Muslims that in the new province of
East Bengal Muslims would enjoy a unity,
which they never enjoyed since the days of the
Mughals.
Instead of dividing the Bengali people
Swadeshi Movement
along the religious line partition united them.
The growth of regional language newspapers Constructive Swadeshi
played a role in building a sense of proud The constructive programmes largely
Bengali identity. stressed upon self-help. It focused on building

alternative institutions of self-governance that of Swaraj. For Tilak Swaraj was the attainment
would operate free of British control. Swadeshi of complete autonomy and total freedom from
shops sprang all over the place selling textiles, foreign rule.
handlooms, soaps, earthenware, match and
7.6 Home Rule Movement
leather goods.
(1916–1918)
Passive Resistance
The Indian national movement was
From 1906 the Swadeshi Movement took revived and also radicalised during the
a turn. Under this new direction, the swadeshi Home Rule Movement (1916-1918), led by
programme included four points: boycott of Lokamanya Tilak and Annie Besant. World
foreign goods, boycott of government schools War I and Indian’s participation in it was the
and colleges, courts, titles and government background for the Home Rule League. When
services, development of Swadeshi industries, Britain declared war against Germany in 1914,
national schools, recourse to armed struggle the moderate and liberal leadership extended
if British repression went beyond the limits of their support to the British cause. It was hoped
endurance. that, in return, the British government would
give self-government after the war. Indian
Militant Nationalism
troops were sent to several theatres of World
Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab, Bala Gangadhar War. But the British administration remained
Tilak of Maharashtra and Bipin Chandra Pal non-committal to such goals. What was seen
of Bengal were three prominent leaders during as a British betrayal to the Indian cause of
the Swadeshi period and were referred to as self-government led to a fresh call for a mass
Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate. Punjab, Bengal, and movement to pressurise the British government.
Maharashtra emerged as the hotbed of militant (a) Objectives of the Home Rule
nationalism during the Swadeshi Movement. Movement
In South India Tuticorin became the most
To attain self-government within the British
important location of Swadeshi activity with
Empire by using constitutional means.
the launch of a Swadeshi Steam Navigation
company by V.O. Chidambaranar. To obtain the status of dominion, a political
position accorded later to Australia,
Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand.
To use non-violent constitutional methods
to achieve their goals.
(b) Lucknow Pact (1916)
The Home Rule Movement and the
subsequent reunion of moderate and the
Lal-Bal-Pal
Swaraj or Political Independence
One of the common goals of the extremist
leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule.
However, the leaders differed on the meaning Signatories of Lucknow Pact

militant nationalists opened the possibility popularity, the British used the same old
of fresh talks with the Muslims. Under the ploy to isolate the leaders by repressing their
Lucknow Pact (1916), the Congress and the activities.
Muslim League agreed that there should be In 1919 the British government
self-government in India as soon as possible. announced the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms
In return, the Congress leadership accepted the which promised gradual progress of India
concept of separate electorate for Muslims. towards self-government. This caused deep
disappointment to Indian nationalists. In a
(c) British Response
further blow the government enacted what
As the demand for Swaraj was raised was called the Rowlatt Act which provided
by Tilak and Annie Besant that gained for arbitrary arrest and strict punishment.
SUMMARY
The latter half of nineteenth century British India was replete with revolts of peasants and

tribals against colonial political and economic domination.
The great rebellion of 1857 was the culmination of various anti-British tendencies led by the

depossessed feudal chieftains with an agenda to restore the Pre-colonial order.
Even though the leaders of the Revolt lacked vision and were guided by local ambitions, it was

a progressive act in terms of their effort to resist and challenge a despotic alien government.
The Indian National Movement, building public opinion against the exploitative and

oppressive British rule, inspired the younger generation to become part of the future militant
anti-colonial struggles.
The Swadeshi Movement helped to enhance the participation of masses in nationalist

politics.
GLOSSARY
நினைத்ததை நிறைவேற்ற
orchestrated organized to achieve a desired effect
ப�ோடப்பட்ட திட்டம்
clandestine secret இரகசிய
restorative re-establishing மீட்கின்ற

கீழ்க்குத்தகைக்கு விடுதல், உள்
subletting property leased by one lessee to another
குத்தகைக்கு விடுதல்
egalitarian equal rights for all people அனைத்து மக்களுக்கும் சமமான
coercive forcible வலுக்கட்டாயமாக

the practice of taking something from an தாக்குதல் மூலம் பணம், ப�ொருள்
extortion
unwilling person by physical force பறித்தல்
disgruntled dissatisfied, frustrated நிறைவில்லாத, திருப்தியற்ற
abysmal extremely bad, deep and bottomless மிக ம�ோசமான, படுபாதாளமான

7. Who set up the first Home Rule League in
April 1916?
EXERCISE a) Annie Basant
b) Bipin Chandra Pal
I Choose the correct
c) Lala Lajpat Rai
answer
d) Tilak
1. Which one of the following was launched
by Haji Shariatullah in 1818 in East Bengal? 8.
Who drew the attention of the British to the
suffering of Indigo cultivation through his
a) Wahhabi Rebellion play Nil darpan?
b) Farazi Movement a) Dina Bandhu Mitra
c) Tribal uprising b) Romesh Chandra Dutt
d) Kol Revolt c) Dadabhai Naoroji
2. Who declared that “Land belongs to God” d) Birsa Munda
and collecting rent or tax on it was against
divine law? II Fill in the blanks
a) Titu Mir b) Sidhu 1. ____________ was an anti–imperial
and anti-landlord movement which
c) Dudu Mian d) Shariatullah
originated in and around 1827.
3. Who were driven out of their homeland 2. The major tribal revolt which took place
during the process of creation of Zamins in Chotanagpur region was ____________.
under Permanent Settlement? 3. T he ____________ Act, restricted the
a) Santhals b) Titu Mir entry of non-tribal people into the tribal
land.
c) Munda d) Kol 4. Chota Nagpur Act was passed in the year
4. Find out the militant nationalist from the ____________.
following. 5. W.C. Bannerjee was elected the president
a) Dadabhai Naoroji of Indian National Congress in the year
____________.
b) Justice Govind Ranade
c) Bipin Chandra pal
1. (i) The Company received ₹ 22.5 million
d) Romesh Chandra from Mir Jafar and invested it to propel
5. When did the Partition of Bengal come the industrial revolution in Britain.
into effect? (ii)
Kols organized an insurrection in
a) 19 June 1905 1831-1832, which was directed against
government officers and moneylenders.
b) 18 July 1906 (iii) In 1855, two Santhal brothers, Sidhu
c) 19 August 1907 and Kanu, led the Santhal Rebellion.
d) 16 October 1905 (iv) In 1879, an Act was passed to regulate
the territories occupied by the Santhals.
6.
What was the context in which the
a) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct
Chotanagpur Tenancy Act was passed?
b) (ii) and (iii) are correct
a) Kol Revolt b) Indigo Revolt c) (iii) and (iv) are correct
c) Munda Rebellion d) Deccan Riots d) (i) and (iv) are correct

2. (i) One of the most significant contributions IV. Match the following
of the early Indian Nationalists was the
1. Wahhabi Rebellion - Lucknow
formulation of an economic critique of
colonialism. 2. Munda Rebellion - Peshwa Baji
Rao II
(ii) The early Congress leaders stated that
3. Begum Hazarat Mahal - Titu Mir
the religious exploitation in India was
the primary reason for the growing 4. Kunwar Singh - Ranchi
poverty. 5. Nana Sahib - Bihar
(iii)
One of the goals of the moderate V Answer the following questions briefly
Congress leaders was to achieve Swaraj
1. How are the peasant uprisings in British
or self-rule.
India classified?
(iv)
The objective of Partition of Bengal
2.
Name the territories annexed by the
was to curtail the Bengali influence and
British under the Doctrine of Lapse.
weaken the nationalist movement.
3. What do you mean by drain of wealth?
a) (i) and (iii) are correct
4. Highlight the objectives of Home Rule
b) (i), (iii), and (iv) are correct Movement.
c) (ii) and (iii) are correct 5. Summarise the essence of Lucknow Pact.
d) (iii) and (iv) are correct
VI Answer in detail
Assersion (A): Under colonial rule, for the
3.
first time in Indian history, government 1. Discuss the causes of the Revolt of 1857?
claimed a direct proprietary right over 2. How did the people of Bengal respond to
forests. the Partition of Bengal (1905)?
Reason (R): Planters used intimidation and VII Activity
violence to compel farmers to grow indigo.
1. Identify the Acts passed in British India
a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but R is
from 1858 to 1919, with a brief note on
not the correct explanation of A
each.
b) Both (A) and (R) are wrong 2.
Mark the important centres of 1857
c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is Revolt on an outline map.
the correct explanation of A 3.
Prepare an album with pictures of
d) (A) is wrong and (R) is correct frontline leaders of all the anti-colonial
Assersion (A): The Revolt of 1857 was
4. struggles launched against the British.
brutally suppressed by the British army.
REFERENCE BOOKS
Reason (R): The failure of the rebellion was
due to the absence of Central authority. 1. Bipan Chandra, India’s Struggle for
a) Both (A) and (R) are wrong Independence (New Delhi: Penguin, 2000)
b) (A) is wrong and (R) is correct 2. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to
c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is Partition and After (New Delhi: Orient
the correct explanation of A Longman, 2004)
d) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but R is 3. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India (1885-1947)
not the correct explanation of A (New Delhi: Pearson, 2014).

INTERNET RESOURCES
1. https//www.brittanica.com
ICT CORNER
Anti-Colonial Movements and the Birth of Nationalism
Through this activity

you will visualize the
Great Rebellion of 1857
Step-1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step-2 Type ‘Rebellion of 1857’ into search box

Step-3 Scroll down and click explore the picture collections
Step-1 Step-2 Step-3
Website URL:
https://artsandculture.google.com/
* Pictures are indicatives only.

* If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

Unit - 8
Nationalism:
Gandhian Phase
Learning Objectives

Gandhian phase of India’s struggle for independence
Gandhi’s policy of ahimsa and satyagraha tried and tested for mobilisation of the masses in
India
Non-violent struggles in Champaran and against the Rowlatt Act
The Non-Cooperation Movement and its fallout
Emergence of radicals and revolutionaries and their part in the freedom movement
Launch of Civil Disobedience Movement
Issue of separate electorate and the signing of Poona Pact
First Congress Ministries in the provinces and circumstances leading to the launch of Quit
India Movement
Communalism leading to partition of sub-continent into India and Pakistan
Introduction Gandhi and Mass

8.1
Mahatma Gandhi arrived in India in 1915 Nationalism
from South Africa after fighting for the civil (a) Evolution of Gandhi
rights of the Indians there for about twenty
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born
years. He brought with him a new impulse
on 2 October 1869 into a well to do family in
to Indian politics. He introduced satyagraha, Porbandar, Gujarat. His father Kaba Gandhi
which he had perfected in South Africa, that was the Diwan of Porbandar and later became
could be practiced by men and women, young the Diwan of Rajkot. His mother Putlibai,
and old. As a person dedicated to the cause influenced the young Gandhi. After passing the
matriculation examination, Gandhi sailed to
of the poorest of the poor, he instantly gained
England in 1888 to study law. After becoming a
the goodwill of the masses. In this lesson we barrister in June 1891 Gandhi returned to India
shall see how Gandhi transformed the Indian as a firm believer in British sense of justice and
National Movement. fair play.
89

On returning to India, Gandhi’s attempt registration offices of immigrants were picketed.
to practice in Bombay failed. It was during Even when the police let loose violence no
this time that a Gujarati firm in South Africa, resistance was offered by the satyagrahis. Gandhi
sought the services of Gandhi for assistance and other leaders were arrested. Indians, mostly
in a law-suit. Gandhi accepted the offer and indentured labourers turned hawkers continued
left for South Africa in April 1893. Gandhi the struggle despite police brutality. Finally, by
faced racial discrimination for the first time in the Smuts-Gandhi Agreement the poll tax on
South Africa. On his journey from Durban to indentured labourers was abolished.
Pretoria, at the Pietermaritzburg railway station,
8.2 Gandhi’s Early
he was physically thrown out of the first class
compartment. Gandhi was determined to fight. Satyagrahas in India
Gandhi regarded Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
Gandhi called a meeting of the Indians in
whom he had met on previous visits to India,
the Transvaal and exhorted them to form an
as his political guru. On his advice, Gandhi
association to seek redress of their grievances.
travelled the length and breadth of the country
He continued to hold such meetings, petitioned
before plunging into politics. This enabled him
to the authorities about the injustices which
to understand the conditions of the people. It is
were in violation of their own laws. Indians
on one of these journeys through Tamil Nadu
in the Transvaal had to pay a poll tax of £ 3,
that Gandhi decided to discard his following
could not own land except in areas marked
robes and wear a simple dhoti.
for them, and could not move outdoors after 9
p.m. without a permit. He launched a struggle (a) Champaran Satyagraha
against such unjust laws. In Champaran in Bihar the tinkathia system
Gandhi was introduced to the works was practiced. Under this exploitative system the
of Tolstoy and John Ruskin. He was deeply peasants were forced by the European planters
influenced by Tolstoy’s The Kingdom of God is to cultivate indigo on three-twentieths of their
Within You, Ruskin’s Unto this Last and Thoreau’s land holdings. Towards the end of nineteenth
Civil Disobedience. Gandhi’s ideas were formed century German synthetic dyes had forced
due to a blend of Indian and Western thought. indigo out of the market. The European planters
Despite being deeply influenced by Western of Champaran, while realising the necessity of
thinkers he was highly critical of Western relieving the cultivators of the obligation of
civilisation and industrialisation. Inspired cultivating indigo, wanted to turn the situation
by Ruskin, Gandhi established the Phoenix to their advantage. They enhanced the rent and
Settlement (1905) and the Tolstoy Farm (1910). collected illegal dues as a price for the release
Equality, community living and dignity of of cultivators from the obligation. Resistance
labour were inculcated in these settlements. erupted. Rajkumar Shukla, an agriculturist
They were training grounds for the satyagrahis. from Champaran who suffered hardships of the
Satyagraha as a Strategy in
South Africa
Gandhi developed satyagraha (devotion
to the truth, truth-force) as a strategy, in
which campaigners went on peaceful marches
and presented themselves for arrest in protest
against unjust laws. He experimented with
it for fighting the issues of immigration and
racial discrimination. Meetings were held and Champaran Satyagraha
Nationalism: Gandhian Phase 90

system, prevailed on Gandhi to visit Champaran. General Dyer’s Brutality
On reaching Chamaparan, Gandhi was asked
by the police to leave immediately. When he On 13 April 1919 a
refused he was summoned for trial. The news public meeting was arranged
spread like wild fire and thousands swarmed at Jallianwala Bagh in
the place in support of Gandhi. According to Amritsar. As it happened
Gandhi, “The country thus had its first object- to be Baisaki day (spring
harvest festival of Sikhs) the
lesson in Civil Disobedience”. He was assisted
villagers had assembled there in thousands.
by Brajkishore Prasad, a lawyer by profession,
General Reginald Dyer, on hearing of the
and Rajendra Prasad, who became the first
assemblage, surrounded the place with his
President of independent India. The Lieutenant
troops and an armoured vehicle. The only
Governor eventually formed a committee with
entrance to the park that was surrounded on
Gandhi as a member which recommended
all sides by high walls was blocked, and firing
the abolition of the tinkathia system, thereby
took place without any warning. The firing
ending the oppression of the peasants by the
lasted for ten minutes till the troops ran out
Indigo Planters. of ammunition. According to official report
The success of Champaran satyagraha, 379 were killed and more than thousand
followed by his fruitful intervention in injured. Unofficial estimates put the toll at
Ahmedabad mill strike (1918) and the Kheda more than a thousand. After the incident
Satyagraha (1918) helped Gandhi establish martial law was declared and many people
himself as a leader of mass struggle. Unlike in the Punjab especially Amritsar were
earlier leaders, Gandhi demonstrated his flogged and forced to crawl on the streets.
ability to mobilise the common people across The brutality enraged Indians. Rabindranath
the country. Tagore returned his knighthood. Gandhi
surrendered his Kaiser-i-Hind medal.
(b) Rowlatt Satyagraha and
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (c) Khilafat Movement
The Government of India Act 1919,
The First World War came to an end
however, caused disappointment, as it did not
in 1918. The Caliph of Turkey, who was
transfer real power to the Indians. Besides, the
considered the head of Muslims of the world,
government began to enforce the permanent was given a harsh treatment. A movement
extension of war time restrictions. The Rowlatt was started called Khilafat Movement led by
Act was enacted which provided for excessive the Ali brothers, Maulana Mohamed Ali and
police powers, arrest without warrant and Maulana Shaukat Ali. Gandhi supported the
detention without trial. Gandhi called it a movement and saw in it an opportunity to
‘Black Act’ and in protest called for a nation- unite Hindus and Muslims. He presided over
wide satyagraha on 6 April 1919. It was to be the All India Khilafat Conference held at
a non-violent struggle with fasting and prayer, Delhi in November 1919. Gandhi supported
and it was the earliest anti-colonial struggle Shaukat Ali’s proposal of three national
spread across the country. The anti-Rowlatt slogans, Allaho Akbar, Bande Mataram
protest was intense in Punjab, especially in and Hindu-Musslamanki Jai. The Khilafat
Amritsar and Lahore. Gandhi was arrested and Committee meeting in Allahabad on 9 June
prevented from visiting Punjab. On 9 April two 1920 adopted Gandhi’s non-violent non-
prominent local leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew cooperation programme. Non-Cooperation
and Dr. Satyapal were arrested in Amritsar. was to begin on 1 August 1920.
91 Nationalism: Gandhian Phase

8.3 Non-Cooperation burnt the police station 22 policemen lost
Movement and their lives. Gandhi immediately withdrew the
movement.
Its Fallout
(b) Swarajists
The Indian National Congress approved
the non-cooperation movement in a special Meanwhile Congress was divided into
session held in Calcutta on September 1920. It two groups viz. pro-changers and no-changers.
was subsequently passed in the Nagpur Session Some of the Congressmen led by Motilal Nehru
held on December 1920, Chaired by Salem and C.R. Das wanted to contest the elections
C.Vijayaraghavachariar. The programme of and enter the legislature. They argued that the
non-cooperation included: national interest could be promoted by working
in the Legislative Councils under Dyarchy
1. Surrender of all titles of honours and and wrecking the colonial government within.
honorary offices. They were called the pro-changers. Staunch
2. Non-participation in government followers of Gandhi like Vallabhbhai Patel,
functions. C. Rajaji and others, known as no-changers,
3. Suspension of practice by lawyers, and wanted to continue non-cooperation with the
settlement of court disputes by private government. Despite the opposition C.R. Das
arbitration. and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party on
4. Boycott of government schools by children 1 January 1923, which was later approved by a
and parents. special session of the Congress. Swaraj Party
5. Boycott of the legislature created under the members were elected in large numbers to the
1919 Act. Imperial Legislative Assembly and the various
6. Non-participation in government parties Provincial Legislative Councils. They effectively
and other official functions.
7. Refusal to accept any civil or military post.
8. Boycott of foreign goods and spreading the
doctrine of Swadeshi.
(a) No-Tax Campaign and Chauri
Chaura Incident
Gandhi announced a no-tax campaign in
Bardoli in February 1922. These movements
greatly enhanced Gandhi’s reputation as a C.R. Das Motilal Nehru
national leader, especially the peasants. Gandhi Dyarchy, a system of dual government
made a nation-wide tour. Wherever he visited introduced under the Government of
there was a bonfire of foreign cloth. Thousands India Act 1919, divided the powers of the
left government jobs, students gave up their provincial government into Reserved and
studies in large numbers and the lawyers gave Transferred subjects. The Reserved Subjects
up thriving practices. Boycott of British goods comprising finance, defence, the police,
and institutions were effective. The boycott of justice, land revenue, and irrigation were
the Prince of Wales’ visit to India was successful. in the hands of the British. The Transferred
On 5 February 1922 a procession of the Subjects that included local self-government,
nationalists in Chauri Chaura, a village near education, public health, public works,
Gorakhpur in present-day Uttar Pradesh agriculture, forests and fisheries were left
provoked by the police turned violent. The under the control of Indian ministers. The
police finding themselves outnumbered shut system ended with the introduction of
themselves inside the police station. The mob provincial autonomy in 1935.

used the legislature as a platform for propagation the Commission went there were protests, and
of nationalist ideas. In Bengal, they refused to black flag marches with the slogan ‘Go Back
take charge of transferred subjects, as they did Simon’. The protesters were brutally assaulted
not want to cooperate with the government. by the police. In one such assault in Lahore, Lal
They exposed the true nature of the colonial Lajpat Rai was seriously injured and died a few
government. However, the Swaraj Party began days later.
to decline after the death of its leader C.R. Das
(e) Nehru Report
in 1925.
The Simon boycott united the different
(c) Constructive Programme political parties in India. An all party conference
of Gandhi was held in 1928 with the objective to frame a
After the Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi constitution for India as an alternative to the
felt that the volunteers and the people had to Simon Commission proposals. A committee
be trained for a non-violent struggle. As a part under the leadership of Motilal Nehru was
of this effort he focused on promoting Khadi, formed to outline the principles on the basis of
Hindu-Muslim unity and the abolition of which the constitution was to be drafted. The
untouchability. He exhorted the Congressmen, committee’s report, known as the Nehru Report,
“Go throughout your districts and spread the recommended,
message of Khaddar, the message of Hindu- Dominion status for India.
Muslim unity, the message of anti-untouchability
and take up in hand the youth of the country and Elections of the Central Legislature and the
make them the real soldiers of Swaraj.” He made Provincial Legislatures on the basis of joint
it compulsory for all Congress members to wear and mixed electorates.
khaddar. The All India Spinner’s Association Reservation of seats for Muslims in the
was formed. Central Legislature and in provinces where
they are in a minority and for the Hindus in
(d) Boycott of Simon Commission North-West Frontier Province where they
On 8 November 1927, the British were in a minority.
Government announced the appointment of Provision of fundamental rights, and
the Indian Statutory Commission. Composed universal adult franchise.
of seven members headed by Sir John Simon
Jinnah proposed
it came to be widely known as the Simon
an amendment to the
Commission. It was an all-white commission
reservation of seats in the
with no Indian member. Indians were angered
Central Legislature. He
that they had been denied the right to decide
demanded that one-third
their own constitution. All sections of India
of the seats be reserved for
including the Congress and the Muslim League
Muslims. Tej Bahadur Sapru
decided to boycott the commission. Wherever
supported him and pleaded Jinnah
that it would make no big
difference. However, it was defeated in the
All Party Conference. Later he proposed a
resolution which came to be known as Jinnah’s
Fourteen Points. However, it was also rejected.
Jinnah who was hailed as Ambassador of
Hindu–Muslim Unity thereafter changed his
stand and began to espouse the cause of a
"Go back Simon" Demonstration separate nation for Muslims.

8.4 The Struggle for Poorna the march. At the age of 61 Gandhi covered a
distance of 241 miles in 24 days to reach Dandi
Swaraj and Launch at sunset on 5 April 1930. The next morning, he
of Civil Disobedience took a lump of salt breaking the salt law.
Movement
Salt Satyagraha in Provinces
Meanwhile some congressmen were not In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajaji led a similar salt
satisfied with dominion status and wanted to march from Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranyam.
demand complete independence. In the Congress
Salt marches took place in Kerala, Andhra and
session held in Lahore in December 1929 with
Bengal. In the North West Frontier Province
Jawaharlal Nehru as the President, Poorna Swaraj
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan led the movement.
was declared as the goal. It was also decided to
boycott the Round Table Conference and launch He organized the Khudai Khidmatgar, also
a Civil Disobedience Movement. 26 January 1930 known as the Red Shirts.
was declared as Independence Day and a pledge
was taken all over the country to attain Poorna
Swaraj non-violently through civil disobedience
including non-payment of taxes. The Indian
National Congress authorised Gandhi to launch
the movement.
(a) Salt Satyagraha Movement
A charter of demands presented to the Rajaji making salt in Vedaranyam
Viceroy Lord Irwin with an ultimatum to The British enacted the first forest act
comply by 31 January 1930 included: in 1865. This act restricted the access of the
Reduction of expenditure on army and forest dwellers to the forest areas to collect
civil services by 50% firewood, cattle fodder and other minor
Introduction of total prohibition of forest produce such as honey, seeds, nuts,
liquor medicinal herbs. The Indian Forest Act of
Release of all political prisoners 1878 claimed that original ownership of
Reduction of land revenue by 50% forests was with the state. Waste lands and
Abolition of salt tax. fallow lands were included as forest. Shifting
cultivation practiced by, the tribal people, was
prohibited. Alienation of forests from local
control was stiffly resisted by the aggrieved
adivasis (tribals) and the nationalists.
The most striking evidence of continuing
struggles of the tribal groups was the one
Gandhiji’s Dandi March
waged by Alluri Sitarama Raju in Rampa.
When the Viceroy did not respond to Raju’s efforts at fighting corrupt officials
the charter of demands, Gandhi launched the to protect the interests of Rampa tribals
Civil Disobedience Movement. The inclusion
prompted the British to target his life. A
of abolition of salt tax was a brilliant tactical
special Malabar Police team was sent to quell
decision. At the break of dawn on 12 March 1930
the uprisings (1922-24) of Rampa Adivasis.
Gandhi set out from Sabarmati Ashram with 78
of its inmates. The procession became larger Alluri Sitarama Raju attained martyrdom for
and larger when hundreds joined them along the cause of forest dwellers.

Gandhi was arrested at midnight and separate electorates for minorities. As a result,
sent to Yeravada Jail. Jawaharlal Nehru, Khan the second conference ended without any result.
Abdul Ghaffar Khan and other leaders were
swiftly arrested. Soon other forms of protests (d) R
enewal of Civil Disobedience
such as boycott of foreign cloth, picketing of Movement.
liquor shops, non-payment of taxes, breaking of On returning to India, Gandhi revived
forest laws etc. were adopted. Women, peasants, the Civil Disobedience Movement. This time
tribals, students, even children and all sections the government was prepared to meet the
participated in the nation-wide struggle. It was resistance. Martial law was enforced and Gandhi
the biggest mass movement India had ever was arrested on 4 January 1932. Soon all the
witnessed. Congress leaders were arrested too. Protests
and picketing by the people were suppressed
(b) Round Table Conferences
with force.
In the midst of the movement the First
In the meantime, the Third Round Table
Round Table Conference was held at London in
Conference was held from 17 November to
November 1930. Ramsay Macdonald, the British
24 December 1932. The Congress did not
Prime Minister, proposed a federal government
with provincial autonomy. The Congress did not participate in the conference as it had revived
attend it as its leaders were in jail. The Conference the Civil Disobedience Movement.
closed without any decision on the question.
(c) Gandhi-Irwin Pact

Lord Irwin held talks with Gandhi which
resulted in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact on 5 March
1931. The British agreed to the demand of
immediate release of all political prisoners not
involved in violence, return of confiscated land
and lenient treatment of government employees
who had resigned. It also permitted the people Call for Civil Disobedience
of coastal villages to make salt for consumption
(e) Communal Award and
and non-violent picketing. The Congress agreed
Poona Pact
to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement
and attend the conference. Gandhi attended the On 16 August 1932, Ramsay MacDonald,
Second Round Table Conference which began announced the Communal Award. It provided
on 7 September 1931. Gandhi refused to accept separate electorates to the minorities, viz.
Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-
Indians and women and the “depressed classes”.
B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the depressed
classes, strongly argued for the separate
electorate, as it, according to him, would give
them political representation and power. On 20
September 1932, Gandhi went on a fast unto
death against the separate electorates for the
depressed classes. Madan Mohan Malaviya,
Rajendra Prasad and others held talks with
Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah the leaders of the
Second Round Table Conference - London depressed classes. After intense negotiations

an agreement was arrived between Gandhi and foisting a series of cases in the 1920s. In a further
Ambedkar. Known as the Poona Pact, its main attempt to eliminate the threat of communism
terms were: M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, M.
The principle of separate electorates was Singaravelar among others were arrested and
abandoned. Instead, the principle of joint tried in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case of 1924.
electorate was accepted with reservation of (a) Foundation of Communist Party
seats for the depressed classes.
The communists used
Reserved seats for the depressed classes
it as a platform to propagate
were increased from 71 to 148. In the
their views and to expose
Central Legislature 18 percent of the seats
the ‘true colour of British
were reserved.
rule in India’. In an attempt
(f) Campaign Against to form a party an All India
Untouchability Communist Conference
was held at Kanpur in
Gandhi devoted S.A. Dange
1925. Singaravelar gave the
the next few years
Presidential Address. It led
towards abolition of
to the founding of the Communist Party of
untouchability. His
India in Indian soil. Their efforts eventually led
engagement with
to the establishment of the All India Workers’
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar made
and Peasants’ Party in 1928.
a big impact on his ideas
about the caste system. (b) Revolutionary Activities
He shifted his base to the
Satyagraha Ashram at Dr. B.R. Ambedkar The youths who were disillusioned with
Wardha. He undertook the sudden withdrawal of the Non Cooperation
an all-India tour called the Harijan Tour. He Movement by Gandhi took to violence. In
started the Harijan Sevak Sangh to work for 1924 Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) was
the removal of discriminations. He worked to formed in Kanpur to overthrow the colonial
promote education, cleanliness and hygiene and rule by an armed rebellion. In 1925 Ram Prasad
giving up of liquor among the depressed class. Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan and others held up a
An important part of the campaign was the train carrying government money and looted
Temple Entry Movement. 8 January 1933 was in Kakori, a village near Lucknow. They were
observed as ‘Temple Entry Day’. arrested and tried in the Kakori Conspiracy Case.
Four of them were sentenced to death while the
others were sentenced to imprisonment.
8.5 Beginnings of Socialist
Movements
Inspired by the Russian
Revolution of 1917 the
Communist Party of India
(CPI) was founded at Tashkent,
Uzbekistan in October 1920. Bhagat Singh Rajguru Sukhdev
M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherjee, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and their comrades
and M.P.T. Acharya were some reorganized the HRA in Punjab. Influenced by
of its founding members.The M.N. Roy socialist ideas they renamed it as Hindustan
British government in India made vigorous Socialist Republican Association in 1928.
efforts to suppress the communist movement by Sanders, a British police officer, responsible for

the lathi charge that led to Lala Lajpat Rai’s workers hit by loss of income and wage
death was assassinated. Bhagat Singh along with reduction, and problems of unemployment
B.K. Dutt threw a smoke bomb inside the gained influence and was therefore banned in
Central Legislative Assembly in 1929. They 1934. The Congress, as a movement with a wide
shouted ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ and ‘Long Live the spectrum of political leanings, ranging from
Proletariat’. He along with Rajguru was arrested the extreme Left to the extreme Right, welded
and sentenced to death. Bhagat Singh’s daring together by the goal of Swaraj, emerged as a
and courage fired the imagination of the youth powerful organisation. In 1934 the Congress
across India, and he became popular across Socialist Party was formed by Jayaprakash
India. Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Minoo
In April 1930, the Masani.
Chittagong Armoury Raid ‘Real Swaraj will come not by acquisition
was carried out by Surya of authority by a few, but by the acquisition
Sen and his associates. They of the capacity by all to resist authority, when
captured the armories in abused.’ - M. K. Gandhi
Chittagong and proclaimed
a provisional revolutionary
Surya Sen
government. They survived 8.6 First Congress Ministries
for three years raiding government institutions. under Government of
In 1933 Surya Sen was caught and hanged after India Act, 1935
a year.
The Government of India Act 1935 was
(c) Left Movement in the 1930s one of the important positive outcomes of the
Civil Disobedience Movement. The key features
By the 1930s the Communist Party of India of the Act were provincial autonomy and
had gained strength in view of the economic dyarchy at the centre. The Act provided for an
crisis caused by world-wide Great Depression. all India Federation with 11 provinces, 6 Chief
Britain transmitted the effects of Depression
commissioner’s provinces and all those Princely
to its colonies. The effects of Depression were
states which wished to join the federation. The
reflected in decline in trade returns and fall in
Act also provided autonomy to the provinces.
agricultural prices. The governmental measures
All the subjects were transferred to the control of
included forcible collection of land revenue
Indian ministers. Dyarchy that was in operation
which in real terms had increased two-fold due
in provinces was now extended to the central
to a 50% fall in agricultural prices, the withdrawal
government. The franchise, based on property,
of money in circulation, retrenchment of staff
was extended though only about ten percent of
and expenditure on developmental works.
the population enjoyed the right to vote. By this
Act Burma was separated from India.
(a) Congress Ministries and
their Work
The Government of India Act 1935 was
implemented with the announcement of
elections in 1937. The Congress immensely
Jayaprakash Acharya Minoo
Narayan benefitted because of the Civil Disobedience
Narendra Dev Masani
Movement. The Congress called off its
In this context, the Communist Party, programme of boycott of legislature and
fighting for the cause of peasants and industrial contested elections. It emerged victorious in

seven out of the eleven provinces. It formed 8.7 Developments
ministries in 8 provinces – Madras, Bombay, leading to Quit India
Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, United
Movement
Provinces, North West Frontier Province.
In Assam it formed a coalition government (a) Individual Satyagraha
with Assam Valley Muslim Party led by
Sir Muhammad Sadullah. The Congress In August 1940
Ministries functioned as a popular government Viceroy Linlithgow made
and responded to the needs of the people. an offer in return for
The salaries of ministers were reduced from Congress’ support for the
Rs. 2000 to Rs. 500 per month. Earlier action war effort. Hence Gandhi
taken against nationalists were rescinded. They declared limited satyagraha
repealed the Acts which vested emergency which would be offered by
powers in the government, lifted the ban a few individuals. Vinobha
imposed on political organisations except the Bhave was the first to offer
Vinobha Bhave
Communist Party, and removed the restrictions satyagraha on 17 October
on the nationalist press. Police powers were 1940. The satyagraha
curbed and reporting by the CID on political continued till the end of the year. During this
speeches discontinued. Legislative measures period more than 25,000 people were arrested.
were adopted for reducing indebtedness of (b) Cripps Mission
the peasantry and improving the working
conditions of the industrial labour. Temple On 22 March 1942, the British government
entry legislation was passed. Special attention sent a mission under Cabinet Minister Sir
was paid to education and public health. Strafford Cripps. The negotiations between
the Cripps Mission and the Congress failed
(b) Resignation of Congress as Britain was not willing to transfer effective
Ministries power immediately. The Cripps Mission offered:
In 1939 the Second World War broke out. 1. Grant of Dominion Status after the War
The colonial government of India entered the 2. Indian Princes could sign a separate
War on behalf of the Allies without consulting agreement with the British implying the
the Congress ministries. The Congress acceptance for the demand of Pakistan.
ministries resigned in protest. By 1940 he was
3. British control of defence during the War.
demanding a separate state for the Muslims.
Both the Congress and the Muslim League
(c ) National Movement during
rejected the proposal. Gandhi called the proposals
the Second World War,
as a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.
1939–45
In 1939 Subhas (c) "Do or Die" Call by Gandhi
Chandra Bose became
the President of the The outcome of the Cripps Mission
Congress by defeating caused considerable disappointment. Popular
Pattabhi Sitaramayya, discontent was intensified by war time shortages
the candidate of Gandhi. and steep rise in prices. The All India Congress
When Gandhi refused Committee that met at Bombay on 8 August
to cooperate, Subhas 1942 passed the famous Quit India Resolution
Chandra Bose resigned demanding an immediate end to British rule in
his post and started the Pattabhi India. Gandhi gave a call to do or die. Gandhi
Forward Bloc. Sitaramayya said, ‘We shall either free India or die in the

attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation Powers which included Great Britain, he went
of our slavery.” A non-violent mass struggle to Germany. In February 1943, he made his
under Gandhi was to be launched. But early way to Japan on a submarine and took control
next morning on 9 August 1942 Gandhi and the of the Indian National Army. The Indian
entire Congress leadership was arrested. National Army Captain Lakshmi Sahgal
headed it (Azad Hind Fauj) had earlier been
(d) Role of Socialists organized by Gen. Mohan Singh with Indian
With Gandhi and prisoners of war with the support of Japanese
other prominent leaders in Malaya and Burma. Bose reorganised it
of the Congress in jail, into three brigades: Gandhi Brigade, Nehru
the Socialists provided Brigade and a women’s brigade named after
the leadership for the Rani of Jhansi. Subhas Chandra Bose formed
movement. Jayaprakash the Provisional Government of Free India in
Narayan and Ramanand Singapore. He gave the slogan ‘Dilli Chalo’.
Misra escaped from INA was deployed as part of the Japanese
prison and organised an forces. However, the defeat of Japan stopped
underground movement. Aruna Asaf Ali the advance of INA. The airplane carrying
Women activists like Aruna Asaf Ali played a Subhas Chandra Bose crashed bringing to an
heroic role. Usha Mehta established Congress end his crusade for freedom.
Radio underground which successfully
functioned till November 1942.
(e) People’s Response

As news spread to different parts of India,
a spontaneous protest broke out everywhere.
The people protested in whatever form that
they could, such as hartals, strikes, picketing.
The government suppressed it with brute
force. People attacked government buildings,
railway stations, telephone and telegraph Subhas Chandra Bose’s INA
lines and all that stood as symbols of British
The British government arrested the INA
authority. This was particularly widespread
officers and put them on trial in the Red Fort.
in Madras. Parallel governments were
The trial became a platform for nationalist
established in Satara, Orissa, Bihar, United
propaganda. The Congress set up a defence
Provinces and Bengal.
committee comprising Nehru, Tej Bahadur
(f) Subhas Chandra Bose and INA Sapru, Bhulabhai Desai and Asaf Ali. Though
the INA officers were convicted they were
Subhas Chandra Bose
released due to public pressure. The INA
who had left the Congress
exploits and the subsequent trials inspired the
was now under house arrest.
Indians.
He wanted to strike British
hard by joining its enemies.
In March 1941, he made a
8.8 Towards Freedom
dramatic escape from his (a) Royal Indian Navy Revolt
house in disguise and reached Afghanistan.
Initially he wanted to get the support of Soviet The Royal Indian Navy ratings revolted
Union. After the Soviet Union joined the Allied at Bombay in February 1946. It soon spread

Indian National Movement
(1900 - 1947)
N
Kashmir
W E
S
Lahore Jallianwalabagh
(Amritsar)
Meerut
Delhi
Lucknow
Kanpur Chauri Chaura
Gorakhpur Champaran Assam
Allahabad Patna
Jhansi
Sabarmati Ashram
Kheda (Ahmedabad)
Bengal
Calcutta
Bardoli Chittagong
Dandi Nagpur
Wardha
Orissa
Bombay
Poona
Satara
Arabian Bay of
Sea Bengal
Anda
man and Nicobar I
Madras
Lakshad
(India)
(India)
weep Islands
Vedaranyam
sl a
ds
n
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean

to other stations involving more than 20,000 and foreign affairs. The provinces were divided
ratings. Similar strikes occurred in the Indian into three groups viz. Non-Muslim Majority
Air Force and the Indian Signal Corps at Provinces, Muslim Majority Provinces in
Jabalpur. Thus the British hegemonic control the Northwest and the Muslim Majority
ceased even in the armed forces. Provinces in the Northeast. A Constituent
Assembly was to be elected and an interim
government set up with representation for
all the communities. The Congress and the
Muslim League accepted the plan. However,
both interpreted it differently.
(d) Direct Action Day Call by

Muslim League
Difference arose between Congress and

Muslim League when the former nominated
a Muslim member. The League argued it was
Royal Indian Navy Revolt to be the sole representative of the Muslims
(b) Negotiating Independence: and withdrew its approval. Jinnah declared
Simla Conference 16 August 1946 as the ‘Direct Action Day’.
Hartals and demonstrations took place which
The Wavell Plan was announced on
soon turned into Hindu-Muslim conflict.
14 June 1945. It provided for an interim
It spread to other districts of Bengal. The
government, with an equal number of Hindus
district of Noakhali was the worst affected.
and Muslims in the Viceroy’s Executive
Council. All portfolios, except war portfolio, (e) Mountbatten Plan
was to be held by Indian ministers. However,
in the Simla Conference, the Congress and The interim government headed by
the Muslim League could not come to an Jawaharlal Nehru was formed in September
agreement. Jinnah demanded that all the 1946. After some hesitation the Muslim
Muslim members should be from the Muslim League joined it in October 1946. Its
League and they should have a veto on all representative Liaqat Ali Khan was made
important matters. In the provincial elections the Finance Member. In February 1947,
held in early 1946 the Congress won most of Clement Atlee declared that power would be
the general seats and the Muslim League won transferred by June 1948. Lord Mountbatten
most of the seats reserved for the Muslims was sent as Viceroy to India with the specific
thus bolstering its claim. task of transfer of power. On 3 June 1947
(c) Cabinet Mission the Mountbatten Plan was announced. It
In Britain, the Labour Party had won a proposed:
landslide victory and Clement Atlee became
Power would be transferred on the basis
the Prime Minister. He declared that he
of dominion status to India and Pakistan.
wanted to transfer power at the earliest.
He sent a Cabinet Mission comprising Princely states would have to join either
Pethick Lawrence, Sir Strafford Cripps and
India or Pakistan.
A.V. Alexander. Rejecting the demand for
Pakistan, it provided for a Federal government Boundary commission was to be set up
with control over defence, communications under Radcliffe Brown and the award

would be announced after the transfer of
power.
Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies

would vote on whether they should be
partitioned.
(f) Independence and Partition

The Mountbatten Plan was given effect
by the enactment of the Indian Independence
Act on 18 July 1947 by the British Parliament.
The Act abolished the sovereignty of the
British Parliament over India. India was
partitioned into two dominions – India and
Pakistan. On 15 August 1947 India won
independence. Arrival of refugees in the wake of Partition
SUMMARY
Gandhiji’s experiments with truth, ahimsa and satyagraha in South Africa and his evolution
as a mass leader are explained.
His call for Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience and Quit India Movements and the fallout
of these mass struggles in the form of legislation such as Government of India Act, 1919 and
Government of India Act, 1935 and Independence Act, 1947 are detailed.
Role played by Socialists and Communists and Revolutionaries represented by Bhagat Singh,
Subhas Chandra Bose and outcome of their activities are highlighted.
Use of religion for political mobilisation by Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League leading to
partition is discussed.
GLOSSARY
passive political resistance advocated by
satyagraha அறப்போர், சத்தியாகிரகம்
Mahatma Gandhi
அரசியல் சட்ட விதிகளைப்
constitutionalist adherent of constitutional methods
பின்பற்றுபவர்
unjust or differential treatment of different
ஜாதி, க�ொள்கை ப�ோன்றவற்றின்
discrimination categories of people, especially on grounds
of caste, creed, etc அடிப்படையில் வேறுபாடு காட்டுகிற
exhort strongly encourage or urge to do something வற்புறுத்து, நற்செயலுக்கேவு
allegiance to one’s own ethnic, religious or
communalism வகுப்புவாதம்
caste group rather than to wider society
தன்னாட்சியுரிமையுடைய குடியேற்ற
dominion self-governing territory
நாடு
all the people in a country or area who are
electorate வாக்காளர் த�ொகுதி
entitled to vote in an election
ultimatum a final demand or statement of terms கடைசி அறிவிப்பு, இறுதி எச்சரிக்கை
alienation Isolation தனிமைப்படுதல்
a secret plan by a group to do something
conspiracy கூட்டுச்சதி செய்தல், சதித்திட்டம்
unlawful or harmful

3. Government of India Act 1919 introduced
EXERCISE in the provinces.
4.
The Civil Disobedience Movement in
I Choose the correct North West Frontier Province was led by
.
answer
1. Who was arrested during 5.
Ramsay Macdonald announced
the anti-Rowlatt protests in Amritsar? which provided separate
electorates to the minorities and the
a) Motilal Nehru
depressed classes.
b) Saifuddin Kitchlew
6. established Congress
c) Mohamed Ali Radio underground during the Quit India
d) Raj Kumar Shukla Movement.
2. In which session of the Indian National
Congress was Non-Cooperation approved?
a) Bombay b) Madras 1. (i)
The Communist Party of India was
founded in Tashkent in 1920.
c) Calcutta d) Nagpur
(ii) M. Singaravelar was tried in the Kanpur
3. Which among the following was declared Conspiracy Case.
as ‘Independence Day’? (iii) The Congress Socialist Party was formed
a) 26th January 1930 by Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya
b) 26th December 1929 Narendra Dev and Mino Masani.
c) 16th June 1946 (iv) The Socialists did not participate in the
Quit India Movement.
d) 15th January 1947
4. When was the first Forest Act enacted? b) (ii) and (iii) are correct
a) 1858 b) 1911 c) 1865 d) 1936 c) (iv) is correct
5. On 8 January 1933 which day was observed d) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct
. 2. Assertion: The Congress attended the First
Round Table Conference.
a) Temple Entry Day
Reason: Gandhi-Irwin Pact enabled the
b) Day of Deliverance Congress to attend the Second Round Table
c) Direct Action Day Conference.
d) Independence Day a) Both A and R are correct but R is not the
6.
Which Act introduced Provincial correct explanation
Autonomy? b) A is correct but R is wrong
c) A is wrong but R is correct
a) 1858 Act
d) Both A and R are correct and R is the
b) Indian Councils Act, 1909 correct explanation
c) Government of India Act, 1919 3. Assertion: The Congress Ministries
d) Government of India Act, 1935 resigned in 1939.
Reason: The Colonial government of India
II Fill in the blanks
entered the war without consulting the
1. Gandhi regarded as his elected Congress ministries.
political guru. a) Both A and R are correct but R is not the
2.
Khilafat Movement was led by correct explanation
. b) A is correct but R is wrong

c) Both A and R are wrong 2. Critically examine the Civil Disobedience
d) Both A and R are correct and R is the Movement as the typical example of
correct explanation Gandhian movement.
3. Discuss the reasons behind the partition
IV Match the Following
of India.
1. Rowlatt Act - Surrender of titles
VII Activity
2. Non Cooperation
Movement - Dyarchy 1. Students can be asked to mark the
3. Government of important places of Gandhian Movement
in a map and write a sentence or two
India Act, 1919 - M.N. Roy
about what happened there.
4. Communist Party
2. Students can be divided into groups and
of India - Direct Action Day
asked to debate the views of Gandhi,
5. 16th August 1946 - Black Act Jinnah, B.R. Ambedkar, Revolutionaries
and Communists.
V Answer the following briefly
1. Describe the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. REFERENCE BOOKS
2. Write a note on the Khilafat Movement.
1. Bipan Chandra, History of Modern India,
3. Why did Gandhi withdraw the Non
Orient BlackSwan, 2016.
Cooperation Movement?
2. Bipan Chandra, Amales Tripathi and
4. Why was Simon Commission boycotted? Barun De, Freedom Struggle, NBT,1993.
5. What is Poorna Swaraj? 3. Bipan Chandra, et al., India’s Struggle for
6. Write a note on Bhagat Singh. Independence, Penguin Books, 1989.
7. What are the terms of the Poona Pact? 4. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, 1885–1947,
Pearson, 2014.
VI Answer in detail 5. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to
1. Examine the factors that led to the Partition, Orient BlackSwan, 2013.
transformation of Gandhi into a mass 6. B.R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A
leader. Biography, Oxford University Press, 1958.
ICT CORNER
Nationalism: Gandhian Phase
Step-1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step-2 Click on ‘Chronology/Time line’ and Select ‘Family tree of Mahatma Gandhi’
Step-3 Click on ‘Glimpses of Gandhi’ in the Left side menu and click on
‘Next or Previous’ to see events in life of Gandhi
Website URL:
https://www.mkgandhi.org/main.htm

Unit - 9
Freedom Struggle
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with:
Anti-colonial struggles in Tamil Nadu
Contribution of Christian missionaries to the development of education
and amelioration of the depressed classes
Challenge of the Justicites to the Congress in Tamil Nadu
Militant mass movement of the Congress in Tamil Nadu
Introduction 9.1 Early Nationalist

Stirrings in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu showed the lead in resisting
colonial rule. As early as the late eighteenth (a) Madras Native Association
century the Palayakarars, resisted the
The Madras Native Association (MNA)
English attempts to establish their political was the earliest organisation to be founded in
hegemony in Tamil Nadu. Even after the south India to articulate larger public rather
defeat of the Palayakarars, an uprising was than sectarian interests. It was started by
organised by Indian sepoys and officers in Gazulu Lakshminarasu, Srinivasanar and their
Vellore Fort in 1806 that had its echoes in associates in 1852. It consisted primarily of
several cantonments in south India. Thanks merchants. The objective was to promote the
to the introduction of Western education interests of its members and their focus was on
and eventual emergence of educated Indian reduction in taxation. It also protested against
middle class, the struggle against the British the support of the government to Christian
took the constitutional path. The freedom missionary activities. It
drew the attention of the
struggle in Tamil Nadu was unique, because
government to the condition
from the beginning it was not only a struggle
and needs of the people.
for independence from the English rule but
One of the important
also a struggle for independence from social contributions of the MNA
disability imposed by the obnoxious caste was its agitation against
system. In this lesson we shall study the role torture of the peasants by
played by nationalists wedded to diverse revenue officials. These efforts Gazalu
ideologies in Tamil Nadu. led to the establishment of the Lakshminarasu
105

Torture Commission and the eventual abolition closed meetings, conducted hall meetings and
of the Torture Act, which justified the collection communicated their views to the government.
of land revenue through torture. However, by Its demands included conduct of simultaneous
1862, the Madras Native Association had ceased civil services examinations in England and India,
to exist. abolition of the Council of India in London,
reduction of taxes and reduction of civil and
(b) Beginnings of the military expenditure. Many of its demands were
Nationalist Press: The Hindu adopted later by the Indian National Congress
and Swadesamitran founded in 1885.
The appointment of T. Muthuswami as the
first Indian Judge of the Madras High Court in (d) Moderate Phase
1877 created a furore in Madras Presidency. The Provincial associations such as the Madras
entire press in Madras criticized the appointment Mahajana Sabha led to the formation of an
of an Indian as a Judge. The press opposed his all-India organisation, the Indian National
appointment and the educated youth realized Congress Leaders from different parts of
that the press was entirely owned by Europeans. India attended several meetings before the
The need for a newspaper to express the Indian formation of the Congress. One such meeting
perspective was keenly felt. G. Subramaniam, was held in December 1884 in Theosophical
M. Veeraraghavachari and four other friends Society at Adyar. It was attended by Dadabhai
together started a newspaper The Hindu in Naoroji, K.T. Telang, Surendranath Banerjee
1878. It soon became the vehicle of nationalist and other prominent leaders apart from G.
propaganda. G. Subramaniam also started a Subramaniam, Rangaiah and Anandacharlu
Tamil nationalist periodical Swadesamitran from Madras.
in 1891 which became a daily in 1899. The
founding of The Hindu and Swadesamitran
provided encouragement to the starting of other
native newspapers such as Indian Patriot, South
Indian Mail, Madras Standard, Desabhimani,
Vijaya, Suryodayam and India.
Dadabhai Naoroji Gokhale

The first session of the Indian National
Congress was held in 1885 at Bombay. Out of
a total of 72 delegates 22 members were from
T. Muthuswami G. Subramaniam
Madras.
(c) Madras Mahajana Sabha The second session
of the Indian National
Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS) was the
Congress was held in
earliest organisation in south India with clear
Calcutta in 1886, with
nationalist objectives. On 16 May 1884 MMS was
Dadabhai Naoroji in the
started by M. Veeraraghavachari, P. Anandacharlu,
Chair. The third session
P. Rangaiah and few others. P. Rangaiah became
was held at Makkis
its first president. P. Anandacharlu played
Garden, now known as Badruddin Tyabji
an active role as its secretary. The members
the Thousand lights, in Madras in 1887 with
met periodically, debated public issues in
Freedom Struggle in Tamil Nadu 106

Prominent Nationalists of Tamil
Nadu in the Moderate phase
The early nationalists believed
in constitutional methods. Their
activities consisted of conducting
hall meetings and deliberating the
problems of the country in English.
V.S. Srinivasa Sastri P.S. Sivasamy G.A. Natesan
When, at the time of Partition of
Bengal, Tilak and other leaders adopted popular methods such as mass public meetings, and
used vernacular languages to address the larger public, the early nationalists came to be known as
moderates. The distinguished Tamil Moderates from Madras: V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, P.S. Sivasamy, V.
Krishnasamy, T.R. Venkatramanar, G.A. Natesan, T.M. Madhava Rao, and S. Subramaniar.
Badruddin Tyabji as president. Out of the 607 to propagate Swadeshi

all India delegates of 362 were from Madras ideals. Swadesamitran
Presidency. and India were
prominent journals. The
Tamil Nadu was then part of the Madras extremist leader Bipin
Presidency which included large parts of the Chandra Pal toured
present-day states of Andhra Pradesh (Coastal Madras and delivered
districts and Rayalaseema), Karnataka lectures which inspired
(Bengaluru, Bellary, South Canara), Kerala the youth. Students and V.O. Chidambaranar
(Malabar) and even Odisha (Ganjam). youth participated widely in the Swadeshi
Movement.
9.2 Swadeshi Movement
Swadeshi Steam Navigation
The partition of Bengal (1905) led to Company
the Swadeshi Movement and changed the
One of the most
course of the struggle for freedom. In various
enterprising acts in
parts of India, especially Bengal, Punjab and
pursuance of swadeshi
Maharashtra popular leaders emerged. They
was the launching of the
implemented the programme of the Calcutta
Swadeshi Steam Navigation
Congress which called upon the nation to
Company at Thoothukudi
promote Swadeshi enterprise, boycott foreign
by V.O. Chidambaranar. He
goods and promote national education.
purchased two ships Gallia and Lavo and plied
(a) Response in Tamilnadu them between Thoothukudi and Colombo.
V.O. Chidambaranar, V. Chakkaraiyar, Tirunelveli Uprising

Subramania Bharati and Surendranath
V.O.C joined with Subramania Siva in
Arya were some of the prominent leaders
organising the mill workers in Thoothukudi
in Tamilnadu. Public meetings attended by
and Tirunelveli. In 1908, he led a strike in the
thousands of people were organised in various
parts of Tamilnadu. Tamil was used on the European-owned Coral Mills. It coincided with
public platform for the first time to mobilise the release of Bipin Chandra Pal. V.O.C and
the people. Subaramania Bharati’s patriotic Subramania Siva, who organised a public meeting
songs were especially important in stirring to celebrate the release of Bipin, were arrested.
patriotic emotions. Many journals were started The two leaders were charged with sedition and
107 Freedom Struggle in Tamil Nadu

sentenced to rigorous imprisonment. Initially society. The objective was to kill British officials
V.O.C. was given a draconian sentence of two life and thereby kindle patriotic fervour among
imprisonments. The news of the arrest sparked the people. Vanchinathan of Senkottai, was
riots in Tirunelveli leading to the burning influenced by this organisation. On 17 June 1911
down of the police station, court building and he shot dead Robert W.D’E. Ashe, Collector of
municipal office. It led to the death of four people Tirunelveli in Maniyachi Junction. After this he
in police firing. V.O.C. was treated harshly in shot himself.
prison and was made to pull the heavy oil press.
To avoid imprisonment Subramania Bharati (c) Annie Besant and the Home
moved to Pondicherry which was under French Rule Movement
rule. Bharati’s example was followed by many While the extremists and revolutionaries
other nationalists such as Aurobindo Ghosh and were suppressed with an iron hand, the
V. V. Subramanianar. moderates hoped for some constitutional
reforms. However, they were disappointed with
the Minto-Morley reforms as it did not provide
for responsible government.
Thus when the national movement was in
its ebb, Annie Besant, an Irish lady and leader of
the Theosophical Society, proposed the Home
Rule Movement on the model of Irish Home
Bipin Chandra Pal Bharati Rule League. She started Home Rule League
in 1916 and carried forward the demand for
(b) Revolutionary Activities in home rule all over India. G.S. Arundale, B.P.
Tamil Nadu Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy assisted her in
Pondicherry provided a safe haven for the this campaign. They demanded home rule with
revolutionaries. Many of these revolutionaries only a nominal allegiance to British Crown.
in Tamil Nadu were introduced and trained in She started the newspapers New India and
revolutionary activities at India House in London Commonweal to carry forward her agenda. She
and in Paris. M.P.T. Acharya, V.V. Subramanianar remarked, “Better bullock carts and freedom
and T.S.S. Rajan were prominent among them. than a train deluxe with subjection”. Under the
Revolutionary literature was distributed by them Press Act of 1910 Annie Besant was asked to pay
in Madras through Pondicherry. Radical papers hefty amount as security. She wrote two books,
such as India, Vijaya and Suryodayam came out How India wrought for Freedom and India: A
of Pondicherry. Nation and a pamphlet on self-government.
9.3 Non-Brahmin
Movement and the
Challenge to Congress
(a) The South Indian Liberal
Federation
V.V. Subramanianar Aurobindo Gosh The non-Brahmins organised themselves
into political organisations to protect their
Ashe Murder interests. In 1912 the Madras Dravidian
In 1904 Nilakanta Brahmachari and Association was founded. C. Natesanar played
others started Bharata Matha Society, a secret an active role as its secretary. In June 1916 he

established the Dravidian Association Hostel for from many areas of the city converged in the
non-Brahmin students. On 20 November 1916 Marina beach where there was a large gathering.
a meeting of about thirty non-Brahmins was They devoted the whole day to fasting and
held under the leadership of P. Thyagarayar, Dr. prayer in the Marina beach. Madras Satyagraha
T.M. Nair and C. Natesanar at Victoria Public Sabha was formed. Rajaji, Kasturirangar,
Hall in Chennai. The South Indian Liberal S. Satyamurty and George Joseph addressed the
Federation (SILF) was founded to promote the meeting. A separate meeting of workers was
interests of the non-Brahmins. addressed by V. Kalyanasundaram (Thiru. V.
Justice Ministry Ka) B.P. Wadia and V.O.C. An important aspect
of the movement was that the working classes,
The Congress boycotted the elections of students and women took part in large numbers.
1920. The Justice Party won 63 of 98 elected seats
in the Legislative Council. A. Subburayalu of George Joseph: George Joseph, a barrister
the Justice Party became the first chief minister. and eloquent speaker, played a leading role in
After the 1923 elections, Raja of Panagal of the organising and publicising the cause of Home
Justice Party formed the ministry. Rule League in Madurai. Though born in
Chengannur (Alappuzha district, Kerala State),
he chose to settle down in
Madurai and practice as
a people’s lawyer. He was
fondly called “Rosaappu
Durai” by the people of
Madurai for the services
he rendered to the affected
communities.
A Subbarayalu Raja of Panagal
(c) Khilafat Movement
(b) Government’s Repressive
Measures: Rowlatt Act Following the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
General Dyer who was responsible for it was
A draconian Anarchical and Revolutionary
not only acquitted of all charges but rewarded.
Crimes Act, popularly known as the Rowlatt
After the First World War the Caliph of Turkey
Act, after the name of Sir Sidney Rowlatt, who
was humiliated and deprived of all powers.
headed the committee that recommended it was
To restore the Caliph the Khilafat Movement
passed in 1919. Under the Act anyone could be
was started. Muslims who had largely kept
imprisoned on charges of terrorism without
from the nationalist movement now joined
due judicial process. Indians were aghast at this.
it in huge numbers. In Tamil Nadu Khilafat
Gandhi gave voice to the anger of the people
Day was observed on 17 April 1920, with a
and adopted the Satyagraha method that he had
meeting presided over by Maulana Shaukat
used in South Africa.
Ali. Another such conference was held at
Rowlatt Satyagraha Erode. Vaniyambadi was as the epicenter of
On 18 March 1919 Khilafat agitation.
Gandhi addressed a meeting
on Marina Beach. On 6 April 9.4 Non-Cooperation
1919 hartal was organised
Movement
to protest against the “Black
Act”. Protest demonstrations Tamil Nadu was active during the
were held at several parts Non-cooperation Movement. C. Rajaji and
of Tamil Nadu. Processions S. Satyamurty

E.V. Ramaswamy (EVR, later seats. However, it did not
known as Periyar) provided accept office in accordance
the leadership. Rajaji worked with the Congress policy.
closely with Yakub Hasan, Instead they supported an
founder of the Madras branch independent, P. Subbarayan
of the Muslim League. As a to form the ministry. The
result, the Hindus and the Yakub Hasan Swarajists did not contest the
Muslims cooperated closely 1930 elections leading to an P. Subbarayan
during the course of the movement in Tamil Nadu. easy victory for the Justice
(a) No Tax Campaigns and Party. The Justice Party remained in office till
Temperance Movement 1937.
As part of the non-cooperation movement, (d) Simon Commission Boycott

in many places, cultivators refused to pay taxes. In 1927 a statutory commission was
A no-tax campaign took place in Thanjavur. constituted under Sir John Simon to review the
Councils, schools and courts were boycotted. Act of 1919 and to suggest reforms. However, to
Foreign goods were boycotted. There were a the great disappointment of Indians, it was an
number of workers’ strikes all over region, many all-white commission with not a single Indian
of them led by nationalist leaders. One of the member. So the Congress boycotted the Simon
important aspects of the movement in Tamil Nadu Commission. In Madras, the Simon Boycott
was the temperance movement or movement Propaganda Committee was set up with S.
against liquor. In November 1921 it was decided Satyamurti as the president. The arrival of Simon
to organise civil disobedience. Rajaji, Subramania Commission in Madras on 18 February 1929
Sastri and EVR were arrested. The visit of Prince black flags were waved against the Commission.
of Wales on 13 January 1922 was boycotted. In
the police repression two were killed and many Agitation for Removal of Neill Statue (1927)
injured. The Non-Cooperation Movement was James Neill of the Madras Fusiliers
withdrawn in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura (infantry men with firearms) was brutal in
incident in which 22 policemen were killed. wreaking vengeance at Kanpur (‘the Cawnpur
massacre’, as it was called) in which many
(b) Swarajists–Justicites Rivalry
English women and children were killed in
Following the withdrawal of the Non- the Great Rebellion of 1857. Neill was later
Cooperation Movement, the Congress was killed by an Indian sepoy. A statue was erected
divided between ‘no-changers’ who wanted to for him at Mount Road, Madras. Nationalists
continue the boycott of the councils and ‘pro- saw this as an insult to Indian sentiments,
changers who wanted to contest the elections and organised a series of demonstrations
for the councils. Rajaji along with other staunch in Madras. The statue was finally moved to
Gandhian followers opposed the council entry. Madras Museum when Congress Ministry, led
Along with Kasturirangar and M.A. Ansari, Rajaji by C. Rajaji, formed the government in 1937.
advocated the boycott of the councils. Opposition
to this led to the formation of the Swaraj Party
9.5 Civil Disobedience
within the Congress by Chittaranjan Das and
Motilal Nehru. In Tamil Nadu the Swarajists were Movement
led by S. Srinivasanar and S. Satyamurti. (a) Towards Poorna Swaraj
(c) Subbarayan Ministry The Madras session of the Indian
In Madras provincial elections held in 1926, National Congress in 1927 declared complete
the Swarajists won the majority of the elected independence as its goal. In the 1929 Lahore

session of the Congress, Poorna Swaraj a hartal in Madras. The
(complete independence) was adopted as the clashes with the police in
goal and on 26 January 1930 the national flag Tiruvallikeni which lasted
was hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru on the banks for three hours on 27
of river Ravi as the declaration of independence. April 1930 left three dead.
Volunteers who attempted
(b) Salt March to Vedaranyam to offer salt Satyagraha
When the Viceroy did not accept the in Rameswaram
Rukmani
demands put forward by Gandhi, he launched were arrested. Mill Lakshmipathi
the Civil Disobedience Movement. Rajaji workers struck work
organised and led a salt satyagraha march across the province. Woman participated
to Vedaranyam. The march started from enthusiastically. Rukmani Lakshmipathi was
Tiruchirappalli on 13 April 1930 and reached the first woman to pay penalty for violation of
Vedaranyam in Thanjavur district on 28 April. salt laws. Police used brutal force to suppress
A special song was composed for the march the movement. Bhashyam, popularly known
by Namakkal V. Ramalinganar with the lines, as Arya, hoisted the national flag atop Fort St.
“A War is ahead sans sword, sans bloodshed… George on 26 January 1932.
Join this march.” Despite a brutal crackdown
Martyrdom of Tirupur Kumaran
by the police, the marching satyagrahis were
provided a warm reception along the route. On 11 January 1932
On reaching Vedaranyam 12 volunteers under a procession carrying
the leadership of Rajaji broke the salt law by national flags and singing
picking up salt. Rajaji was arrested. T.S.S. Rajan, patriotic songs was
Rukmani Lakshmipathi, Sardar Vedarathnam, brutally beaten by the
C. Swaminathar and K. Santhanam were among police in Tirupur. O.K.S.R.
the prominent leaders who participated in the Kumaraswamy, popularly
Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha. Tirupur Kumaran, fell
dead holding the national Tirupur Kumaran
flag aloft. He is hailed as
Kodikatha Kumaran.
(d) First Congress Ministry

In the 1937 election the Congress emerged
victorious. The Justice Party was trounced.
Congress victory in the elections clearly
indicated its popularity with the people.
Rajaji formed the first
Congress Ministry. He
introduced prohibition on an
Vedaranyam Salt March Memorial experimental basis in Salem.
To compensate for the loss
(c) Widespread Agitations of revenue he introduced a
in Tamil Districts sales tax. When the British
The satyagrahis under the leadership involved India in the
C. Rajaji
of T. Prakasam and K. Nageswara Rao set Second World War without
up a camp at Udayavanam near Madras. consulting the elected Congress ministries, the
However, the police arrested them. It led to latter resigned.

(e) Anti-Hindi Agitation every railway station the
police waited with a list of
One of the controversial measures of Rajaji
local leaders and arrested
was the introduction of Hindi as a compulsory
them as they got down.
subject in schools. This was considered to be
Kamaraj gave the police
a form of Aryan and North Indian imposition
the slip and got down at
detrimental to Tamil language and culture,
Arakkonam itself. He then
and therefore caused much public resentment.
worked underground and
E.V.R. led a massive campaign against it. K. Kamaraj
organised people during
He organised an anti-Hindi Conference at
the Quit India Movement.
Salem. It formulated a definite programme
of action. The Scheduled Castes Federation Undying Mass Movement
and the Muslim League extended its support All sections of the society participated
to the anti-Hindi agitation. Natarajan and in the movement. There were a large
Thalamuthu, two of the enthusiastic agitators number of workers strike such as strikes in
died in prison. A rally was organised from Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, Madras Port
Tiruchirappalli to Madras. More than 1200 Trust, Madras Corporation and the Electric
protestors including E.V.R. were arrested. Tramway. Students of various colleges took
After the resignation of the Congress Ministry, active part in the protests. Many young men
the Governor of Madras who took over the and women also joined the INA. The Quit
reigns of administration removed Hindi as India Movement was suppressed with brutal
compulsory subject. force.
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny, the
9.6 Quit India Struggle
negotiations initiated by the newly formed
On 8 August 1942 the Quit India Labour Party Government in England
resolution was passed and Gandhi gave resulting in India’s independence but sadly
the slogan ‘Do or Die’. The entire Congress with partition of the country into India and
leadership was arrested overnight. K. Kamaraj Pakistan has formed part of the Lesson in
while returning from Bombay noticed that at Unit VIII.
SUMMARY
Contributions of Madras Native Association, Madras Mahajana Sabha and the nationalist
press to the growth of nationalism in Tamil Nadu are discussed.
Swadeshi phase of the Indian National Movement in Tamil Nadu, with focus on role
played by V.O.C., Subramania Siva, Subramania Bharathi, is detailed.
Non-cooperation Movement, E.V.R.’s differences with the Congress,the birth of Swaraj
Party at the national level and the Self-Respect Movement in the Tamil region are
examined.
Tamil Nadu’s participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement organised to protest the
disappointment over Simon Commission and the Round Table Conferences are dealt
with.
The elections under Government of India Act, 1935 and the formation of first Congress
Ministry in Madras under Rajaji are outlined.

GLOSSARY
leadership or dominance, especially by
hegemony மேலாதிக்கம்
one state or social group over others
obnoxious extremely unpleasant விரும்பத்தகாத, வெறுக்கப்படுகிற
consensus a general agreement கருத்து ஒருமைப்பாடு, முழு இசைவு
insincerity/two-facedness, dishonesty, lip
hypocrisy பாசாங்கு, ப�ோலிமை
service
inciting or causing people to rebel against
seditious ஆட்சிக்கு எதிரான
the authority of a state or monarch
a protest meeting or march against
demonstration ப�ொது ஆர்ப்பாட்ட நிகழ்ச்சி
something
picket a blockade of a workplace or other venue மறியல்
boycott refuse to cooperate with or participate in புறக்கணி
brutal savagely violent க�ொடுமைமிக்க, இரக்கமற்ற
having devotion to and vigorous support
patriotic நாட்டுப்பற்று
for one’s own country
action of subduing someone or
repression அடக்குமுறை
something with force
EXERCISE
c) B.P. Wadia
I Choose the
d) G.S. Arundale
correct answer
4. Who among the following were Swarajists?
1.
Who was the first
President of the Madras Mahajana Sabha? a) S. Satyamurti
a) T.M. Nair b) Kasturirangar
b) P. Rangaiah c) P. Subbarayan
c) G. Subramaniam d) Periyar EVR
d) G.A. Natesan 5.
Who set up the satyagraha camp in
Udyavanam near Madras?
2. Where was the third session of the Indian
National Congress held? a) K. Kamaraj
a) Marina b) C. Rajaji
b) Mylapore c) K. Santhanam
c) Fort St. George d) T. Prakasam

6. Where was the anti-Hindi Conference
d) Thousand Lights
held?
3.
Who said “Better bullock carts and
freedom than a train de luxe with a) Erode
subjection”? b) Madras
a) Annie Besant c) Salem
b) M. Veeraraghavachari d) Madurai

II Fill in the blanks IV Match the Following
1. was appointed the first 1. MNA - Anti-Hindi agitation
Indian Judge of the Madras High Court. 2. EVR Periyar - Removal of Neill
2. Nilakanta Brahmachari started the secret Statue
society named . 3. S.N. Somayajulu - Salt Satyagraha
3.
The Dravidian Association Hostel for 4. Vedaranyam - Torture Commission
non-Brahmin students was established by 5. Thalamuthu - Vaikom Hero
.
V Answer the questions briefly
4. formed the first 1. List out the contribution of the moderates.
Congress Ministry in Madras.
2. Write a note on the Tirunelveli Uprising.
5. was the founder of the
3. What is the contribution of Annie Besant
Madras branch of the Muslim League. to India's freedom struggle?
6. hoisted the national flag
VI Answer in detail
atop Fort St. George on 26 January 1932.
1. D iscuss the response to Swadeshi
III Choose the correct statement Movement in Tamil Nadu.
1. (i)
Madras Native Association was 2. Examine the origin and growth of Non-
founded in 1852. Brahmin Movement in Tamil Nadu.
(ii)
Tamil nationalist periodical 3. Describe the role of Tamil Nadu in the
Civil Disobedience Movement.
Swadesamitran was started in 1891.
(iii) The Madras Mahajana Sabha demanded VII Activity
conduct of civil services examinations 1. Students can be asked to write a sentence
only in India or two about the important places of
freedom struggle in Tamil Nadu.
(iv) V.S. Srinivasanar was an extremist.
2. Role Play: Students can be divided into
a) (i) and (ii) are correct groups and asked to debate the views of the
b) (iii) is correct Moderates, Extremists, Revolutionaries,
Annie Besant’s supporters, Justice Party,
c) (iv) is correct
and British Government.
d) All are correct
2. (i) EVR did not participate in the Non- REFERENCE BOOKS
Cooperation Movement.
1. K. Rajayyan, Tamil Nadu: A Real History,
(ii) R
ajaji worked closely with Yakub Ratna Publications, Trivandrum, 2005.
Hasan of the Muslim League. Saroja Sundararajan, March to Freedom
2.
(iii) Workers did not participate in the Non- in Madras Presidency, 1916–1947, Lalitha
Cooperation Movement. Publications, Madras, 1989.
(iv) Toddy shops were not picketed in Tamil N. Rajendran, National Movement in Tamil
3.
Nadu. Nadu, 1905–1914: Agitational Politics and
State Coercion, Oxford University Press,
Madras, 1994.
b) (i) and (iii) are correct
4. A.R. Venkatachalapathy, Tamil Characters:
c) (ii) is correct Personalities, Politics, Culture, Pan
d) (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct Macmillan, 2018.

Unit - 10
Social
Transformation
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge about the social transformation of modern
Tamil Nadu
To know the different social reform movements in Tamil Nadu
To understand the ideas of the social reformers
rationalism and the progressive movement

Introduction
of the society. Critical thinking is at its root.
Europeans established their political power This ideology of humanism stimulated creative
over Indian subcontinent in the latter half of the energy in all spheres of social life and knowledge
eighteenth century. While they were concerned such as language, literature, philosophy, music,
with annexing India, by the beginning of painting, architecture, etc.
the nineteenth century they were reordering
Indian society. New revenue settlements were
10.1 Tamil Renaissance
made. Influenced by British Utilitarian ideas
and evangelicals they also tried to impose their The cultural hegemony of colonialism
cultural superiority over the Indian people. and the rise of humanism brought several
This caused a reaction among the Indians. changes in the socio-cultural life of the
During the nineteenth century, educated Indians Indian subcontinent. Modern Tamil Nadu too
from different parts of the country began to experienced such a historical transition. Tamil
feel the humiliation and responded by seeking language and culture played a significant role in
their socio-cultural identity from their past. their identity construction. The introduction of
However, they understood some merits in the printing press, linguistic research on Dravidian
colonial arguments and were ready to reform. languages, etc... underpinned the process of
It resulted in the social and religious reform Tamil renaissance. Although religious literature
movements in modern India. This particular was taken up predominantly for publication
historical development is also identified as the in the early years after the advent of printing
Indian renaissance. technology, things began to change gradually.
Renaissance is an ideological and cultural Works that can be described as secular were
phenomenon. It is closely tied to modernity, taken up for publishing.
115

Advent of the Printing their social and cultural identity on the ancient
Technology Tamil classics, collectively called the Sangam
literature.
Tamil was the first non-
European language that In 1816, F.W. Ellis
went into print. As early (1777–1819) who founded
as in 1578, Tamil book, the College of Fort St George,
ThambiranVanakkam, was formulated the theory that
published from Goa. In the south Indian languages
1709, a full-fledged printing belonged to a separate family
press had been established Ziegenbalg which was unrelated to the
thanks to Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar. Thirukkural Indo-Aryan family of
was one of the earliest Tamil literary texts to be languages. Robert Caldwell
Robert Caldwell
published in 1812. This led the resurgence of (1814–1891) expanded this
interest among Tamil scholars in publishing the argument in a book titled, A Comparative
more ancient Tamil classics around that period. Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian
Family of Languages, in 1856. He established the
In the nineteenth century, Tamil scholars
close affinity between the Dravidian languages
like C.W. Damotharanar (1832–1901), and
in contrast with Sanskrit and also established
U.V. Swaminathar (1855–1942) spent their
the antiquity of Tamil.
lifetime in the rediscovery of the Tamil classics.
C. W. Damotharanar collected and edited Tamil intellectuals of
different palm-leaf manuscripts of the Tamil this period identified the
grammar and literature. His editions included fundamental differences
such texts as Tolkappiyam, Viracholiyam, between Tamil/Dravidian/
Iraiyanar-Akapporul, IlakkanaVilakkam, Egalitarian and Sanskrit/
Kaliththokai and Chulamani. U.V. Swaminathar, Aryan/Brahmanism. They
a student of Meenakshisundaranar, took argued that Tamil was a
efforts to publish the classical texts such as language of Dravidian people,
P. Sundaranar
Civakachinthamani (1887), Paththupattu who are non-Brahmin and
(1889), Chilapathikaram (1892), Purananuru their social life was casteless, gender-sensitised
(1894), Purapporul-Venpa-Malai (1895), and egalitarian. Tamil renaissance contributed
Manimekalai (1898), Ainkurunuru (1903) and to the origin and growth of Dravidian
Pathitrupathu(1904). consciousness in the Tamil country. These
ideas are exemplified in the Tamil invocation
song in the play, Manonmaniam written by P.
Sundaranar (1855–1897).
C.W. Damotharanar U.V. Swaminathar

The publication of these ancient literary
texts created an awareness among the Tamil Thiru. Vi. Ka Bharatidasan
people about their historical tradition, language, Ramalinga Adigal (1823–1874), popularly
literature and religion. Modern Tamils founded known as Vallalar, questioned the existing
Social Transformation in Tamil Nadu 116

Hindu religious orthodoxy. Abraham Pandithar on the Sangam texts,
(1859–1919) gave prominence to Tamil music Pattinappalai and
and published books on the history of Tamil Mullaipattu. As a
music. C.W. Damotharanar, U.V. Swaminathar, young man, he worked
Thiru Vi. Kaliyanasundaram (1883–1953), in a journal, Siddhanta
Parithimar Kalaignar (1870-1903), Maraimalai Deepika. Later he
Adigal (1876–1950), Subramania Bharathi served as a Tamil
(1882–1921), S. Vaiyapuri (1891–1956), and the teacher in the Madras
poet Bharatidasan (1891–1964), in their own Christian College for Maraimalai Adigal
ways and through their writings, contributed many years. He was inclined towards non-
to the revival of Tamil literature. Meanwhile, Brahmin movement. His teachers such as P.
M. Singaravelar (1860–1946) an early pioneer Sundaranar and Somasundara Nayagar were
in Buddhist revival, promoted communism key influences in his life.
and socialism to counter the colonial power. Tani Tamil Iyakkam
Pandithar Iyotheethassar (1845–1914) and (Pure Tamil Movement)
Periyar E.V. Ramasamy (1879–1973) held high
Maraimalai Adigal promoted the use
the radical philosophy to defend the rights of
of pure Tamil words and removal of the
the socially underprivileged and marginalised
Sanskrit influence from the Tamil language.
section of the people.
The movement made a great impact on Tamil
culture especially in language and literature.
V.G. Suryanarayana Sastri
His daughter Neelambikai, played an important
(Parithimar Kalaignar)
role in its foundation. He changed his own
V.G. Suryanarayana name Vedachalam and took on the pure
Sastri (1870-1903), Tamil name of Maraimalai Adigal. His journal
born near Madurai, was Jnanasagaram was renamed Arivukkadal and
professor of Tamil at his institution, Samarasa Sanmarga Sangam,
the Madras Christian was re-christened as Pothu Nilai Kalakam.
College. He was one of Neelambikai compiled a dictionary that
the earliest scholars to provided pure Tamil equivalents to Sanskrit
identify the influence words that had crept into Tamil vocabulary.
of Sanskrit on Tamil, Parithimar Kalaignar
and adopted a pure Tamil name for himself: 10.2 Rise of the Dravidian
Parithimar Kalaignar. He was the first to Movement
argue that Tamil is a classical language, and
demanded that the University of Madras The Dravidian
should not call Tamil a vernacular language. movement emerged as
Influenced by Western literary models, he a defence of the non-
introduced the sonnet form in Tamil. He Brahmins against the
also wrote novels and plays, and a number of Brahmin dominance.
essays on science. Tragically, he died at the An organisation called
young age of 33. The Madras Non-
Brahmin Association
Maraimalai Adigal
was founded in 1909
Maraimalai Adigal (1876–1950) is to help the non- Dr. C. Natesanar
considered the father of Tamil linguistic purism Brahmin students. In
and the founder of Tani Tamil Iyakkam (Pure 1912 C. Natesanar, a medical doctor, founded
Tamil Movement). He wrote commentaries the Madras United League, later renamed
117 Social Transformation in Tamil Nadu

as Madras Dravidian Association to support Congress Party boycotting the legislature, the
Dravidian uplift. The organisation focused Justice Party continued to remain in office till
on educating and supporting non-Brahmin 1937 elections were held. In the 1937 elections
graduates and conducting regular meetings to the Indian National Congress contested the
share their grievances. Meanwhile, Natesanar elections for the first time and trounced the
founded a hostel, the Dravidian Home, at Justice Party.
Triplicane (Madras) in July 1916 to address the Programmes and Activities
lack of hostels for the non-Brahmin students
which hindered their educational development. The Justice Party is the fountain head of
In addition, the home had a literary society for the non-Brahmin Movement in the country.
the benefit of non-Brahmin students. The Justice Party government widened
education and employment opportunities for
10.3 South Indian Liberal the majority of the population and created
space for them in the political sphere.
Federation (Justice Party)
The Justicites
On 20 November 1916 around 30
removed the legal
prominent non-Brahmin leaders including
hindrances restricting
Dr. C. Natesanar, Sir Pitti Theyagarayar, T.M.
inter-caste marriages
Nair and Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal came
and broke the barriers
together to form the South Indian Liberation
that prevented
Federation (SILF). In the meantime, at a
Depressed Classes
meeting held in the Victoria Public Hall the
from the use of public Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar
Non-Brahmin Manifesto was released in
wells and tanks. The Justice Party government
December 1916. The manifesto articulated the
ordered that public schools accommodate the
voice of the non-Brahmin communities.
children of the Depressed Classes. Hostels
The association started publishing three were established for the students belonging
newspapers: Dravidian in Tamil, Justice in to this social group in 1923. In the meantime,
English and Andhra Prakasika in Telugu, to the Madras legislature under the Justice
propagate the ideals of the Party. Party government was the first to approve
The first election, under the Montagu- participation of women in the electoral politics
Chelmsford Reforms, was held in 1920 after in 1921. This resolution created space for
the introduction of the Dyarchy form of woman and thus facilitated Muthulakshmi
government in the provinces. The Justice Party Ammaiyar to become the first woman legislator
won the election and formed the first-ever Indian in India in 1926.
cabinet in Madras. A. Subbarayalu became The Justice Party worked towards legislating
the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency provisions for communal representation –
and the party formed the government during reservations for various communities. Two
1920–1923 and 1923–1926. In the context of Communal Government Orders (16 September
1921 and 15 August 1922) were passed to
ensure equitable distribution in appointments
among various castes and communities as a
part of achieving social justice. The Justice
Party rule established the Staff Selection
Board in 1924 for the selection of government
officials and encouraged all the communities
to share the administrative powers. In 1929,
Sir Pitti Theyagarayar T.M. Nair the Government of British India adopted the

pattern and established the Public Service in Varanasi and other religious centres. The
Commission. firsthand experience of orthodox Hindu
The Justice Party further concentrated on religion led to his disillusionment with
reforms in religious institutions. The Justice Party religion. On his return, he took care of his
introduced the Hindu Religious Endowment family business for some years. His selfless
(HRE) Act in 1926 and enabled any individual, public service and forthrightness made him a
irrespective of their caste affiliation, to become popular personality. He held different official
a member of the temple committee and govern positions of Erode that included the
the resources of the religious institutions. Chairmanship of Municipal Council (1918–
1919).
10.4 Self-Respect Movement As president of the Tamil
(Suyamariyathai Iyakkam) Nadu Congress Committee,
Periyar proposed a resolution
The Self-Respect movement advocated regarding the rights of
a casteless society devoid of rituals and “Untouchables” to temple
differences based on birth. The movement entry. In the name of “caste
declared rationality and self-respect as the dharma” the “lower caste”
birthright of all human beings and held these as people were denied access to the temples
more important than self-rule. The movement and the streets surrounding the temple. In
declared illiteracy as a source for women’s Vaikom (a town in the then Princely State
subordination and promoted compulsory of Travancore and in present day Kerala),
elementary education for all. people protested against this practice. In the
The movement demanded women’s initial stages George Joseph of Madurai played
emancipation, deplored superstitions, and big role. After the local leaders were arrested
emphasised rationality. The movement also Periyar led the movement and was imprisoned.
advocated self-respect marriage. People hailed him as Vaikom Virar (Hero of
Vaikom). In the meantime, he was disturbed
The Self-Respect Movement championed
by the caste-based discrimination in the dining
not only the cause of the non-Brahmin Hindus,
hall at the Cheranmadevi Gurukulam (school),
but also that of the Muslims. The Self-Respect
which was run by V.V.Subramaniam (a
Movement extolled the lofty principles of Islam
Congress leader) with the financial support of
such as equality and brotherhood.
the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Periyar
Periyar E.V.R. was disappointed when, despite his objections
and protests against this discrimination, the
Periyar E.V. Ramasamy (1879–1973) was
Congress continued to support the iniquitous
the founder of the Self-Respect Movement. He
practice in the Gurukulam.
was the son of a wealthy businessman in Erode,
Venkatappa and Chinna Thayammal. Though
possessing little formal
education, he engaged
in critical discussions
with scholars, who used
to be patronised by his
devout father. As a
young man, he once
ran away from home
and spent many months
Periyar E.V.R Thanthai Periyar Memorial (Vaikom, Kerala)

Periyar started the Self-Respect movement system (institution of temple girls). Right from
in 1925. Periyar understood the relevance of mass 1929, when the Self-respect Conferences began
communication in spreading rationalist thought. to voice its concern over the plight of women,
He started a number of newspapers and journals Periyar had been emphasising women’s right
such as Kudi Arasu (Democracy) (1925), Revolt to divorce and property. Periyar objected to
(), Puratchi (Revolution) (1933), Paguththarivu terms like “giving in marriage”. This, he said,
(Rationalism) (1934), and Viduthalai (Liberation) treats woman as a thing. He wants it substituted
(1935). Kudi Arasu was the official newspaper of by “valkaithunai,”(companion) a word for
the Self-Respect Movement. Usually, Periyar wrote marriage taken from the Tirukkural. Peiyar’s
a column and expressed his opinion on social most important work on this subject is Why the
issues in each of its issues. He frequently wrote Woman is Enslaved?
columns under the pseudonym of Chitraputtiran. Periyar believed that property rights for
Periyar had a close relationship with women would provide them a social status and
Singaravelar who is considered the first communist protection.
of south India and a pioneer of Buddhism. In 1936, In 1989, Government of Tamil Nadu
Periyar got Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Annihilation fulfilled the dream of radical reformers by
of Caste translated into Tamil immediately after the introduction of the Hindu Succession
it was written. He also supported Ambedkar’s Tamil Nadu Amendment Act of 1989, which
demand for separate electorates for scheduled ensured the equal rights to ancestral property
castes. for women in inheritance. This Act became a
In 1937, in opposition to the Rajaji’s trendsetter and led to similar legislation at the
government’s move to introduce compulsory national level.
Hindi in schools, he launched a popular movement Rettaimalai Srinivasan
to oppose it. The anti-Hindi agitation (1937–39) Rettaimalai Srinivasan (1859–1945),
had a big impact on Tamilnadu’s politics. Periyar was born in 1859 at Kanchipuram. He
was imprisoned for his role in the movement. fought for social justice,
When he was still in jail, Periyar was elected the equality and civil rights
president of the Justice Party. Thereafter the Justice of the marginalised in
Party merged with the Self-Respect Movement. It the caste order. He was
was rechristened as Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) in honoured with such titles
1944. as Rao Sahib (1926), Rao
Rajaji, the Chief Minister of Madras State Bahadur (1930) and Divan
(1952–54), introduced a vocational education Bahadur (1936) for his
programme that encouraged imparting school selfless social services. His Rettaimalai
children with training in tune with their father’s autobiography, Jeeviya Srinivasan
occupation. Periyar criticised it as Kula Kalvi Saritha Surukkam (A Brief Autobiography),
Thittam (caste-based education scheme) and published in 1939, is one of the earliest
opposed it tooth and nail. His campaigns against it autobiographies.
led to the resignation of Rajaji. K. Kamaraj became Rettaimalai Srinivasan who had
Chief Minister of the Madras State. Periyar died at experienced the horrors of untouchability
the age of ninety four (1973). His mortal remains worked for the progress of the deprived
were buried at Periyar Thidal, Madras. castes. He founded the Adi Dravida Mahajana
Periyar, a Feminist Sabha in 1893. He served as president of the
Scheduled Castes’ Federation and the Madras
Periyar was critical of patriarchy. He Provincial Depressed Classes’ Federation.
condemned child-marriage and the devadasi

A close associate of Dr B.R. Ambedkar,
he participated in the first and second Round
Table Conferences held in London (1930
and 1931) and voiced the opinions of the
marginalised sections of the society. He was a
signatory to the Poona Pact of 1932.
M.C. Rajah
Mylai Chinnathambi Raja (1883–1943),

popularly known as Labour Statue in Marina Beach
M.C. Rajah, was one of The first All India Trade Union Conference
the prominent leaders (AITUC) was held on 31 October 1920 in
from the “depressed Bombay. The delegates discussed several
class”. Rajah started resolutions. These included a demand for
his career as a teacher protection from police interference in labour
and wrote different disputes, the maintenance of an unemployment
textbooks for schools register, restriction on exporting foodstuffs,
and colleges. He was one compensation for injuries, and health insurance.
of the founding members M.C. Rajah
of the South Indian Liberal Federation M. Singaravelar
(Justice Party). He became the first elected (1860–1946), was a
Legislative Council Member (1920–26) from pioneer in the labour
the depressed classes in Madras province. He movement activities in
functioned as the Deputy Leader of Justice the Madras presidency.
Party in the Madras Legislative Council. He was born in Madras
and graduated from
In 1928, he founded the All India the Presidency College,
Depressed Classes Association and was its University of Madras.
long time leader. He advocated Buddhism Singaravelar
in his early life. He knew many languages,
10.5 Labour Movements in including Tamil, English, Urdu, Hindi, German,
Tamil Nadu French and Russian and wrote about the ideas
of Karl Marx, Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer
The First World War (1914–18) and Albert Einstein in Tamil. He organised the
provided stimulus to industrial growth in first ever celebration of May Day in 1923. He
India. These industries, catering to war was one of the early leaders of the Communist
time needs, had employed a huge number of Party of India. He published a Tamil newspaper,
workers. At the end of the War there were Thozhilalan (Worker) to address the problems of
retrenchments across the industries, as the the working class. He was closely associated with
war time requirements receded. Combined Periyar and the Self-Respect Movement.
with high prices, this gave a momentum
to the labour movement. B.P. Wadia, 10.6 Language Agitation
M. Singaravelar, Thiru. Vi. Kalyanasundaram before Indian
and others initiated the formation of labour Independence
unions in the Madras Presidency. In 1918,
In general, language is a dominant symbol
India’s first organised trade union, the
of identity and it is associated with culture and
Madras Labour Union, was formed.
sentiments of any society. Tamil regained its

prominence in the latter half of the nineteenth are the important among them in Tamil Nadu.
and early twentieth century. Maraimalai WIA was started in 1917 by Annie Besant,
Adigal’s Pure Tamil Movement, the language Dorothy Jinarajadasa and Margaret Cousins at
reforms of Periyar and Tamil Isai Movement Adyar, Madras. The Association published
helped to galvanise the Tamil language. pamphlets and bulletins in different languages
Tamil renaissance that led the Dravidian to detail the problems of personal hygiene,
consciousness made a great intervention in marriage laws, voting rights, child care and
the development of modern Tamil language women’s role in the public. In the meantime,
and its art forms. Agamic temples did not WIA formed the All India Women’s Conference
permit rituals in Tamil. Tamil songs had a (AIWC) in 1927 to address the problem of
marginal place in musical concerts. Abraham women’s education and recommended that the
Pandithar systematically studied the history government implement various policies for the
of Tamil music and attempted to reconstruct uplift of women.
the ancient Tamil musical system. He founded Women’s liberation
the Tanjore Sangitha Vidya Mahajana Sangam was one of the important
in 1912 and it became the kernel of the Tamil objectives of the Self-
Isai Movement (Tamil Music Movement). The Respect Movement. Self-
movement gave importance to the singing of respecters led by Periyar
Tamil compositions in music concerts. The E.V.R. worked for gender
first Tamil Isai Conference was held in 1943, to equality and gender
discuss the status of Tamil music. sensitisation of the society.
The implementation of Hindi as a The movement provided a Muvalur
compulsory language in Tamil Nadu, at various space for women to share Ramamirtham
points of time, was seen as a threat to Tamil their ideas. There were
language and culture. Periyar declared that several women activists in the movement.
the introduction of Hindi over Tamil would Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar, Nagammai,
deny the Dravidians of their job opportunities. Kannamma, Nilavathi, Muvalur Ramamirtham,
Maraimalai Adigal pointed out that the Tamil Rukmani Ammal, Alarmelmangai Thayammal,
language would suffer with the introduction of Nilambikai, and Sivakami Chidambaranar are
Hindi. The anti-Hindi campaigners considered prominent among them.
it an ideological battle against Brahminism and There was a custom of dedicating young
the hegemony of Sanskrit over Tamil. girls to the Hindu temples as a servant of
God, known as devadasi. Though intended as
10.7 Women’s Movements a service to god it soon got corrupted leading
There were several streams of women’s to extensive immorality and abuse of the
movements and organisations established in women. Dr. Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar, was in
the early twentieth century to address the the forefront of the campaign pressing for a
question of women empowerment in Madras legislation to abolish this devadasi system. The
Presidency. Women’s India Association (WIA) Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication)
and All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) Act 1947 was enacted by the government.
In 1930, Muthulakshmi Ammaiyar introduced in the Madras Legislative Council a Bill on the
“prevention of the dedication of women to Hindu temples in the Presidency of Madras”. The Bill,
which later became the Devadasi Abolition Act, declared the “pottukattu ceremony” in the precincts
of Hindu temples or any other place of worship unlawful, gave legal sanction to devadasis to contract
marriage, and prescribed a minimum punishment of five years’ imprisonment for those found guilty
of aiding and abetting the devadasi system. The Bill had to wait for over 15 years to become an Act.

SUMMARY
Nineteenth century India encountered a process of introspection among Indian intellectuals
due to the colonial intervention and the rise of rationalism. This led to the Indian renaissance.
In Tamil Nadu, the proliferation of the printing press acted as a catalyst for the publication and
spread of secular ancient Tamil literature.
Tamil scholars in the nineteenth century worked hard to publish Tamil classics.
The transformation not only revived Tamil language and literature. It challenged the prevailing
caste hierarchy.
The Justice Party established in 1916 voiced the problems of non-Brahmin in the Madras
Presidency.
Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, the pioneer of the Self-Respect Movement, critiqued fundamentalism
and promoted rationalism among people.
Ultimately, the rational ideas of Tamil Nadu became a model for constructive developments of
the modern Indian state.
GLOSSARY
evangelical
Christian groups that believe that the teaching of the Bible சுவிசேஷர்கள்,
and persuading others to join them is extremely important நற்செய்தியாளர்
leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social
hegemony
group over others மேலாதிக்கம்
resurgence renewal, revival எழுச்சி
linguists a person skilled in languages ம�ொழியியலாளர்கள்
marginalised a person, group concept treated as insignificant or sidelined ஒதுக்கப்பட்ட
irked irritated, annoyed எரிச்சலூட்டும்
debunking expose the falseness or hollowness of (a myth, idea or belief) ஒழித்துக்கட்டும்
trounced defeat heavily in a contest படுத�ோல்வியுறச் செய்தல்
critiquing evaluate in a detailed and analytical way விமர்சிப்பது
iniquitous grossly unfair and morally wrong அநீதியான
pseudonym a fictitious name, especially one used by an author புனைபெயர்
rechristened give a new name to பெயரிடப்பட்டு
EXERCISE
c) Rajaji
d) M. C. Rajah
answer 3.
India’s first organised trade union, the
Madras Labour Union was formed in
1. .
established a full-fledged printing press in a) 1918 b) 1917 c) 1916 d) 1914
1709, at Tranquebar. 4. was established by the
a) Caldwell b) F.W. Ellis Justice Party Government for the selection
c) Ziegenbalg d) Meenakshisundaram of Government officials.
2. founded Adi Dravida a) Staff Selection Board
Mahajana Sabha in 1893. b) Public Service Commission
a) Rettaimalai Srinivasan c) Provincial Staff Recruitment Board
b) B. R. Ambedkar d) Staff Selection Commission

5. was the first elected Assertion (A): The Justice Party continued
2.
Legislative Council Member from the to remain in government from 1920-1937
depressed class in Madras Province. in Madras Presidency.
a) M. C. Rajah Reason (R): The Congress Party boycotted
b) Rettaimalai Srinivasan the Madras Legislature during this period of
c) T.M. Nair Dyarchy.
d) P. Varadarajulu a) Both A and R are correct
II Fill in the blanks b) A is correct, but R is not the correct
1. was the first non- explanation
European language that went into print. c) Both A and R are wrong
2. The College of Fort St. George was founded d)
R is correct, but it has no relevance
by . to A
3. is considered the father of IV Match the following
Tamil linguistic purism.
1. Dravidian Home - Maraimalai Adigal
4. was the first to approve
2. Thozhilalan - Rettaimalai
participation of women in the electoral Srinivasan
politics.
3. Tani Tamil Iyakkam - Singaravelar
5. The name Suriyanarayana Sastri changed in
Tamil as __________ 4. Jeeviya Saritha
Surukkam - Natesanar
6.
__________ gave prominence to Tamil
music. V Answer briefly
7. The first Woman Legislator in India was 1. Write a note on Tamil Renaissance.
__________. 2. Highlight the contribution of Caldwell for
the cause of South Indian languages.
3. List out the personalities who contributed
1. (i) Thirukkural was one of the earliest Tamil to the revival of Tamil literature through
literary texts to be published in 1812. their writings.
(ii) Maraimalai Adigal collected and edited 4. Discuss the importance of Hindu Religious
different palm leaf manuscripts of the Endowment Act passed by the Justicite
Tamil grammars and literature. ministry ?
(iii)
Robert Caldwell established the 5.
Name the newspapers published by the
close affinity between the Dravidian South Indian Liberal Foundation.
languages in contrast with Sanskrit and 6. Estimate Periyar as a feminist
also established the antiquity of Tamil.
VI Answer in detail
(iv) Thiru.Vi. Kalyanasundaram was an early
pioneer in Trade union movement. 1. Attempt an essay on the foundation and
development of Tamil Renaissance in the
a) (i) and (ii) are correct 19th Century.
b) (i) and (iii) are correct 2. Describe the background for the formation
d) (iv) is correct of the Justice Party and point out its
contribution to the cause of social justice.
e) (ii) and (iii) are correct

3.
Estimate Periyar E.V.R’s decisive 2. V. Geetha and S.V. Rajadurai, Towards a
contribution to the social transformation of Non-Brahmin Millennium: From Iyothee
Tamil Nadu. Thass to Periyar. Calcutta: Samya, 1998.
VII Students Activity 3. Robert Hardgrave The Dravidian
Movement. Bombay: Popular Prakashan,
1.
Students can be taught to distinguish
1965.
between Labour Movement and Trade
Union Movement. Project work on the Eugene F. Irschick, Politics and Social
4.
activities of local trade union organisations Conflict in South India. Berkeley:
may be done by students. University of California Press, 1969.
2. Students can compile the activities of the 5. Periyar. E.V. Ramasami, Women Enslaved.
local writers’ associations or women’s New Delhi: Critical Quest, 2009.
collectives. Thoughts of Periyar E.V.R.: Speeches and
6.
Writings of Periyar E.V. Ramasamy. V.
REFERENCE BOOKS Anaimuthu. Comp. Chennai: Periyar E.V.
Ramasamy–Nagammai Education and
K. Nambi Arooran, Tamil Renaissance
1. Research Trust, 1974.
and Dravidian Nationalism 1905–1944.
Madurai: Koodal Publishers, 1980.

TIME LINE
1 unit = 10 years
Important Events of Indian National Movement (1900-1947)
1900
1905 - Partition of Bengal / Swadeshi Movement

1906 - Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was Started
1910
1916 - Home Rule League / Lucknow Pact

1917 - Champaran Satyagraha
1918 - Kheda Satyagraha
1919 - Rowlatt Act / Jalianwalah Bagh Massacre
1920 1920 - Khilafat Movement / Non-Cooperation Movement
1922 - Chauri Chaura incident
1923 - The formation of Swaraj Party
1927 - The appointment of the Simon Commission

1928 - Motilal Nehru Report
1929 - The Lahore Congress Session
1930 1930 - Salt Satyagraha / First Round Table Conference
1931 - Gandhi-Irwin Pact / Second Round Table Conference
1932 - Communal Award / Poona Pact / Third Round Table Conference
1935 - The Government of India Act
1937 - First Congress Ministry in Provinces
1940 1940 - August Offer / Individual Satyagraha
1942 - Cripps Mission / Quit India Movement
1945 - Wavell Plan / Simla Conference

1946 - Royal Indian Navy Revolt / Cabinet Mission / Interim Government
1947 - Mountbatten Plan / India got Independence
1950
126

TIME LINE
1 unit = 10 years
Important Events of World History (1900-1950)
1900
1910 1910 - Formation of the Union of South Africa
1912 - First Balkan War

1914 - Outbreak of World War I
1917 - Russian Revolution

1918 - End of the World War I
1919 - Paris Peace Conference / Treaty of Versailles
1920 1920 - Establishment of League of Nation
1922 - Mussolini’s March on Rome
1927 - Formation of Vietnam Nationalist Party

1929 - The Great Depression / Lateran Trearty
1930
1933 - Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany

1934 - Long March
1935 - Mussolini invaded Ethiopia
1939 - Outbreak of World War II

1940 1940 - Battle of Britain
1941 - Pearl Harbour incident
1942 - Battle of Stalingrad
1945 - End of World War II / Formation of UNO
1950
127

GEOGRAPHY
11_Geography_Unit_1_EM.indd 128 11-04-2020 12:29:21

Unit - 1
India – Location,
Relief and
Drainage
Learning Objectives
� To understand the strategic importance of India’s absolute and relative location in
the world
� To know the distinct characteristics of major physiographic divisions of India
� To compare the regions of Great Indian plains
� To understand the drainage system of India
� To differentiate the Himalayan and peninsular rivers
Introduction India and the World
India is the seventh largest country in the The Indian land mass has a central location
world and second largest country in Asia. It is between, the East and the West Asia and the
separated by the Himalayas from the rest of the southward extension of the Asian continent.
continent. India accounts for about 2.4 % of the The trans Indian ocean routes which connect
total area of the world with an area of 32,87,263 the countries of Europe in the west and the
sq.km. many of the India states are larger than countries of East Asia provide a strategic central
several countries of the world. location to India. Thus it helps India to establish
close trade contact with West Asia, Africa and
India’s Land and Water Frontiers Europe from the western coast and with South
India shares its 15,200 km long land East, east Asia from the eastern coast.
frontier with Pakistan and Afghanistan in the
India: A Subcontinent
north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the
north and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. India along with the countries of Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and
India’s longest border is with Bangladesh
Sri Lanka is called a subcontinent.
(4156 km)while the shortest border is with
Afghanistan.(106 km) This region possesses a distinct continental
characteristics in physiography, climate, natural
About 6,100 km long coastline of India
vegetation, minerals, human resources etc.
is washed on three sides of the country by the
Hence India is known as ‘subcontinent’.
Indian Ocean and its two arms namely the
Arabian sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal 1.1 Location and Extent
in the east. The total length of the coast line of
India including the islands is 7,516.6 km. India India extends from 8°4 'N to 37°6 'N latitudes
and Sri Lanka are separated by a narrow and and 68°7 'E to 97°25 'E longitudes. Hence India
shallow sea called Palk Strait. is located in the north Eastern hemisphere
129

INDIA LOCATION IN THE WORLD N
W E
S
ARCTIC OCEAN
GREENLAND
A S I A
NORTH
AMERICA EUROPE
PACIFIC ATLANTIC PACIFIC

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
INDIA
AFRICA
SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN

AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
SOUTHERN OCEAN
Not to Scale
ANTARCTICA
The southern most point of the country Since Arunachal Pradesh is towards east,
is Pygmalion Point or Indira Point (6°45'N it will have sunrise about two hours earlier
latitude) located in the Andaman and Nicobar than the sunrise at Gujarat which is in the west.
Islands. The southern most point of main land In order to avoid these differences, Indian
of India is Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). standard time is calculated. The local time of
The northern point is Indira Col. the central meridian of India is the standard
time of India. India’s central meridian
The north-south extent of India is 3,214 is 82°30’ E longitude. It passes through
km and it extends from Indira Col in Jammu Mirzapur and roughly bisects the country in
and Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in terms of longitude. The IST is 5.30 hrs ahead
the south. The east-west extension is 2933 km of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
and it stretches from Rann of Kutch (Gujarat) India has been politically divided
in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the into 28 states and 9 union territories for
east. The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’ N) passes administrative convenience.
through the middle of the country dividing
it into two halves as northern temperate and Find out the following
West - East and North - South extened of
southern tropical lands.
India.
Indian Standard Time (IST) Area wise which is the smallest and the
The longitudinal difference between largest state?
The states which do not have an international
Gujarat in the west and Arunachal Pradesh in
border.
the east is about 30°.
India – Location, Relief and Drainage 130

The Northern Mountains that function as a
Amaravati is the new great wall is grouped into three divisions.
capital of Andhra Pradesh.
1) The Trans-Himalayas
According to Andhra Pradesh
Reorganization Act, Hyderabad 2) Himalayas
will be the capital for both the 3) Eastern Himalayas or Purvanchal hills.
states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana till
2024 (For 10 years from the act passed). Aravalli range is the
oldest fold mountain range in
1.2 Major Physiographic India.
Divisions of India
The majestic Himalayan
peaks in the north, the
beautiful beaches in the south,
the great Indian desert in the
west and the breathtaking
natural heritage in the east
make India a geographically
vibrant, colourful and truly incredible country.
There is a varied nature of physiographic
divisions in India. Though the country has many 1. The Trans-Himalayas
landforms based on the major differences, it is
It lies to the north of the great Himalayan
divided into the following five physiographic
range. It lies in Jammu and Kashmir and
divisions:
Tibetian plateau. As its areal extent is more in
1. The Northern Mountains Tibet, it is also known as Tibetean Himalayas.
2. The Northern Plains The Trans-Himalayas are about 40 km wide in
3. The Peninsular plateau its eastern and western extremities and about
4. The Coastal Plains 225 km wide in its central part. They contain
5. The Islands the Tethys sediments. The rocks of this region
The Northern Mountains contain fossils bearing marine sediments
The Northern Mountains consist of the which are underlain by ‘Tertiary granite’. It
youngest and the loftiest mountain chains in the has partly metamorphosed sediments and
world. It was formed only few millions years ago constitutes the core of the Himalayan axis.
and formed by the folding of the earth crust due The prominent ranges of Trans Himalayas are
to tectonic activity. It stretches for a distance of Zaskar, Ladakh, Kailash, and Karakoram.
2,500 km from the Indus gorge in the west to 2. The Himalayas
Brahmaputra gorge in the east. The width of
the Northern Mountains varies from 500 km in It constitutes the core part of northern
Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. The mountains. It is an young fold mountain. It
Pamir Knot, popularly known as the “Roof of was formed by the movement of Eurasia land
the World” is the connecting link between the mass in the north and Gondwana land mass
Himalayas and the high ranges of Central Asia. in the south. The Tethys sea found between
From the Pamir, Himalayas extend eastward in these two land masses was uplifted by the
the form of an arc shape. The term “Himalaya” compression and the resultant landform was
is derived from Sanskrit. It means “The Abode the Himalayas.It consists of many ranges. The
of Snow”. main divisions of the Himalayas are the
131 India – Location, Relief and Drainage

INDIA
Ladakh
Leh
States and Union Territories
Jammu & Kashmir
N
Jammu
W E
S
LEGEND
Country Capital
State Capital
Inter naonal Border line
Thiruvanantha
State Border line
puram
Not to Scale
(i) The Greater Himalayas/The Himadri Himalayas are about 25 km wide. Its average
(ii) The Lesser Himalayas /The Himachal height is about 6,000 m. The Greater Himalayas
(iii) The Outer Himalayas/The Siwaliks receive lesser rainfall as compared to the Lesser
(i) The Greater Himalayas or the Himalayas and the Siwaliks. Physical weathering
is less effective over the Greater Himalayas as
Himadri compared to the other ranges. Almost all the
The Greater Himalayas rise abruptly like a lofty peaks of Himalayas are located in this
wall north of the Lesser Himalayas. The Greater range. The notable ones are Mt. Everest (8,848

t
r Kno
ami
sh P
Ku
Hi
nd
u
INDIA - PHYSICAL DIVISIONS N
W E
S
Shimla
NGE
Kai
Mussourie hR
las
AN RA
an
Garwal ge
Ranikhet
SULAIM
Almora iver
Nainital Tsangpo R
Purvanchal
Darjeeling
Guru
shikhar Mount Abu
Dhupgarh
Paradip
Konka
n coa
Vishagapanam
am
patan
hili
st
Mac
Arma Konda
Palani Hills
Not to Scale

m) and Kanchenjunga (8,586 m). Mt.Everest is brought by the Himalayan rivers. The altitude
located in Nepal and Kanchenjunga is located varying between 900-1100 metres average
between Nepal and Sikkim. This range is the elevation of this range is 1000 m. The width of
most continuous of all ranges. It is region of Siwaliks varies from 10 km in the east to 50 km
permanent snow cover. So, it has many glaciers. in the west. It is the most discontinuous range.
Gangothri, Yamunothri and Siachen are some The longitudinal valleys found between the
of them. Siwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are called
Duns in the west and Duars in the east. These
• Himalaya is the home of
are the ideal sites for the development of
several high peaks.
settlements in this region.
• However, it holds the record
of having the maximum number 3. Purvanchal Hills
of highest peaks among any mountain These are the eastern off-shoot of
range in world.
Himalayas. It extended in the north-eastern
• Out of 14 highest peaks in this world,
states of India. Most of these hills are located
Himalayas holds 9.
along the border of India and Myanmar while
others are inside India. Dafla Hills, Abor Hills,
(ii) T
he Lesser Himalayas or The
Mishmi Hills, Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills,
Himachal Manipur Hills, Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Mikir
It is the middle range of Himalayas. Height Hills, Garo Hills, Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills
of this range varies from 3, 700 to 4,500 m. Its are the hills which are collectively known as
width varies upto 80 km. The major rocks of this purvanchal Hills.
range are slate, limestone and quartzite. This
region is subjected to extensive erosion due to Importance of Himalayas
heavy rainfall, deforestation and urbanization.
Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar and Mahabharat are •
Himalayas blocks southwest monsoon
the mountain ranges found in this part. Major winds and causes heavy rainfall to north
hill stations of the Himalayas are located in this India.
range. Shimla, Mussourie, Nainital, Almora, •
It forms a natural barrier to the sub-
Ranikhet and Darjeeling are the familiar ones. continent.
• It is the source for many perennial rivers
• The major passes in the Himalaya are like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra etc.
Karakoram pass (Jammu and Kashmir),
• The Northern Mountains are described as
Zojila pass, Shipkila pass (Himachal
the paradise of tourists due to its natural
Pradesh), Bomdila pass (Arunachal
beauty.
Pradesh), Nathula pass and Jhelepla pass
(Sikkim). •
Many hill stations and pilgrim centres
• The Khyber pass which connects like Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath and
Pakistan and Afganisthan, and Bolan Vaishnavidevi temples are situated here.
pass in Pakistan are theimportant passes • It provides raw material for many forest
of the Indian subcontinent based industries.
• It prevents the cold winds blowing from
(iii) T
he Outer Himalayas/The the central Asia and protects India from
Siwaliks severe cold.
The Siwaliks extend from Jammu and •
Himalayas are renowned for the rich
Kashmir to Assam. It is partly made by the debris biodiversity.

The Great Northern Plains d) The Khadar Plains
This fertile plain lies to the south of the The new alluvium tracts along the courses
northern mountains. This plain is one of the of the rivers are known as the ‘Khadar’ or ‘Bet’
most extensive stretches of the alluvium in lands. The Khadar tracts are enriched by fresh
the world and is deposited by the rivers Indus, deposits of silt every year during rainy seasons.
Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. The The Khadar land consists of sand, silt, clay and
length of the plain is about 2,400 km and the mud. It is highly fertile soil.
width varies from 240 to 320 km. Its width
increases from east to west. It covers an area of e) Delta
over 7 lakh sq.km. Triangle shaped fertile land at the mouth
The Great Plains of India is remarkably a of Ganga and Brahmaputhra rivers is called as
homogeneous surface with an imperceptible the Sundarban delta. It is the biggest and fastest
slope. They are formed mostly by the depositional growing delta. It is an area of deposition as the
process of the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers. river flows in this tract sluggishly. The deltaic
These rivers deposit enormous quantity of plain consists mainly of old mud, new mud
sediments deposited along the foothills and and marsh. In the delta region, the uplands are
flood plains. The important characteristics called ‘Chars’ while the marshy areas are called
featuress of sediment deposition in the plains ‘Bils’.
areas as follows. On the basis of deposition of sediments by
a) The Bhabar Plain various rivers and topographical characteristics,
the Northern Plains of India is divided into the
This plain is made up of gravels and
following four major regions:
unassorted sediments deposited by the
Himalayan rivers. The porosity of this plain is 1) R ajasthan Plains: It is located to
so high that most of the small streams flow over the west of Aravalli range. It covers
this region disappear. Its width varies from an area of about 1,75,000 sq.km.
8 to 15 km. It is wider in the western plains Rajasthan plain is formed by the deposition
(Jammu Division) than in the east (Assam). of the river Luni and the long vanished river
This plain is not suitable for cultivation, only big Saraswathi. There are several salt lakes in
trees with large roots thrive in this region. Rajasthan. The Sambhar salt lake (Pushkar
Lake) near Jaipur is the prominent one.
b) The Tarai Tract
The Thar desert, also known as the Great
It is a zone of excessive dampness, thick
Indian desert is a large arid region in the
forests and rich wild life. This tract lies to the
south of Bhabar plains. The width of this belt north western part of the Indian subcontinent
is 15-30 km. The Tarai is wider in the eastern parts that covers an area of 2,00,000 km2 and
of the Great Plains, especially in Brahmaputra forms a natural boundary between India and
Valley due to heavy rainfall. In many states, the Pakistan. It is the world 7th largest desert.
Tarai forests have been cleared for cultivation. The desert lies in the western part of the
c) The Bhangar Plains aravalli range and covers 2/3 of Rajastan
state. There are two major divisions in the
The Bhangar represent the upland alluvial
tracts of the Great Plains of India, formed by the Thar desert. They are known as the Actual
older alluviums. The Bhangar land lies above desert region (Marusthali) and the semi
the flood limits of the rivers. This soil is dark in desert region (Bhangar). Many different
colour, rich in humus content, well drained and types of sand dunes and salt lakes (Dhands)
useful for agriculture. are seen here.

2) Punjab - Haryana Plains: It lies to the north- is located in Anaimalai. The general slope of
east of the Great Indian Desert. This plain is this plateau is towards east. The Great Plateau
found over an area of about 1.75 lakh sq.km. is a part of the Gondwana (very ancient one)
The Punjab - Haryana plains are formed by land mass. Due to the old age, the rivers in this
the deposition of the rivers Sutlej, Beas and region attained their base level and developed
Ravi. This plain acts as water - divide (doab). broad and shallow valleys.
The two major watershed it divides are The river Narmada divides the plateau
Yamuna – Sutlej and Ganga – Yamuna. region of India broadly into two parts. The
3) Ganga Plains: It extends from the Yamuna region lying to the north of the Narmada is
River in the west to Bangladesh in the east. called the Central Highlands and the region
The total area covered by this plain is about lying to the south of Narmada is called the
3.75 sq.km. River Ganga and its tributaries Deccan Plateau. All the major rivers (Mahanadi,
such as Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.) lying to the
Chambal, Betwa etc. constitute this plain south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards and fall
by their sediments and make a great plain into the Bay of Bengal. Narmada and Tapti
in India. It is the largest plain of India. The are the two rivers situated to the south of the
general slope of the entire plain (upper, Vindhyas flow westward. Their movement
middle and lower Ganga plains) is towards towards west is due to the presence of
east and south-east. a rift valley in the region.
4) Brahmaputra Plains: It is located mainly a) Central Highlands
in the state of Assam. It is a low - level plain
The Central Highlands extend between the
located in the eastern part of the Great Plains
river Narmada and the Northern Great Plains.
of India and is formed by the deposits of
The Aravallis form the west and northwestern
river Brahmaputra. It covers an area of about
edge of the Central Highlands. These hills extend
56,275 sq.km. These plains create alluvial
from Gujarat, through Rajasthan to Delhi in the
fans and marshy tracts.
northwesterly direction for a distance of about
The Peninsular Plateaus 700 km. The height of these hills is about 1,500 m
in southwest while near Delhi the height is
The plateau region lies to the south of
hardly 400 m. Gurushikhar with 1,722 m is the
the Great Northern Plains. This is the largest
highest peak of this range.
physiographic division of our country.
It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq.km (about The Western part of the Central Highland
half of the total area of the country). It is an old is known as the Malwa Plateau. It lies to the
rocky plateau region. The topography consists of southeast of Aravallis and to the north of
a series of plateaus and hill ranges interspersed Vindhyachal Range. The rivers Chambal, Betwa
with river valleys. and Ken drain the Malwa Plateau before they
join the river Yamuna. The part of the Central
Aravalli hills mark the north-western
Highlands which extends to the east of Malwa
boundary of the plateau region. Its northern
Plateau is known as Bundelkhand and its
and north-eastern boundaries are marked by
further extension is known as Bagelkhand. The
the Bundelkhand upland, Kaimur and Rajmahal
eastern part of the Central High lands which
hills. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
lies in the north-eastern part of the Indian
mark the western and eastern boundaries
Plateau is known as Chhota-Nagpur Plateau.
respectively. The altitude of a large portion of
It covers much of Jharkhand, adjacent parts of
the plateau is more than 600 m from mean sea
Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
level. The peak of Anaimudi is the highest
This region is very rich in mineral resources
point in the plateau. Its height is 2,695 m and
particularly iron ore and coal.

b) Deccan Plateau 1. The Western Coastal Plain
This physiographic division is the largest It lies between the Western Ghats and the
part of the plateau region of India. The shape Arabian Sea. It extends from Rann of kutch
of this plateau is roughly triangular. One of in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and
the sides of this triangle is marked by the line its width varies from 10 to 80 km. It is mainly
joining Kanyakumari with Rajmahal Hills and characterised by sandy beaches, coastal sand
this line passes through the Eastern Ghats. The dunes, mud flats, lagoons, estuary, laterite
second arm is marked by the Satpura Range, platforms and residual hills. The northern part
Mahadeo Hills, Maikal Range and the Rajmahal of the West Coastal Plain is known as Konkan
Hills. The third arm is marked by the Western Plain. The middle part of this plain is known
Ghats. The area of this Plateau is about 7 lakh as Kanara. The southern part of the plain is
square km and the height ranges from 500 to known as Malabar coast which is about 550
1000 m above sea level. km long and 20-100 km wide. This part of the
coast is characterized by sand dunes. Along the
1. The Western Ghats coast, there are numerous shallow lagoons and
The Western Ghats forms the western backwaters called Kayals and Teris. Vembanad
edge of the Peninsular Plateau. It runs parallel is a famous back water lake found in this region.
to the Arabian Sea coast. The northern part of 2. The Eastern Coastal Plain
this range is called as Sahyadris. The height of
the Sahyadris increases from north to south. It lies between the Eastern Ghats and the
Anaimudi is a sort of tri-junction of the Bay of Bengal and, stretches along the states
Anaimalai Range, the Cardamom Hills and the of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh
Palani Hills. Kodaikanal is a beautiful hill resort and Tamil Nadu. These plains are formed by
situated on the Palani Hills. the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone by the
east flowing rivers of India. The coastal plain
2. The Eastern Ghats consists mainly of the recent alluvial deposits.
Eastern Ghats run from southwest to This coastal plain has a regular shoreline with
northeast form the eastern edge of this Plateau. well-defined beaches. The coastal plain between
This range is also called as Poorvadri. The Mahanadi and Krishna river is known as the
Eastern Ghats join the Western Ghats at the Northern Circars and the southern part lies
between Krishna and Kaveri rivers is called
Nilgiri hills, bordering Karnataka and Tamil
Coromandal coast. Among the back water lakes
Nadu. The Eastern Ghats are not continuous
of this coast, lake Chilka (Odisha) is the largest
like the Western Ghats. The rivers of Mahanadi,
lake in India located to the southwest of the
Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri have
Mahanadi delta, the Kolleru Lake which lies
dissected this range at many places.
between the deltas of Godavari and Krishna and
The Coastal Plains the Pulicat Lake lies in the border of Andhra
The Peninsula Plateau of India is flanked Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the well known
by narrow coastal plains of varied width lakes in the east coastal plain.
from north to south. They were formed by The Islands
the depositional action of the rivers and the
erosional and depositional actions of the sea- India has two major island groups namely
waves. The Indian coastal plains are divided Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. The
into the following two divisions: former group consists of 572 islands and are
located in Bay of Bengal, and the later one has
1) The Western Coastal Plains
27 islands and are located in Arabian Sea. The
2) The Eastern Coastal Plains. islands of Andaman and Nicobar are largely

tectonic and volcanic origin. India’s only active drainage basin. The drainage pattern of an area
volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman is the result of the geological structure of the
and Nicobar group of Islands. respective areas. The drainage system of India
is broadly divided into two major groups on
a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
the basis of their location. They are Himalayan
These islands are located in an elevated rivers and the Peninsular rivers.
portion of the submarine mountains. Since
Rivers
these islands lie close to the equator, the climate
remains hot and wet throughout the year and
Himalayan Peninsular
has dense forests. The area of the island group is Rivers Rivers
about 8,249 sq.km. The entire group of islands
is divided into two. They are Andaman in the ¾¾ Indus ¾¾ Mahanadi ¾¾ Cauvery
north and the Nicobar in the south. These ¾¾ Ganga ¾¾ Godavari ¾¾ Narmada
island groups are of great strategic importance ¾¾ Brahmaputra ¾¾ Krishna ¾¾ Tapti
for the country. Port Blair is the administrative

capital of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Himalayan Rivers
The Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman
These rivers are found in north India and
from Nicobar group. The southernmost tip, the originate from Himalayas. So, they are also called
Indira Point is a part of Nicobar Island. as Himalayan rivers. These are perennial rivers.
b) Lakshadweep Islands
a) The Indus River System
This is a small group of coral islands located The Indus River is one of the largest rivers of
off the west coast of India. It covers an area of
the world. It originates from the northern slope
32 sq. km. Kavaratti is its administrative capital.
of the Kailash range in Tibet near Manasarovar
Lakshadweep islands are separated from the
Lake at an elevation of about 5,150 m. Its length
Maldive Islands by the Eight Degree Channel.
The uninhabited “Pitt Island” of this group has is about 2,880 km (Only 709 km is in India).
a bird sanctuary. Earlier, it had three divisions The river has a total drainage area extending
namely Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi. It 11,65,500 sq km in which 321,289 sq km areas
was named as Lakshadweep in 1973. are drained in India. The river flows through
the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges and creates deep
c) Offshore Islands gorges. The river runs through Jammu and
Besides the two group of islands, India has Kashmir, turns south near Chillar and enters
a number of islands along the Western Coast, Pakistan. Its major tributaries are Jhelum,
Eastern Coast, in the delta region of Ganga and Chenab (Largest tributary of Indus), Ravi, Beas
in the Gulf of Mannar. Many of these islands and Sutlej. It enters into with the Arabian Sea.
are uninhabited and are administered by the
adjacent states. b) The Ganga River System
The Ganga River system is the largest
1.3 Drainage System of drainage system of India. It extends over an area
India of 8,61,404 sq km. The Ganga plain is the most
A drainage system is an integrated system densely populated place in India and many
of tributaries and a trunk stream which collects towns are developed on the banks of this river.
and drains surface water into the sea, lake or The river Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from
some other body of water. The total area drained the Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Khasi District of
by a river and its tributaries is known as a Uttarkhand state, at an elevation of 7,010 m.

Ind N
us India W E
Wular Rivers & Lakes
Lake S
l um b Beas
us
e
Jh na
Ind
e
ChRavi
lej
Sut
Ya
Sambar salt Gh utra

m
l agh ap
Ga
Lake ba Brahm
un
Luni m Ga
ara
ng
a
a
Kosi
Ch nd
a
nak
So
Sa
ba
Hugli
M thi
rn
i
ah
ar
a
barm
Narmada Ma ek Sundarban
ha ha
Sa Tap na
th
Pen i
ga nga
Chilka
Lake
Go
da
va
Krishn
r
i
a Kolleru
a
dr
Lake
a
bh
ga
Pennaru
n
Tu
Pulicat Lake LEGEND

River
Kavery Lake
Vembanad
Lake Vaigai
Not to Scale

The length of the river Ganga is about 2,525 are solely fed by rain. These rivers flow in valleys
km. Its major tributaries from the north are with steep gradients. Based on the direction of
Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Ghaghra and from flow, the peninsular rivers are divided into the
south, Yamuna (largest tributary of Ganga),
1. West flowing rivers
Son, Chambal etc. The river Ganga is known as
the River Padma in Bangladesh. The combined 2. East flowing rivers
river of Ganga and Brahmaputra creates the East Flowing Rivers
World’s largest delta known as Sundarbans in
Bangladesh before joining the Bay of Bengal. a) Mahanadi
The river Mahanadi originates near
Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and
flows through Odisha. Its length is 851 km.
Seonath, Telen, Sandur and Ib are its major
tributaries. The main stream of Mahanadi gets
divided into several distributaries such as Paika,
Ganga River - Haridwar Birupa, Chitartala, Genguti and Nun. All these
c) The Brahmaputra River System distributaries form the Delta of Mahanadi
which is one of the largest deltas in India. The
The river Brahmaputra originates from Mahanadi empties its water in Bay of Bengal.
the Chemayungdung Glacier of the Kailash
range to the east of Lake Manasarovar in Tibet b) Godavari
at an elevation of about 5,150 m. The total area Godavari is the longest river (1,465
is about 5,80,000 sq km but the drainage area km) with an area of 3.13 lakh km2 among the
found in India is 1,94,413 sq km This river is Peninsular rivers. It is also called Vridha Ganga.
known as Tsangpo (Purifier) in Tibet. The It originates in Nasik district of Maharashtra,
length of this river is about 2,900 km (900 km
a portion of Western Ghats. It flows through
in India). It enters into India through a gorge in
the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh namely Dihang. It has many
before joining Bay of Bengal. Purna, Penganga,
tributaries. Tista, Manas, Barak, Subansiri are
some of them. This river is called as Jamuna in Pranitha, Indravati, Tal and Salami are its major
Bangladesh. After it joins with the river Ganga tributaries. The river near Rajahmundry gets
in Bangladesh, the river is called as Meghna. divided into two Channels called Vasistha and
Gautami and forms one of the largest deltas in
Characteristics of Himalayan India. Kolleru, a fresh water lake is located in
Rivers the deltaic region of the Godavari.
1. Long and wide
c) Krishna
2. Perennial in nature
3. Unsuitable for hydro power generation The river Krishna originates from a spring
4. Middle and lower courses are navigable at a place called Mahabaleshwar in the Western
Ghats of Maharashtra. Its length is 1,400 km
Peninsular Rivers and an area of 2.58 lakh sq km. It is the second
The rivers in south India are called the longest Peninsular river Bhima, Peddavagu,
Peninsular rivers. Most of these rivers originate Musi, Koyna and Thungabhadra are the major
from the Western Ghats. These are seasonal tributaries of this river. It also flows through
rivers (non–perennial). They have a large Andhra Pradesh and joins in Bay of Bengal, at
seasonal fluctuation in volume of water as they Hamasaladeevi.

d) Kaveri b) Tapti
The river Kaveri originates at Talakaveri, The Tapti is one of the major rivers of
Kudagu hills of Karnataka. Its length is 800 Peninsular India with the length of about 724
km. The river kaveri is called Dhakshin Ganga km. It covers an area of 65,145 sq km. Tapti
or Ganga of south. In Karnataka the river river rises near Multai tank in the Betul district
bifurcates twice, forming the sacred islands of of Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about 752
Srirangapatnam and Sivasamudram. While m. It is one of only the three rivers in Peninsular
entering Tamil Nadu, the Kaveri continues India that run from east to west - the others
through a series of twisted wild gorges until it being the Narmada and the Mahi. The major
reaches Hogenakkal Falls and flows through a tributaries are Vaki, Gomai, Arunavati, Aner,
straight, narrow gorge near Salem. The Kaveri Nesu, Buray, Panjhra and Bori. It outfalls into
breaks at Srirangam Island with two channels, the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
river Coleroon and Kaveri. At last, it empties
into the Bay of Bengal at Poompuhar. In which river the Gerosappa (jog) fall
is found?
West Flowing Rivers
a) Narmada Characteristics of South Indian
This river rises in Amarkantak Plateau in Rivers
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about 1057 m
1. Originate from Western Ghats
and flows for a distance of about 1,312 km.
It covers and area of 98,796 sq km and forms 2. Short and narrow
27 km long estuary before outfalling into the 3. Non perennial in nature
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
It is the largest among the west flowing rivers 4. Suitable for hydro power generation
of Peninsular India. Its principal tributaries are 5. Not useful for navigation
Burhner, Halon, Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar,
Tawa, Barna and Kolar.
SUMMARY
India has been physiographically divided into five divisions. They are Northern
Mountains, Northern Great Plains, The Plateau region, Coastal Plains and Islands.
Northern Mountains are classified into three divisions as Trans-Himalayas, Himalayas
and Eastern Himalayas.
Northern Great Plains are divided into four as Rajasthan Plains, Punjab-Haryana Plains,
Gangetic Plains and Brahmaputra Plains.
The Plateau region of India has two divisions namely the Central Highlands and the
Deccan Plateau.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are the two major island groups of India.
The Drainage System of India is classified into the north Indian (Himalayan) and
Peninsular rivers.
Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmathi rivers confluence with the Arabian Sea.
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery are the major east flowing rivers and drain
into Bay of Bengal.

7. Pulicat Lake is located between the
EXERCISE states of
a. West Bengal and Odisha
b. Karnataka and Kerala
c. Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
answer
d. Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
1. The north-south extent of
India is II Match the following
a. 2,500 km 1. Tsangpo — Tributary of
River
b. 2,933 km
Ganga
c. 3,214 km
2. Yamuna — Highest peak in
d. 2,814 km India
2. _________ River is known as ‘Sorrow of 3. New alluvium — River
Bihar’. Brahmaputra in
a. Narmada Tibet
b. Godavari 4. Mt. Godwin
c. Kosi Southern part
d. Damodar of East Austen (K2) — Coastal Plain
3. A landmass bounded by sea on three sides 5. Coromandel
is referred to as _________. Coast — Khadhar
a. Coast III Give Reasons
b. Island 1. Himalayas are called young fold moutains
c. Peninsula 2. North Indian Rivers are perennial
d. Strait 3. South Indian rivers are east flowing.
4. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar 4. West flowing rivers do not form deltas
separates India from _______
IV Distinguish between the following
a. Goa
1. Himalayan rivers and Peninsular rivers.
b. West Bengal
2. Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
c. Sri Lanka
3. Western Coastal Plains and Eastern Coastal
d. Maldives
Plains.
5. The highest peak in South India is
V Answer in brief
a. Ooty
1. Name the neighbouring countries of India.
b. Kodaikanal
c. Anaimudi 2. Give the importance of IST.
d. Jindhagada 3. Write a short note on Deccan Plateau.
6. _____________ Plains are formed by the 4. State the west following rivers of India.
older alluviums. 5. Write a brief note on the island group of
a. Bhabar Lakshadweep
b. Tarai VI Answer in a paragraph
c. Bhangar 1. Explain the divisions of Northern
d. Khadar Mountains and its importance to India.

2. Give an account on the major peninsular 5. Prepare a table showing the major rivers
rivers of India. in India and findout it’s tributaries,
3. Give a detailed account on the basin of origin, length and area.
the Ganga.
VII Map exercises
REFERENCE BOOKS
Mark the following in the outline map of 1. Husain, M. (2015). Geography of India
India (6th Edition). McGraw Hill Education,
1. Major mountain ranges – Karakoram, New Delhi.
Ladakh, Zaskar, Aravalli, Western Ghats, 2. Siddhartha, K. and Mukherjee, S. (2013).
Eastern Ghats. Geography through Maps (11th Edition).
2. Major rivers – Indus, Ganga, Kisalaya Publications Pvt. Ltd., New
Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Delhi.
Godavari, Krishna & Kaveri. 3. Singh, G. (1976). A Geography of India.
3. Major plateaus – Malwa, Chotanagpur, Atma Ram & Sons Publications, New
Deccan. Delhi.
VIII Activities 4. Singh, S. and Saroha, J. (2014).
1. Observe the Peninsular Plateau map Geography of India (1st Edition). Access
of India and mark the major plateau Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
divisions of India
2. Prepare a table showing the major INTERNET RESOURCES
West flowing and East flowing rivers of
peninsular India. 1. http://www.nplindia.in/
3. Assume that you are travelling from West 2. http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/
Bengal to Gujarat along the beautiful
3. http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/iess102.pdf
coasts of India. Find out the states which
you would pass through? 4. http://www.scert.kerala.gov.in/images/
text_books/chapter%204.pdf
4. Find out the states through which the
river Ganga flows.

Unit - 2
Climate and
Natural Vegetation
of India
Learning Objectives
To describe the factors controlling the climate of India.

To understand the characteristics of different seasons in India.
To know about the rainfall distribution.
To study the different types of natural vegetation and wild life in India.
Introduction area located to the south of Tropic of cancer

experiences high temperature and no severe
We drink more water during summer and cold season throughout the year whereas, the
do not drink the same amount of water during areas to the north of this parallel enjoys sub-
winter. Why do we wear cotton or lighter clothes tropical climate.
during summer season and heavy woollen
clothes during cold weather season in north Altitude
India? Why do not we wear woollen clothes in When the altitude increases, The
south India? This is because of the prevalence of temperature decreases. Temperature decreases
varying weather conditions between north and at the rate of 6.50C for every 1000 metres of
south India. ascent. It is called normal lapse rate.
Equable climate is also called Hence, places in the mountains are cooler
as the British climate, Which is than the places on the plains. Ooty and several
neither too hot nor too cold. other hill stations of south India and of the
Himalayan ranges like Mussourie, Shimla etc.,
2.1 The factors affecting the are much cooler than the places located on the
climate Great Plains.
Climate of India is affected by the factors Find out the temperature of Ooty (2240m)
of latitude, altitude, distance from the seas, when it is 350C in Chennai (6.7m)
monsoon wind, relief features and jet stream.
Latitude Distance from the Sea
Latitudinally, India lies between 8°4'N A large area of India, especially the
and 37°6'N latitudes. The Tropic of cancer peninsular region, is not very far from the sea and
divides the country into two equal halves. The this entire area has a clear maritime influence on
144

climate. This part of the country does not have a warm. As such the north India experiences
very clearly marked winter and the temperature tropical climate even during winter. During
is equable almost throughout the year. Areas southwest monsoon, areas on the western slope
of central and north India experience much of the Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall.
seasonal variation in temperature due to the On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra,
absence of influence of seas. Here, summers Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
are hot and winters are cold. The annual Tamil nadu lie in rain shadow or leeward side
temperature at Kochin does not exceed 30°C of the Western Ghats receive very little rainfall.
as its location is on the coast while it is as During this season, Mangalore, located on
high as 40°C at Delhi, since it is located in the coast gets the rainfall of about 280 cm
the interior part. Air near the coast has more whereas the Bengaluru located on the leeward
moisture and greater potential to produce side receives only about 50 cm rainfall.
precipitation. Due to this fact, the amount
Jet Streams
of rainfall at Kolkata located near the coast is
119 cm and it decreases to just 24 cm at Bikaner Jet streams are the fast moving winds
which is located in the interior part. blowing in a narrow zone in the upper
atmosphere. According to the Jet stream
Monsoon Wind
theory, the onset of southwest monsoon is
The most dominant factor which affects the driven by the shift of the sub tropical westerly
climate of India is the monsoon winds. These jet from the plains of India towards the
are seasonal reversal winds and India remains in Tibetan plateau. The easterly jet streams cause
the influence of these winds for a considerable tropical depressions both during southwest
part of a year. Though, the sun’s rays are vertical monsoon and retreating monsoon.
over the central part of India during the mid-
June, the summer season ends in India by the 2.2 Monsoon
end of May. It is because the onset of southwest
monsoon brings down the temperature of the The word ‘monsoon’
entire India and causes moderate to heavy has been derived from the
rainfall in many parts of the country. Similarly, Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which
the climate of southeast India is also influenced means ‘season’. Originally,
by northeast monsoon. the word ‘monsoon’ was used
by Arab navigators several
Weather refers to the state of centuries ago, to describe a
atmosphere of a place at a given system of seasonal reversal of winds along the
point of time. shores of the Indian Ocean, especially over the
Climate is the accumulation Arabian Sea. It blows from the south-west to
of daily and seasonal weather events north-east during summer and from the north-
of a given location over a period of east to south-west during winter.
30-35 years.
Meteorologists have developed a number
of concepts about the origin of monsoons.
Relief According to the Dynamic concept, Monsoon
Relief of India has a great bearing on wind originates due to the seasonal migration
major elements of climate such as temperature, of planetary winds and pressure belts following
atmospheric pressure, direction of winds and the position of the sun. During summer solstice,
the amount of rainfall. The Himalayas acts as the sun’s rays fall vertically over the Tropic of
a barrier to the freezing cold wind blows from cancer. Therefore, all the pressure and wind
central Asia and keep the Indian subcontinent belts of the globe shift northwards. At this time,
145 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India

Inter -Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and Kashmir. This rainfall is very useful for the
also moves northward, and a major part of cultivation of winter wheat.
Indian landmass comes under the influence of
2. Summer season
southeast trade winds. While crossing equator
this wind gets deflected and takes the direction During this season, the vertical rays of the
of southwest and becomes south-west monsoon. sun falls over the peninsular India. Hence, there
During the winter season, the pressure and is a steady increase in temperature from south
wind belts shift southward, thereby establishing to north. It is practically hot and dry in the
the north-east monsoon (trade winds) over this entire country in the initial part of this season.
region. Such systematic change in the direction Weather over the land areas of the country is
of planetary winds is known as monsoon. influenced by thunderstorms associated with
rain and sometimes with hail mostly in the
Seasons middle and later part.
The meteorologists recognize the four During this season, temperature starts
distinct seasons in India. They are; increasing all over the country and by April,
1. Winter season the interior parts of south India record mean
(January - February). daily temperatures of 30°C–35°C. Central
2. Summer season Indian land mass becomes hot with day-time
(March - May). maximum temperature reaching about 40°C
3. Southwest monsoon or Rainy season at many locations.
(June - September). Because of the atmospheric pressure
4. Northeast monsoon season conditions, the winds blow from southwest to
(October - December). northeast direction in Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal. They bring pre monsoon showers to the
1. Winter season west coast during the month of May. There are
During this period, the vertical rays of the few thunder showers called “Mango Showers”
sun falls over tropic of capricorn which is far away which helps in quick ripening of mangoes along
from India. Hence, India receives the slanting the coast of Kerala and Karnataka.
sun’s rays which results in low temperature. “Norwesters” or “Kalbaisakhis” are the
The cold weather season is characterized by local storms with thunder that blow from north
clear skies, fine weather, light northerly winds, western part and rain lasting for short durations.
low humidity and large day time variations of It occurs over the eastern and north eastern
temperature. During this season a high pressure parts over Bihar, West Bengal and Assam during
develops over north India and a north-westerly April and May. They approach the stations from
wind blows down the Indus and Ganges valleys. the northwesterly direction.
In south India, the general direction of wind is
from east to west. 3. Southwest monsoon or Rainy
The rain during this season generally occurs Season
over the Western Himalayas, Tamil nadu and The southwest monsoon is the most
Kerala. Western disturbances and associated significant feature of the Indian climate. The
trough in westerlies are main rain bearing onset of the southwest monsoon takes place
system in northern part of the country. The jet normally over the southern tip of the country
stream plays a dominant role in bringing these by the first week of June, advances along the
disturbances to India. Western disturbances Konkan coast in early June and covers the
cause rainfall in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal whole country by 15th July. The monsoon is
Pradesh, and snowfall in the hills of Jammu influenced by global phenomenon like ElNino.
Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 146

South West Monsoon In India North East Monsoon In India
N N
W E W E
S S
Arabian Bay of Arabian Bay of

Sea Bengal Sea Bengal
Not to Scale Not to Scale
Indian Ocean Indian Ocean
Prior to the onset of the southwest west which results in decrease in rainfall from
monsoon, the temperature in north India east to west. Over all about 75% of Indian
reaches upto 46°C. The sudden approach of rainfall is received from this monsoon.
monsoon wind over south India with lightning
4. Northeast monsoon season
and thunder is termed as the ‘break’ or ‘burst
of monsoon’. The monsoon wind strikes against The southwest monsoon begins to retreat
the southern tip of Indian land mass and gets from north India by the end of September due
divided into two branches. One branch starts to the southward shifting pressure belts. The
from Arabian sea and the other from Bay of southwest monsoon wind returns from Indian
Bengal. landmass and blows towards Bay of Bengal. The
coriolis force deflects this wind and makes it
The Arabian sea branch of southwest
to blow from northeast. Hence, it is known as
monsoon gives heavy rainfall to the west coast of
Northeast monsoon or Post-monsoon season.
India as it is located in the windward side of the
The season is associated with the establishment
Western Ghats. The other part which advances
of the north-easterly wind system over the
towards north is obstructed by Himalayan
Indian subcontinent. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Mountains and results in heavy rainfall in north.
nadu, Kerala and south interior Karnataka
As Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the
receive good amount of rainfall accounting for
wind direction, Rajasthan and western part do
35% of their annual total. Many parts of Tamil
not get much rainfall from this branch.
nadu and some parts of Andhra Pradesh and
The Bay of Bengal branch moves towards Karnataka receive rainfall during this season
northeast India and Myanmar. This wind is due to the storms forming in the Bay of Bengal.
trapped by a chain of mountains namely Garo, Large scale losses to life and property occur due
Khasi and Jaintia are mainly responsible for the to heavy rainfall, strong winds and storm surge
heaviest rainfall caused at Mawsynram located in the coastal regions. The day time temperatures
in Meghalaya. Later on, this wind travel towards start falling sharply all over the country.

Manipur and Meghalaya states have this type
Mawsynram, the place which of forests. The most important trees are rubber,
receives highest rainfall (1141 mahogany, ebony, rosewood, coconut, bamboo,
cm) in the world. It is located in cinchona, candes, palm, iron wood and cedar.
Meghalaya. These have not been fully exploited due to lack
of transport facilities.
2.3 Distribution of rainfall
Tropical Deciduous Forest
The average annual rainfall of India is
118 cm. However, spatial distribution of rainfall These are found in the areas with 100 to
in the country is highly uneven. 200cm. annual rainfall. These are called
‘Monsoon Forests’. The mean annual
The Western coast, Assam, South Meghalaya, temperature of this region is about 27oC and
Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh are the average annual relative humidity is 60 to
the heavy rainfall areas which get more than 70 percent. The trees of these forests drop their
200 cm rainfall. The whole of Rajasthan, Punjab, leaves during the spring and early summer. (Sub
Haryana, Western and Southwestern parts of Himalayan - Region from Punjab to Assam,
Uttar Pradesh, Western Madhya Pradesh, the Great Plains- Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
entire Deccan Trap or Plateau region east of Bihar, West Bengal, Central India - Jharkhand,
Western Ghats except for a narrow strip along Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, South India -
Tamil nadu coast receive a low rainfall of less Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra
than 100 cm. The rest of the areas receive a Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala states are
rainfall ranging between 100 and 200 cm. notable for this type of natural vegetation.)
Teak and sal are the most important trees.
2.4 Natural Vegetation
Sandalwood, rosewood, kusum, mahua, palas,
Natural vegetation refers to a plant haldu, amla, padauk, bamboo and tendu are
community unaffected by man either directly or the other trees of economic importance. These
indirectly. It has its existence in certain natural forests also provide fragrant oil, varnish, sandal
environment. Natural vegetation includes all oil and perfumes.
plant life forms such as trees, bushes, herbs
and forbs etc, that grow naturally in an area and Tropical Dry Forest
have been left undisturbed by humans for a long These are found in the areas with 50
time. to 100 cm. annual rainfall. They represent a
Climate, soil and landform characteristics transitional type of forests. These are found
are the important environmental controls of in east Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western
natural vegetation. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern
Maharashtra, Telangana, West Karnataka and
On the basis of the above factors the
East Tamilnadu. The important species are
natural vegetation of India can be divided into
mahua, banyan, amaltas, palas, haldu, kikar,
the following types.
bamboo, babool, khair etc.,
Tropical Evergreen Forest Desert and Semi-desert Vegetation: These
These forests are found in areas with 200 cm are also called as ‘Tropical thorn forests’. These
or more annual rainfall. The annual temperature are found in the areas having annual rainfall of
is about more than 22°C and the average annual less than 50 cm. They have low humidity and
humidity exceeds 70 percent in this region. high temperature. These forests are found in
Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka, north-west India which includes west Rajasthan,
Kerala, Andaman-Nicobar Islands, Assam, south-west Haryana, north Gujarat and south-
West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, west Punjab. They are also found in the very

NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
N
W E
S
Tropical Evergreen Forests
Tropical Deciduous Forests
Tropical Dry Forests
Mountain Forests
Mangrove Forests
Not to Scale
dry parts of the Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Oak, Laurel, Amura, Chestnut, Cinnamon
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Babul, kikar are the main trees found here. Oak, birch,
and wild palms are common trees found here. silver, fir, fine, spruce and juniper are the
major trees found at the altitude of 2400 to
Mountain or Montane Forest
3600m.
These forests are classified on the basis of
ii. The rainfall of this region is moderate. These
altitude and amount of rainfall.
forests are found in Jammu & Kashmir,
i. These are found on the slopes of the Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Upto
mountains in north-east states. These forests 900 m altitude semi desert vegetation is
found in the altitude of 1200-2400m. Sal, found and it is known for bushes and small

INDIA BIOSPHERE RESERVES AND WILDLIFE SANCTURIES N
W E
S
Ladakh
Jammu &
Kashmir Dachigam
Gobind Sagar Cold desert

Rajaji Himachal
Pradesh
Punjab Nanda Devi
Chandigarh
Uarakhand Dihand-Dibang
Haryana
Corbet
al
Delhi a ch sh
kanjanjunga un de
Ar pra
Sikkim
Sariska Uar Pradesh Dibru - Saikhowa
Kaziranga
Rajasthan Manas Nagaland
Chandra Prabha Assam
Ranthambore Bihar Meghalaya
Nokrek Manipur
Rajkir
Gujarat Panna Jharkhand Tripura
Rann of Kutch Madhya Pradesh Achanakmar- West Bengal Mizoram
Dwaraka Sunderban
Pachmarhi Amarkantak
Gir Kanha
Diu
h
Daman
sgar
Simlipal
Dadra and Nagar Odisha
a
Haveli Sanjay Gandhi

Chilka Lake
Chh
Maharashtra Telangana
Etumagaram
h Bay of Bengal
es
ad
Arabian Goa Salim Ali a Pr
dr
Sea Karnataka An
Seshachalam
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Ranganathiu Pulicat
P
Guindy World Network of Biosphere
Puducherry Reserves (UNESCO)
Nilgiri Vedanthangal
Ve
Ve Biosphere Reserves
Mudumalai
(India)
Bandipur
Naonal Park
Keral
Lakshadweep Point Calimere

(India) Tamil Nadu
a
Rameshwaram Wild Life Sancturies

Agasthyamalai
Sri Lanka Bird Sancturies
Gulf of
Marine Park
Mannar
Great Nicobar
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean

trees. In altitude from 900 to 1800m, chir is habitats have caused extinction of some species
the most common tree. From 1800 to 3000m and many are facing the danger of extinction.
is covered with semi temperate coniferous
The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL)
forests.
It was constituted in 1952 to suggest means
Alpine Forest of protection, conservation and management of
It occurs all along the Himalayas with wildlife to the government.
above 2400 m altitude. These are purely having The Government of India enacted Wildlife
coniferous trees. Oak, silver fir, pine and juniper (Protection) Act in 1972 with the objective of
are the main trees of these forests. The eastern effectively protecting the wild life of the country
parts of Himalayas has large extent of these forests. and to control poaching, smuggling and illegal
Tidal Forest trade in wildlife and its diversities.
These forests occur in and around the To preserve the country’s rich and diverse
wildlife a network of 102 National Parks and
deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal
about 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries across the
influences and as such are also known as delta
country have been created.
or swamp forests. The delta of the Ganga-
Brahmaputra has the largest tidal forest. The Biosphere Reserves
deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna
Biosphere reserves are protected areas of
rivers are also known for tidal forests. These are
land coastal environments
also known as mangrove forest.
The Indian government has established 18
2.5 Wildlife Biosphere Reserves in India which protect large
The term ‘Wildlife’ includes animals areas of natural habitat which often include few
of any habitat in nature. Wild animals are National Parks with buffer zones that are open
non-domesticated animals and include both to some economic uses.
vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
Project Tiger was launched
mammals) and invertebrates (bees, butterflies, in April 1973 with the aim
moths etc.). India has a rich and diversified to conserve tiger population
wildlife. The Indian fauna consists of about in specifically constituted
81,251 species of animals out of the world’s total “Tiger Reserves” in India.
of about 1.5 million species.
Our country is home to tigers, lions, Biosphere Reserves in India
leopards, snow leopards, pythons, wolves, foxes, Eleven of the eighteen biosphere reserves
bears, crocodiles, rhinoceroses, camels, wild (Gulf of Mannar, Nandadevi, the Nilgiris,
dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, deer Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Simlipal, Sundarbans
species, varieties of bison and the mighty Asian Agasthiyamalai, Great Nicobar, Kanjanjunga
elephant. Hunting, poaching, deforestation and and Amarkantak) of India fall under the list of
other anthropogenic interferences in the natural Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO.
SUMMARY
Climate of India is labelled as “Tropical Monsoon Type”.

There are four seasons in India. They are winter season, hot weather, southwest monsoon, and
northeast monsoon.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community unaffected by man either directly or indirectly.

Natural vegetation can be classified as tropical evergreen forests, tropical deciduous forests,
tropical dry forests, desert and semi desert vegetation, mountain forests, Alpine forests, Tidal
forests, etc.,
Biosphere reserves are protected areas of land coastal environment whereby people are an
integral component of a system.
7. _________ is a part of the world network

EXERCISE
biosphere reserves of UNESCO
A) Nilgiri b) Agasthiyamalai
I Choose the correct c) Great Nicobar d) Kachch
answer
II Match the following
1.
Western disturbances cause rainfall in 1. Sundarbans — Desert and semi desert
_________. vegetation
a) Tamilnadu b) Kerala 2. Biodiversity
c) Punjab d) Madhya Pradesh hotspot — October - December
2.
_________ helps in quick ripening of 3. North east
mangoes along the coast of Kerala and monsoon — Littoral forest
Karnataka. 4. Tropical thorn
a)
Loo b)
Norwester forests — West Beangal
c) Mango showers d) Jet stream 5. Coastal forests — The Himalayas
3. _________ is a line joining the places of III Consider the given statements and
equal rainfall. choose the correct option from the given
a) Isohyets b) Isobar below ones
c) Isotherm d) Latitudes Assertion(A): The Himalayas acts as a
1.
4. Climate of India is labelled as _________. climatic barrier.
a) Tropical humid Reason(R): The Himalayas prevents cold
b) Equatorial Climate winds from central Asia and keep the Indian
Sub-continent warm.(Give option for this
c) Tropical Monsoon Climate questions)
d) Temperate Climate a) Both (A) and (R) are true: R explains A
5. The monsoon forests are otherwise called as b) Both (A) and (R) are true: R does not
_________. explain A
a) Tropical evergreen forest c) (A) is true (R) is false
b) Deciduous forest d) (A) is false (R) is true
c) Mangrove forest IV Choose the inappropriate answer
d) Mountain forest
1. Tidal forests are found in and around____.
6. Sesahachalam hills, a Biosphere reserve is (a) Desert
situated in _________.
(b) The deltas of Ganga and Brahmaputra
a) Tamil Nadu b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) The delta of Godavari
c) Madhya Pradesh d) Karnataka (d) The delta of Mahanadhi

2. Climate of India is affected by__________. VIII Answer in detail.
(a) Latitudinal extent 1. Write about South West Monsoon.
(b) Altitude 2. Describe the forests of India.
(c) Distance from the sea IX Map
(d) Soil Mark the following on the outline map
of India.
V Answer briefly 1. Direction of South West Monsoon wind.
1. List the factors affecting climate of India. 2. Direction of North East Monsoon wind.
2. What is meant by ‘normal lapse rate’? 3. Areas of heavy rainfall.
3. What are ‘jet streams’? 4. Mountain forests.
4. Write a short note on ‘Monsoon wind’. 5. Panna biosphere reserve
5. Name the four distinct seasons of India. 6. Agasthiyamalai biosphere reserve
6. What is ‘burst of monsoon’?
REFERENCE BOOKS
7. Name the areas which receive heavy rainfall.
8. State the places of mangrove forests in India.
1. Attri, S.D. and A.Tyagi, 2010. “Climate
9. Write any five biosphere reserves in India. Profile of India”, India Meteorological
VI Distinguish between Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences,
Govt. of India, New Delhi.
1. Weather and Climate
2. Singh, S. and J.Saroha, 2014. “Geography
2. Tropical Evergreen Forest and Deciduous
of India”, Access Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
Forest.
New Delhi.
3. North East Monsoon and South West
3. Hussain, M. 2008. “Geography of India” Tata
Monsoon.
McGraw-Hill Publishing House Company
VII Give reasons Ltd. New Delhi.
1. Western Coastal plain is narrow. 4. Govt. of India, 2014. “India’s fifth National
report to the Convention on Biological
2. India has a tropical monsoon climate.
Diversity” Ministry of Environment and
3. Mountains are cooler than the plains.
Forests.
ICT CORNER
CLIMATE AND NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
Steps
• Scroll Down and click on ‘Explore’
• Click on ‘Climate’ in left side menuandSelect ‘Annual Rainfall’
Website URL:
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

Unit - 3
India - Agriculture
Learning Objectives
To understand the nature of India’s soil types and their distribution.
To know about the importance of irrigation and multi-purpose
projects in India.
To study about the agriculture, its types and importance.
To understand the livestock and fishing resources of India
To comprehend the problems of farming in India.
Introduction soils of India into the following eight major

groups. They are
Soil is one of the most important natural
resources. India’s varied natural environments 1. Alluvial soil
resulted in a great variety of soils compared to 2. Black soils
any other country of similar size in the world. 3. Red soils
The rich, deep and fertile soils support high 4. Laterite soils
density of population through agricultural 5. Forest and mountain soils
prosperity. 6. Arid and desert soils
7. Saline and alkaline soils
3.1 Soils 8. Peaty and marshy soils
Soil is the uppermost layer of the land Types of Soils in India
surface, usually composed of minerals, organic
matter, living organisms, air and water. Grains in Saline & Peaty &
Alkaline Soil Marshy Soil
the soil are of three categories namely, clay, silt,
and sand. Soils are generally formed by the Laterite Soil
1.29%
2.17%
Black Soil 2.62%
weathering of rocks under different conditions. 29.69%
Arid & Desert Soil
Some soils are formed by the deposition of 6.13%
agents of denudation. Soils can vary greatly Red Soil Forest &
28%
from one region to the other. Mountain
Alluvial Soil Soil
22.16% 7.94%
Types of Soils
The Indian Council of Agriculture
Research (ICAR) set up in 1953 divides the
154

Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Khadar – light coloured, more siliceous.
Ganga and
Bhangar – the older alluvium composed of lime Brahmaputra
nodules and has clayey composition. It is dark river valleys;
in colour. Plains of Uttar Rice,
Formation - sediments deposited by streams Pradesh,
Alluvial Wheat,
and rivers when they slowly loose Uttaranchal,
soil Sugarcane and
Chemical properties - rich in potash, Punjab, Haryana,
phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds West Bengal and Oilseeds
but poor in nitrogen Bihar and river
Nature –Sandy-loam-silt-clay mouth of east
coast.
profile shows no marked differentiation
Formation - Derived from basalts of Deccan
trap.
Maharashtra and
Colour - black colour, due to presence of Malwa plateaus,
titanium, iron. Kathiawar
Chemical properties - Consist of calcium and peninsula,
Cotton, Millets,
magnesium corbonates, high quantities of iron, Telangana and
Black soils Tobacco and
aluminium, lime and magnesia. Rayalaseema
Sugarcane
Rich in potash lime, Aluminium calcium and region of Andhra
magnesium poor in Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Pradesh and
and humus northern part of
Nature - Sticky when wet Karnataka
High degree of moisture retentivity
Formation - decomposition of ancient
crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and Eastern parts of
from rock type Deccan plateau,
Chemical properties - rich in minerals such as southern states Wheat, Rice,
iron and magnesium. of Kerala, Tamil Cotton,
Red soils
Deficient in nitrogen, humus, phosphoric acid Nadu, Karnataka Sugarcane and
and lime. and Chota Pulses
Nature - Light texture, porous friable presence Nagpur plateau
of limited soluble salts Clay fraction of the red (Jharkhand)
soils generally consists of Kaolinitic minerals.
Formation - formed in the regions where
alternate wet and hot dry conditions prevail. It Assam hills,
is formed by the process of leaching hill summits
Chemical properties - Composed mainly of of Kerala and Coffee, Rubber,
Laterite
hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium, Karnataka and Cashewnut and
soils
Nature - More acidic on higher areas poor in eastern Ghats Tapioca
high level, cannot retain moisture while plains and region of
they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily Odisha
retain moisture
155 India - Agriculture

Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Differ from region to region depending on
climate. Coniferous forest
belts of Jammu
Formation - due to mechanical weathering
and Kashmir, Coffee, tea, rice,
caused by snow, rain, temperature variation
Forest and Himachal maize, potato,
Chemical properties - are deficient in potash,
mountain Pradesh, barley, tropical
Phosphorus and lime.
soils Uttarakhand and fruits and various
Nature - light, sandy, thin and found with the Sikkim. Eastern types of spices
pieces of rock. Their character changes with and Western
the parent rocks. Very rich in humus. slow Ghats
decomposition makes it acidic
Formation - Due to prevalence of the dry
climate, hightemperature and accelerated
evaporation, the soil is dry, it also lacks humus
content due to the absence of vegetative cover Millets,
Rajasthan,
Chemical properties - Contain high
Arid and Northern Gujarat barley, cotton,
percentages of soluble salts, alkaline with
desert soils and southern maize and pulses
varying degree of calcium carbonate and
Punjab (with irrigation)
are poor in organic matter; rich enough in
phosphate though poor in nitrogen
Nature - light in colour, low humus,friable
structure, low in moisture
Formation - formed due to ill drainage which
causes water logging, injurious salts are Andhra Pradesh
transferred from subsurface to the top soil by and Karnataka.
the capillary action, it causes the salinisation of Crops do not
Saline and In the drier
soils grow because
parts of Bihar,
alkaline of excess
Chemical properties - liberate sodium, Uttar Pradesh,
soils salinisation of
magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous Haryana, Punjab,
soils
acid Rajasthan and
Nature - Consists of an excess of sodium salts Maharashtra
and mineral fragments which are weathering
Kottayam and
Formation - formed in humid regions from the Alappuzha
organic matter. It is found in the areas of heavy districts of
rainfall and high humidity Peaty soils are black, Kerala; and
heavyand highly acidic. coastal areas
Peaty and
of Odisha and
marshy Chemical properties - deficient in potash and Paddy, jute
Tamil Nadu,
soils phosphate.
Sundarbans of
Nature - Contain considerable amount of West Bengal,
Soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic in Bihar and
matter; and high proportion of vegetable matter. Almora district
of Uttarakhand
India - Agriculture 156

Soil degradation: Soil degradation is an acute problem in India. According to a 2015 report of the
Indian institute of remote sensing (IIRS). The estimated the amount of soil .erosion that occurred
in India was 147 million hectares.
The main problems of the Indian soils are i) soil erosion (sheet erosion,
Rill erosion, Gully erosion, Ravine and Badland) ii) Degradation of Soil,
iii) Water-logging, iv) Saline and Alkaline, and v) Salt Flats, types of soils are different erosion.
Methods of Conservation and Management of Soil
1. Afforestation
2. Constructing Dams and Barrages
3. Prevention of Overgrazing
4. Improved methods of Agricultural practices
Contour method, Rotation of crops, Contour bunding, Strip cropping, Planting of shelter belts,
Adopting the techniques of sustainable agriculture are different conservation methods for better
soil management.
N
INDIA W E
MAJOR SOIL TYPES
S
TYPES OF SOILS
Alluvial
Red
Black
Laterite
Forest and Mountain
Arid and Desert
Saline and Alkaline
Not to Scale Peaty and Marshy

3.2 Irrigation b) Well Irrigation
A well is a hole or trough, usually vertical,
Watering of agricultural plants through
excavated in the earth for bringing groundwater
artificial means is called irrigation. Being a hot
to the surface. Well irrigation is the most
country with seasonal and irregular rainfall, it
important source of irrigation. It is a cheap,
always needs irrigation to carry out agricultural
dependable, and popular source of irrigation in
activities during dry period.
the country. Well irrigation is unavoidable in the
Sources of Irrigation region of low rainfall and becomes an essential
In India, different sources of irrigation are one where the canals and tank irrigation are not
used depending upon the topography, soils, available. Wells are of two types:
rainfall, availability of surface or groundwater, i) Open wells
nature of river (whether perennial or non- ii) Tube wells
perennial), requirements of crops etc. The main
1. Open Wells: This type of irrigation
sources of irrigation used in different parts of
is widely practiced in the areas where
the country are
groundwater is sufficiently available. The
Canal irrigation
areas are in Ganga Plains, the deltaic
Well irrigation and region of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
Tank irrigation Cauvery and parts of Narmada and Tapti
Other valleys.
Sources 11% Tanks 3% 2. Tube Wells: Tube wells are developed in the
Canals 24% areas of low water table, sufficient power
Other wells 16%
supply and soft subsurface geological
Tube wells 46%
units. Tube wells are predominant in the
states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Area under Irrigation c) Tank Irrigation
a) Canal Irrigation A tank is a natural or man-made hollow
on the surface developed by constructing a
It is the second most important source of small bund around it across a stream. It is used
irrigation in our country. to collect and store water for irrigation and
Canals are the effective source of irrigation other purposes. Irrigation by tanks is a very old
in areas of low level relief, deep, fertile soils, system in India. It also includes irrigation from
perennial source of water and extensive lakes and ponds.
command area. The canals are of two types: The tank irrigation is popular in the
1. Inundation Canals: In this, water is peninsular India due to the following
taken out directly from the rivers without reasons:
making any kind of barrage or dam. Such 1. The undulating relief and hard rocks make
canals are useful for the diversion of difficult to dig canals and wells.
flood water from the rivers and remain
2. Natural depressions serve as reservoirs.
operational during rainy season.
3. Absence of perennial rivers.
2. Perennial Canals: These are developed
from perennial rivers by constructing 4. Impermeable rock structure which do not
barrage to regulate the flow of water. permit percolation.
About 60 percent of the canal irrigated 5. The scattered nature of population and
area falls in the northern plains of India, agricultural fields

Modern irrigation methods
Pradhan Mantri Krishi
There are many ways in Modern Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
Irrigation. Among them mostly practiced in
This has been
India are drip irrigation, sprinklers and Rain
implemented to get more
Gun and central pivot irrigation
production by using water saving and
Drip Irrigation Method conservation technologies.
It was first developed. In this method,
water is supplied in the form of drops through 3.3 Agriculture
nassals. water can be saved upto 70%. Agriculture is the process of producing
Springler Method food for people, fodder for cattle, fiber and
many other desired products by the cultivation
It is the simplest and easiest method of
of certain plants and the raising of domesticated
all. In this method, water is supplied to the
animals (livestock).
field from the source through the pipes with
have small holes. It can be used in the areas of Determinants of Agriculture
uneven surface also. Agriculture in India is determined by a set
Rain Gun of factors. Some of the important factors:
Rain gun is used to spread water like 1. Physical factors: relief, climate and soil.
rain. It can be used to water the crops which 2. Institutional factors: Size of farm holdings,
grow upto 4 feet. It is useful to irrigate the land tenure, and land reforms.
crops like sugarcane and maize.
3. Infrastructural factors: Irrigation, power,
Central - Pivot Irrigation transport, credit, market, insurance and
It is also called water wheel and circle storage facilities.
irrigation. It is a method of crop irrigation in 4. Technological factors: High yielding
which equipment roatates around a pivot and varieties of seeds, chemical fertilisers,
crops are watered with springlers. insecticides and machinery.
Multipurpose River Valley Types of Farming
Projects a) Subsistence Farming
It is a scientific A considerable proportion of farmers
management of water in the country practice subsistence farming.
resources in our country. Farmers grow crops with the help of family
Construction of dam across members and consumes almost the entire farm
rivers is aimed at many produce with little surplus to sell in the market.
purposes. Hence, it is termed
Preference is given to food crops. In addition
as multi-purpose river
to the food crops, sugarcane, oilseeds, cotton,
valley projects. The various purposes of a dam
jute and tobacco are also cultivated. Traditional
serves are irrigation, hydro power generation,
farming method results in low productivity.
water supply for drinking and industrial
purpose, controlling floods, development of b) Shifting Agriculture
fisheries, navigation etc. Generally, majority This type of agriculture is performed
of multipurpose projects are combination of by tribal people in a piece of forest land after
irrigation and hydro-power which are the clearing the trees through felling and burning
major aims of the projects. the trunks and branches. Once the land is


Name of projects River Benefit States
Damodar Valley project Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal
Bhakra-Nangal Project (highest gravity dam in the
Sutlej Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
world)
Hirakud Project
Mahanadi Orissa
(longest dam in the world)
Kosi Project Kosi Bihar & Nepal
Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
Tehri Dam: Bhagirathi Uttarakhand
Chambal Valley Project Chambal Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
Nagarjuna Sagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Sardar Sarover Project Narmada
Rajasthan
Indira Gandhi Canal Project Satlaj Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana
Mettur Dam Cauveri Tamil Nadu
cleared, crops are grown for two to three years the help of irrigation are also grown under
and the land will get abandoned as the fertility dry farming. In such circumstances, the yields
of the soil decreases. The farmers then move to are generally low. Most of the areas under dry
new areas and the process will be repeated. They cultivation entertain only one crop per year.
cultivate some grains and vegetable crops using
the manual labour. It is also called as “Slash and e) Mixed Farming
burn” cultivation. Mixed farming is defined as a system of
Different names of shifting agriculture in farm which includes crop production, raising
different regions in India livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to
Name Place sustain and satisfy as many needs of the farmer
Jhum Assam as possible.
Poonam Kerela
Podu Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
Beewar, Mashan, Madhya Pradesh
Penda, Beera
c) Intensive Farming
Intensive farming is an agricultural
intensification and mechanization system that
aims to maximize yields from available land
through various means, such as heavy use of
pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
Mixed Farming Agriculture
d) Dry Farming
This type of farming is practiced in arid f) Terrace Farming
areas where irrigation facilities are lacking.
This type of cultivation is practiced
Crops cultivated in these areas can withstand
specially in hilly areas, where lands are of
dry conditions. The crops grown generally with
sloping nature. The hill and mountain slopes

are cut to form terraces and the land is used Rice in India is sown in three ways:
in the same way as in permanent agriculture. i) Broadcasting,
Since the availability of flat land is limited,
ii) Ploughing or drilling
terraces are made to provide small patches
of level land. Soil erosion is also checked iii) Transplanting
due to terrace formation on hill slopes. Due to increased use of High Yielding
Variety (HYV) seeds (CR Dhan 205, AR Dhan
3.4 Major Crops Cultivated 306, CRR 451 etc.), many of the indigenous
in India varieties were disappeared. In 2016, the first 10
The major crops of India are divided into leading rice producing states are West Bengal
four major categories as follows: (First in India) Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil
1. Food crops (wheat, maize, rice, millets, Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
pulses etc.). Odisha, Assam, and Haryana.
2. Cash crops (sugarcane, tobacco, cotton,
jute, oilseeds etc.).
3. Plantation crops (tea, coffee and rubber).
4. Horticulture crops (fruits, flowers and
vegetables).
1. Food Crops
Due to its large population, Indian agriculture
is largely dominated by the food crops.
Rice
Rice is an indigenous crop. India is the
second largest producer of rice in the world
after China. It is mainly a tropical crop, growing
mainly with mean temperatures of 24°C and
annual rainfall of 150 cm. Deep fertile clayey or
loamy soils are suited well for rice cultivation.
It also needs abundant supply of cheap labour.
Wheat
Wheat is the second most important

food crop of the country, after rice. It
accounts for 22 percent of the total area and
Paddy Cultivation
Cropping Seasons in India
Cropping Seasons Major crops cultivated
Northern States Southern States
Kharif Season Rice, Ragi, Maize, Jowar,
Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur
June–September Groundnut
Rabi Season Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Ragi, Groundnut,
October–March Barley Jowar
Zaid Season
Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder Rice, Vegetables, Fodder
April–June

34 percent of the total production of food are used as fodder for cattle and for thatching
grains in the country. It requires 10-15°C purposes. Bajra is a crop of dry region. Rajasthan
at the time of sowing and 20-25°C at the time of is the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar
ripening of grains. Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Over 85% of the India’s wheat production Barley
comes from 5 states namely Uttar Pradesh,
Barley is one of the important cereals of
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya
our country. Besides, being poor man’s diet, it is
Pradesh. Apart from these regions, the black
used for making barley water, beer and whiskey.
soil tract of the Deccan covering parts of
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are the two leading
Maharashtra and Gujarat also contribute a
producers of Barley.
major wheat production.
Pulses
N
WHEAT PRODUCTION
W E
Pulses include a large number of crops
IN INDIA
S which are mostly leguminous and rich in
vegetable protein. They are used as human
food and feeding cattle. They fix atmospheric
nitrogen in the soil and hence are usually rotated
with other crops. India is the largest producer of
pulses.
2. Cash Crops
The crops which are cultivated for
commercial purpose are called cash crops.
Arabian
Bay of Bengal These crops include sugarcane, tobacco, fibre
Sea crops (cotton, jute, and mesta) and oilseeds.
Sugarcane
It is the second largest producer in the
Not to Scale
world. This crop provides raw material for
Indian Ocean the sugar industry which is the second largest
industrial category of our country. Besides
Jowar providing sugar, gur and khandsari, it supplies
Jowar is the third important food crop of molasses for alcohol industry and bagasse for
our country. It is an indigenous plant of Africa. paper industry. India is ranked third in sugar
The plant has a tendency to grow in adverse production in the world after Cuba and Brazil.
climatic conditions. Its grains are rich in At the state level, Uttar Pradesh is the leading
carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and vitamins. producer of sugarcane followed by Maharashtra,
Hence, it provides cheap food to the large Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
section of the poor population. It is also used Cotton
as fodder in many parts of the country. Jowar Cotton is the most important cash crop
is essentially a crop of the Peninsular India. of India. It provides raw material to the largest
Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh industry of India. India ranks second next to
are the leading producers of Jowar. China in the production of cotton.
Bajra About 79% of the total area and production
Bajra is an indigenous plant of Africa. This in the country were contributed by four states viz.,
forms the staple food for poor people. Its stalks Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

Jute Tea
It is a tropical fibre crops, grows well in the Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly grows
alluvial soil. It provides raw material for Jute in tropical and subtropical climates. Tea is a
industry. It is used for manufacturing of gunny labour intensive and grows faster under light
bags, carpets, hessian, ropes and strings, rugs, shade. Tea plants require high rainfall but its
clothes, tarpaulins, upholstery etc. West Bengal root cannot tolerate water logging. Two major
is the leading state both in cultivation and varieties of tea are cultivated in India. They are
production of jute. The other cultivators of jute i) BOHEA - originated from China
are Bihar, Assam and Meghalaya.
N
ii) ASSAMICA - from India
INDIA W E
MAJOR CASH CROPS S

A number of hybrid varieties have been
developed by mixing these two. India is the
second largest producer of tea after China in
the world. Assam is the larger producer of tea in
India. Other states are Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
West Bengal.
Coffee
Coffee is grown in shade and it grows
effectively in the altitudes between 1,000 and
1,500 m above mean sea level. There are two
LEGEND main varieties of coffee. They are
SUGARCANE
COTTON i) Arabica (High quality-cultivated more

JUTE
OILS AND SEEDS
in India)
TEA
COFFEE
ii) Robusta (Inferior quality).
India is the 7th largest producer of coffee
Not to Scale
RUBBER
SPICES
globally. Karnataka is the leading producer of
coffee in India. It produces 71% in India, and
Oil Seeds 2.5 % in the world (source; coffee board of
Oil seeds, the premier source of fat in the India-2018).
Indian diet are derived from number of crops
Rubber
like groundnut, rapeseed, mustard, sesame,
linseed, sunflower, castor seed, cotton seed, Rubber plantation were first established in
niger seed etc. These provide oil and oilcake Kerala in 1902. It needs hot and wet climatic
which are used for making lubricants, varnish, conditions (temperature above 20°C and
medicine, perfume, candles, soaps, manure and rainfall above 300cm). Most of the land under
cattle feed. Gujarat is India’s largest oilseeds rubber belongs to small land holders. The major
producing state. In groundnut production, rubber growing areas are Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
India is the second largest producer in the world Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
after China.
Spices
3. Plantation Crops India has been world famous for its spices
Plantation crops are cultivated for the since ancient times. These spices mostly used
purpose of exports. These are cultivated in large for flavouring or tampering cooked food and for
estates on hilly slopes. Tea, coffee, rubber and preparing medicines, dyes etc. Pepper, chillies,
spices are the major plantation crops of India. turmeric, ginger, cardamom, clove and areca

nut are the major spices cultivated in India.
Kerala is the leading producer of spices in India. Livestock Census: First Livestock
Census in India was conducted with the
4. Horticulture Crops title of Dairy Cattle Census in 1919.
It refers to the cultivation of fruits, flowers
and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are How is livestock census
important supplement to the human diet, as conducted in Tamil Nadu?
they provide essential minerals, vitamins, and State Government is
fibres required for maintaining health. India conducting Livestock Census
is in the second position in the production of with the help of Department of Animal
fruits and vegetables. Husbandry at state level and Regional
3.5 Livestock Joint Director at Distric level under the
guidelines of Government of India Ministry
Livestock is an integral component of the of Agriculture and farmers welfare,
farming system in India. The livestock sector Department of Animal Husbandary
is socially and economically very significant Dairying and Fisheries.
due to its multi-functional outputs and
contribution to socio-cultural security. It also Dairy, Meat and Wool Production
helps to improve food and nutritional security
by providing nutrient-rich food products, According to 2016-17 Census held by State
generate income and employment and act /UT Animal Husbandry Department, Uttar
as a cushion against crop failure, provide Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
draught power and manure inputs to the crop While looking at the meat, Uttar Pradesh
subsector. is the leading producer following Maharashtra
Cattle and West Bengal.
Cattle constitute 37.3 percent of livestock The leading state in the wool production is
population in India. India has second largest Rajasthan followed by Karnataka
cattle population after Brazil at World level.
Cattle population in India belongs to different 3.6 Fisheries
breeds. These include:
Fisheries in India are a very important
1) Milch Breed economic activity and a flourishing sector
2) Draught breed with varied resources and potentials. Fishing
in India is a major industry in its coastal
3) Mixed or General breed. states, employing over 14 million people.
Goats It produces about 3 percent of World’s fish
and occupies second place among the fish
The goat is the poor man’s cow providing
producing nations of the world after China.
milk, meat, skin and hair. It is the main source
It also helps in augmenting food supply,
of meat for the country.
generating employment, raising nutritional
Buffaloes level and earning valuable foreign exchange.
Buffaloes are an important source of In India, fishing is categorised into two types:
They are
milk supply for India. Uttar Pradesh has the
highest number of buffaloes (28.2%) followed 1. Marine or Sea Fisheries
by Rajasthan (9.6%) and Andhra Pradesh
(7.9%). 2. Inland or Fresh Water Fisheries

Lack of mechanization
In spite of the large scale mechanization of
agriculture in some parts of the country, most
of the agricultural operations in larger parts are
carried on by human hand using simple and
conventional tools.
Soil erosion
Fisheries Large tracts of fertile land suffer from soil

erosion by wind and water.
1. Marine or Sea Fisheries: It includes coastal,
Agricultural marketing
off-shore and deep sea fisheries mainly on
the continental shelves. Kerala leads in the Due to the absence of sound marketing
marine fish production in India. facility, the farmers have to depend on local
traders and middlemen for the disposal of
2. Inland or Fresh Water Fisheries: Rivers,
their farm products which is sold at low price.
lakes, canals, reservoirs, ponds, tanks etc.
Besides, there is a fluctuation in the prices of
are the sources of fresh water fresh water
agriculture products.
fisheries. About 50 percent of the country’s
total fish production comes from the inland Inadequate storage facilities
fisheries and Andhra Pradesh is the leading Storage facilities in the rural areas are either
producer in India. totally absent or grossly inadequate. Under such
In India, the important varieties of fishes conditions the farmers are compelled to sell
caught by the fisherman are Cat fish, Herrings, their products immediately after the harvest
irrespective of the condition of market.
Mackerels, Perches, Eels, Mullets etc.
Inadequate transport
3.7 Major issues faced by
One of the main handicaps with Indian
farmers in india
agriculture is the lack of cheap and efficient
Small and fragmented land-holdings means of transportation.
The problem of small and fragmented Scarcity of capital
holdings is more serious in densely populated
Agriculture is an important industry which
and intensively cultivated states in India.
requires a huge capital. The role of capital plays
High Costs of Inputs a major role in the purchase of advanced farm
Good quality seeds are out of reach for machineries and equipments.
many small and marginal farmers due to their
high price.
Infertile Soil
Indian soils have been used for growing crops
over thousands of years without caring much
for replenishing. This has led to depletion and
exhaustion of soils resulting in low productivity.
Lack of Irrigation
Only one-third of the cropped area falls
under irrigated area. To make agriculture
reliable, irrigation facility has to be developed.

List of important Agricultural Revolutions in India
Revolution Related Product

Yellow Revolution Oil seed Production (Especially Mustard and Sunflower)
Blue Revolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather / Cocoa / Non-Conventional Products
Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
Golden Revolution Fruits / Honey Production / Horticulture Development
Grey Revolution Fertilizers
Pink Revolution Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Prawn Production
Evergreen Revolution Overall Production of Agriculture
Silver Revolution Egg Production / Poultry Production
Silver Fibre Revolution Cotton
Red Revolution Meat Production / Tomato Production
Round Revolution Potato
Green Revolution Food Grains
White Revolution Milk Production
SUMMARY
Soil is the finest particle found on the earth surface.
The main sources of irrigation found in India are canal irrigation, well irrigation and tank
irrigation etc.
Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid are the three cropping seasons of India.
The agricultural crops of India can be divided into food crops, cash crops, plantation crops
and horticultural crops.
Fishing in India is categorized into marine fishing and inland fishing
2. Which of the following organization has

divided the Indian soils into 8 major
EXERCISE groups?
a) Indian Council of Agricultural Research
b) Indian Meteorological Department
I Choose the correct answer
c) Soil Survey of India
1. The soil which is rich in iron oxides is
d) Indian Institute of Soil Science
__________.
a) Alluvial b) Black 3. The soils formed by the rivers are:
c) Red d) Alkaline a) Red soils b) Black soils
c) Desert soils d) Alluvial soils

4. _________ dam is the highest gravity dam (b) Both (A) and (R)are true and (R) does
in India. not explain (A)
a) Hirakud dam (c) (A) is correct (R) is false
b) Bhakra Nangal dam (d) (A) is false (R) is true
c) Mettur dam III Pick the odd one out
d) Nagarjuna Sagar dam 1. a) Wheat b) Rice
5. __________ is a cash crop. c) Millets d) Coffee
a) Cotton b) Wheat 2. a) Khadar b) Bhangar
c) Rice d) Maize c) Alluvial soil d) Black soil
3. a) Inundational canals
6. Black soils are also called as: b) Perennial canals
a) Arid soils b) Saline soils c) Tanks
c) Regur soils d) Mountain soils d) Canals
7. The longest dam in the world is IV Match the following
___________. 1. Sugar bowl
a) Mettur dam b) Kosi dam of India - Mahanadi
c) Hirakud dam d) Bhakra-Nangal dam 2. Coffee - Golden revolution
8. Which crop is called as “Golden Fibre” in 3. Tehri - Karnataka
India? 4. Hirakud - Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
a) Cotton b) Wheat 5. Horticulture - Highest dam in the India
c) Jute d) Tobacco V Answer in brief
1. Define soil.
II Consider the given statements and
2. Name the types of soil found in India.
choose the right option given below
3. State any two characteristics of black cotton
Assertion (A): Horticulture involves
1. soil.
cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. 4. Define Agriculture.
Reason (R): India ranks first in the world 5. State the types of agriculture practices in
in the production of mango, banana, and India.
citrus fruits. 6. Name the seasons of agriculture in India?
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) 7. Mention the plantation crops of India.
explains (A) 8. What do you mean by livestock?
(b) Both (A) and (R)are true: (R) does not 9. Write a brief note on the categories of
explain (A) fisheries in India?
(c) (A) is correct (R) is false VI Give reasons
(d) (A) is false (R) is true
1. Agriculture is the backbone of India.
2. Assertion (A): Alluvial soil is formed by the
2. Rain water harvesting is necessary.
deposition of eroded and decayed materials
brought by the rivers. VII Distinguish between the following
Reason (R): Paddy and wheat are grown 1. Rabi and Kharif crop seasons.
well in the soil. 2. Inundational canal and perennial canal.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) 3. Marine fishing and Inland fishing.
explains (A) 4. Alluvial soils and Black soils.

VIII Answer in a paragraph
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. State any five types of soil in India and
explain the characteristics and Singh, G. (1976). A Geography of India.
1.
distribution of soil. Atma Ram & Sons Publications, New
2. What is Multipurpose projects and write Delhi.
about any two Multipurpose projects of 2.
Siddhartha, K. and Mukherjee, S. (2013).
India. Geography through Maps (11th Edition).
3. Bring out the characteristics of Intensive Kisalaya Publications Pvt. Ltd., New
and Plantation farming.
Delhi.
4. Examine the geographical conditions
Husain, M. (2015). Geography of India
3.
favourable for the cultivation of rice and
(6th Edition). McGraw Hill Education,
wheat.
New Delhi.
IX Hot questions 4.
Sharma, T.C. and Coutinho, O. (1978).
1. Can you imagine a world without Economic and Commercial Geography
agriculture? India (2nd Edition). Vikas Publishing
2. Can you give solutions for the prevailing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
water disputes in South India? Mamoria, C.B. (1980). Economic and
5.
X Map exercise Commercial Geography of India. Shiva Lal
1. Demarcate the major tracts of alluvial Agarwala & Company, Agra.
soils.
2. Delineate the main regions of black soil. INTERNET RESOURCES
3. Locate the Hirakud dam, Mettur dam
and Damodar dam. 1. https://extension.psu.edu/introduction-
4. Shade the regions of jute cultivation.. to-soils-managing-soils
5. Mark any three tea and coffee growing 2. http://mospi.nic.in/statistical-year-book-
areas. india/2017/181
6. Demarcate the regions of desert soil. 3. http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/
7. Locate the fishing hubs: Tuticorin, w r p i n f o / i n d e x . p h p ? t i t l e = Mu l t i _
Chennai, Cochin, Mumbai, Purpose_Projects
Machilipatnam 4. http://dahd.nic.in/sites/default/filess/
8. Demarcate: Cauveri delta, Godavari delta Volume%20I.pdf

Unit - 4
India - Resources
and Industries
Learning Objectives
To learn about the resource and its types.

To understand the concept of renewable and non- renewable resources.
To identify the different types and distribution of industries in India.
To analyse the problems of Indian industries.
Introduction physical properties. The process of extracting

mineral from the earth is known as mining. The
Any matter or energy derived from mines near the earth crust are known as open
the environment that is used by living pit mines while the deep mines are known as
things including humans is called a natural shaft mines.
resource. Natural resources include air,
water, soil, minerals, fossil fuels, plants, wild The organisations associated
life etc. Many natural resources are used as with minerals in India are
raw materials. They play a vital role in the 1. The Geological Survey of
economic development of any region. Natural India Headquarter is at
resources are classified on several basis. Calcutta
Based on continued availability, the resources
2. Indian Bureau of Mines Headquarter at
are categorised into two types. Renewable
Nagpur
Resources are those which have natural
regeneration after their utilisation. 3. Non-Ferrous Material Technology
Development Centre NFTDC, Hyderabad.
Solar energy, wind energy, biogas, tidal
4. The Ministry of Mines is responsible for the
energy, wave energy etc. are the renewable
administration of all mines and minerals
resources. Non- Renewable resources are the
(Development and Regulation Act, 1957).
sources that cannot be replaced again after
utilisation. Coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
fall under this category. Types of Minerals
On the basis of chemical and physical
4.1 Minerals
properties, minerals are broadly grouped
Mineral is a natural substance of organic under two categories. They are metallic and
or inorganic origin with definite chemical and non-metallic minerals.
170

a) Metallic Minerals of valuable metals such as iron, manganese,
copper, bauxite, nickel, zinc, lead, gold etc.
Metallic minerals are the minerals which
contain one or more metallic elements in 1. Iron ore
them. Metallic minerals occur in rare, naturally
Iron ore is the most widely distributed
formed concentrations known as mineral
elements of the earth crust, rarely occurs in a
deposits. These deposits consist of a variety
N
MINERALS OF INDIA
W E
S
IRON
MANGANESE
COPPER
BAUXITE
LIMESTONE
GYPSUM
MICA
GOLD
Not to Scale
171 India - Resources and Industries

as basic raw material for alloying. It is the
The iron is usually found in following form. most important mineral for making iron and
Form of Iron ores Iron Content (%) steel. Nearly 10 kg manganese is required for
Magnetite 72.4% manufacturing one ton of steel. It is also used
Hematite 69.9% in the manufacturing of bleaching powder,
insecticides, paints and batteries.
Goethite 62.9%
Limonite 55% MOIL- Manganese Ore
Siderite 48.2% India Limited state-owned
manganese-ore mining
company headquartered
free state. It enters into the composition of many in Nagpur. With a market
rocks and minerals especially from igneous share of 50%. It was the largest producer
and metamorphic rocks. The total recoverable of manganese ore in India.
reserves of iron ore in India are haematite and
magnetite Manganese deposits occur mainly as
Jharkhand is the leading producer of metamorphosed bedded sedimentary deposits.
iron ore with 25% the country’s production. The largest deposits of manganese is found
Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad and Ranchi in Odisha followed by Karnataka, Madhya
districts are its major producers. Odisha with Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh,
21% production ranks second. Sundargarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Telengana and
Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur and Keonjhar districts West Bengal together constitute about 2% of
are its major producers. The magnetite the India’s manganese resource. India is the
production of Chhattisgarh is 18% (Rajgarh fifth largest producer of manganese in the
and Bilaspur are its leading districts) and the world.
Karnataka is 20% (Chikmangalur, Chitradurga, 3. Copper
Shimoga and Dharwad districts are its major
producers). Andhrapradesh and Tamil Nadu Copper is the first metal that prehistoric
produce about 5% each. Kurnool, Guntur, man has started using for many purposes. Being
Cuddapah and Anantapur districts in Andhra flexible, it can be made into utensils of any shape.
Pradesh and Salem, Namakkal, Tiruvannamalai, Brass and Bronze are obtained when the copper
Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore, Madurai and alloys with zinc and tin respectively. Copper
Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu are notable has been commonly used for making cooking
for the production of iron ore. utensils and other objects of common utility. In
modern days, it is extensively used in vast variety
SAIL (Steel Authority of India of electrical machinery, wires and cables
Limited): The Ministry of Steel
Largest reserves of copper ore is in the
is responsible for planning and
state of Rajasthan followed by Jharkhand
development of iron and steel
and Madhya Pradesh. The states of Andhra
industry in India.
Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha,
2. Manganese Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttarakhand
Manganese is a silvery grey element. It Hindustan Copper Ltd is a
is very hard and brittle in nature. It is always Government-owned-corporation
available in combination with iron, laterite in the central public Enterprise
and other minerals. It is an important mineral under the Ministry of minies, India.
used for making iron and steel and serves
India - Resources and Industries 172

and West Bengal account for 7.9% of the total and incompressible. Mica is used in making
copper reserves of India. of insulating properties, as it withstands high
voltage and has low power loss factor. Since it
4. Bauxite is a non conductor of electricity, it is exclusively
Bauxite is an important ore from which used in electrical goods. It is also used in making
aluminium is extracted. It is found in the rock of lubricants, medicines, paints and varnishes.
consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium The major deposits of mica are found
oxides. Bauxite is widely distributed as surface in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Odisha and
deposits in the areas of laterite soil. Being light Jharkhand.
in weight and tough, aluminium is used in
the manufacture of aircraft s and automobile Lime Stone
engines. Bauxite is also used in the manufacture Limestone is associated with rocks
of cement and chemicals. composed of either calcium carbonate or the
double carbonate of calcium and magnesium
Bauxite is an oxide of or mixture of both. Limestone also contains
aluminium; the name has been small quantities of silica, alumina, iron oxides,
derived after the French word phosphorous and sulphur.
Le Baux.
Limestone is used in the industries of
The main bauxite deposits occur in Odisha, chemicals for soda ash, caustic soda, bleaching
Gujarat (Junagadh, Amreli and Bhavnagar powder, paper, cement, iron and steel, glass and
districts), Jharkhand (Ranchi and Gumila fertilizers. The major producing areas: Karnataka,
districts), Maharashtra (Sindhu durg and Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, Madhya
Ratnagiri), Chhattisgarh (Ballarpur and Durg Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Gujarat and
districts), and Tamil nadu. Chhattisgarh
Gypsum
National Aluminium Company Limited,
abbreviated as NALCO, (incorporated Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium
1981) has units in Odisha at places like which occurs as white, opaque or transparent
Angul and Damanjodi. It was incorporated minerals in beds of sedimentary rocks such as
as a public sector enterprise of the Ministry limestone, sandstone and shale. Gypsum is used
of Mines, Government of India in 1981. in the manufacture of cement, fertilizers, wall
board, plaster of paris and in soil conditioning.
Rajasthan, Tamil nadu, Gujarat, Himachal
Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Andhra
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are the major
b) Non-Metallic Minerals producers.
These minerals do not contain metal in 4.2 Energy Resources

them. Mica, limestone, gypsum, nitrate, potash,
The resources from which the electricity
dolomite, coal, petroleum etc are the non-
generated are called energy resources.
metallic minerals.
Electricity is an important component of our
Mica life. No day to day activity
In ancient time, Mica was used in ayurvedic takes without the use of this
medicine. Mica became very popular with the energy. It is also the key factor
development of electrical industry. Abhrak for all economic activities
is a good quality mica. It is translucent, easily and industrial development.
splitable into thin sheets, flat, colourless, elastic Energy resources can be

classified into renewable and non-renewable. Jharkhand is the largest coal producing state
Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear in the country followed by odisha, Chhattisgarh,
minerals are the sources of non renewable West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
energy. Water, sun light, wind, bio gas, tides etc., and Maharashtra.
are the sources of renewable energy. Indian lignite (brown coal) deposits occur
in the southern and western parts of Peninsular
Non-Renewable Energy Resources
India particularly in Tamil nadu, Pudhucherry
a) Coal and Kerala.
Coal is an inflammable organic substance The Ministry of coal has over all
composed mainly of hydrocarbons. responsibility of determining policies and
strategies in respect of exploration and
Coal is available in the form of development of coal resource in India. Coal India
sedimentary rocks. It is used in the generation Limited (CIL), NLC India Limited (NLCIL) and
of thermal power. It has close association with Singareni Collieries Company limited (SCCL)
the industrial development of any country. are its public sector under takings.
Since it is a valuable one, it is called as “Black
b) Petroleum (or) Crude oil
Gold”. Based on carbon content, it is classified
in to the following types. The word petroleum has been derived
from two Latin words petro (meaning – Rock)
Anthracite: 80 to 90% and oleum (meaning oil). Thus petroleum is
Bituminous: 60 to 80% oil obtained from rocks of the earth. Therefore,
it is also called mineral oil. Petroleum is
Lignite: 40 to 60% an inflammable liquid that is composed of
Peat: less than 40% hydrocarbons which constitute 90-95% of
petroleum and the remaining is chiefly organic
Coal is an important source of energy in compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen,
India with its varied and innumerable uses. It sulphur and traces of organ metallic compounds.
can be converted into gas, oil, electricity and
thermal power. Besides, it forms a basic raw The Ministry of Petroleum and
material for the production of chemicals, dyes, Natural Gas (MOP&NG) is a
fertilizers, paints, synthetic and explosives. ministry of the Government
of India. It is responsible for
Indian coal is mostly associated with the exploration, production,
Gondwana series of rocks and is primarily found refining, distribution, marketing,
in Peninsular India. The states of Jharkhand, import, export, and conservation of
odisha, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh alone petroleum, natural gas, petroleum products,
account for nearly 90% of coal reserves of the and liquefied natural gas in India.
country. About 2% of India’s coal is of tertiary
type and is found mostly in Assam and Jammu
& Kashmir.
Coal India Limited (CIL) is

an Indian state-controlled
coal mining company
headquartered in Kolkata,
West Bengal.
India - Oil refinery

Western coast offshore oil fields Eastern coast offshore Fields
1. Mumbai high oil fields (largest 65%) Bharmaputra valley (Dibrugarh and Sibsagar
districts of upper Assam.)
2. Gujarat coast (2nd largest) Digboi oil feilds (oldest fields in country)
3. Basseim oil feild, south of Mumbai high Nahoratiya oil fields (south west of digboi)
4. Aliabet oil feild, south of Bhavanagar Moran-Hugrijan oil field (Southwest of
Nahoratiya)
5. Ankleshwar Rudrasagar-Lawa oil feilds (sibsagar districs of
assam)
6. Cambay-Luni Region Surma valley (Badarpur, Masimpur, Patharia)
7. Ahemedabad-Kalol Region Offshore of Andaman and Nicobar, Gulf of
mannar, Baleshwar coast, Punjab, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh.
Petroleum is used as a source of power India has a very large proportion of tertiary
and fuel for automobiles, aeroplanes, ships and rock and alluvial deposits particularly in the
locomotives. Lubricants, kerosene, vaseline, tar, extra peninsular India. These sedimentary
soap, terylene and wax are its by products. Oil rocks, which were once under the shallow seas,
in India is obtained from both from on-shore hold the possibility of harbouring oil and gas
and off-shore areas. deposits. The highest concentration of natural
gas is found in the Mumbai high and basseim oil
c) Natural Gas fields. Gujarat, Assam, Neypaltur, Mangmadam
in Thanjavur district in Tamil nadu, Tripura,
Natural gas usually accompanies the
Rajasthan, Arunachal Pradesh, Punjab, West
petroleum accumulations. It is naturally
Bengal are the other areas where natural gas
occurring hydro carbon gas mixture consisting
reserves have been discovered.
primarily of methane, but commonly includes
varying amounts of other higher alkanes Compressed natural gas (CNG) (methane
and sometimes a small percentage of carbon stored at high pressure) is a fuel which can
dioxide, nitrogen and hydrogen sulphides. It is be used in place of gasoline, diesel fuel
formed when layers of decomposed plants and and propane/LPG. In comparison to other
animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure fuels, natural gas poses less of a threat in
over thousands of years. It is used as a source the event of a spill, because it is lighter
of energy for heating, cooking and electricity than air and disperses quickly when
generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles released. Biomethane – cleaned-up biogas
and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture from anaerobic digestion or landfills –
of plastics and other commercially important can be used. Natural gas run vehicles are
organic chemicals. increasingly used in Delhi, Ahmedabad,
Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata Lucknow, Kanpur,
GAIL (formerly known
Varanasi, etc.
as Gas Authority of
India Limited) is the
largest state-owned Conventional Energy Sources
natural gas processing a) Thermal power
and distribution company in India. It is
headquartered in New Delhi. Thermal power is generated using fossil
fuels like coal, diesel, petroleum and Natural


gas. National Thermal Power Corporation power generation as the quantity of production
[NTPC] was established in 1975. At present can either be increased or decreased very
NTPC has 13 coal based super thermal power quickly adapting to changing demands.
projects and 7 gas / liquid fuel based combined
cycle projects in the states of Assam, Bihar, The first hydro-electric
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Mizoram and West power station in India was
Bengal. Neyveli, Mettur, Thoothukudi and established at “Darjeeling” in
Ennore (Chennai) are the important thermal 1897.
power stations in Tamil nadu. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
b) Nuclear power is located in Faridabad, India
The energy released during nuclear b) Solar Energy

fission or fusion is used to generate
electricity. Nuclear energy is generated mainly Solar Power is the conversion of sunlight
from the minerals of Uranium and Thorium. into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics
The first nuclear power station was setup at (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar
Tarapur near Mumbai in 1969. Later atomic power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems
reactors were installed at Rawatbhata (335 use lenses or mirrors and tracking system to
MW), near Kota in Rajasthan (100 MW), focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
Kalpakkam (440 MW) and Kudankulam Photovoltaics convert light into an electric
(2,000 MW) in Tamil nadu and Narora (235 current using the photovoltaic effect.
MW) in Uttar Pradesh, Kaiga in (235 MW)
in Karnataka and Kakarapara (235 MW) in Solar Energy Corporation of
Gujarat. India Limited is a Government of
India Enterprise.Its head quarter is
The Nuclear Power located at New Delhi.
Corporation of India Limited
(NPCIL) is an Indian public The mass objectives of the solar thermal
sector undertaking based energy programme, being implemented by
in Mumbai, Maharashtra. the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
It is wholly owned by the Source (MNES) are market development,
Government of India and commercialisation and utilisation of heat
is responsible for the generation of nuclear energy requirement of different applications
power for electricity. in domestic, institutional and industrial
sectors. Solar power is used in water heaters,
refrigerators, drying, street lighting, cooking,
Renewable Energy Resources
pumping, power generator, photovoltaic cells,
a) Hydro power salon parts etc. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
Power generated from water is termed as are the major solar power producers.
hydroelectricity. Hydro power is the energy
harnessed from running water. Hydro power c) Wind Energy
is considered as one of the most economic and Wind energy is extracted from air flow
non-polluting sources of energy. It contributes using wind turbines. It is a cheap and pollution
nearly 7% of global electricity production. free source of energy. Power from wind mills are
The cost of production of hydroelectricity is used for pumping water and to sail propel ships.
relatively low, making it a competitive source of Wind power is plentiful, renewable, widely
renewable energy. It is also a flexible mode of distributed, clean and produces no greenhouse

gas emissions during operation. These plants near Thiruvananthapuram. An another plant
occupy only a less space. of this kind has been set up near Andaman&
Nicobar Islands.
Tamil nadu has the largest
installation of wind turbines 4.3 Industries
in the country in the
It refers to the activities which converts
Aralvoimozhi area near
the raw materials into finished products. This
Kanniyakumari is the largest
sector is called as the value addition sector.
concentrations of wind farm capacity at a
On the basis of the source of raw materials,
single location in the world.
Industries are classified into the Agro based
industries, Forest based industries and Mineral
The development of wind power in India
based industries.
began in 1986 with first wind farms were set up
in coastal areas of Gujarat (Okha), Maharashtra Agro based industries
(Ratnagiri) and Tamil nadu (Thoothukudi)
These industries draw their raw materials
with 55 KW Vestas wind turbines. The capacity
from agricultural sector. The following part
has significantly increased in the last few years.
discusses the agro based industries in India.
India has the fourth largest installed wind power
capacity in the world. a) Cotton Textile Industry
The National Institute of Textile is a broad term which includes

Wind Energy (NIWE), cotton, jute, wool, silk and synthetic fibre
Chennai was established textiles. This sector in India is the second largest
in Tamil Nadu in 1998 as in the world.
an autonomous institution
The first cotton textile
under the administrative
mill was established at Fort
control of the Ministry
Gloster near Kolkata in 1818.
of New and Renewable
Energy. NIWE main activities include resource
assessment testing and certification.
Traditional sectors like hand loom,
handicrafts and small power-loom units are the
d) Biomass Energy biggest source of employment for millions of
Bio energy may be obtained through bio- people in rural and semi urban areas.
degradable materials like animal dung, kitchen Currently, India is the third
wastes, water hyacinth, agricultural residues and largest producer of cotton and
city wastes etc. It is clean and cheap source of has the largest loom arc and ring
energy. Energy derived from biomass is mostly spindles in the world. At present,
used for domestic purposes. cotton textile industry is the
e) Tidal and wave Energy largest organized modern industry
of India.
There are two main sources of ocean
energy. They are Ocean tides and Ocean waves. Ginning is the process of separating cotton
The Gulf of Cambay is the best suited area for seed from cotton.
tidal energy. This is followed by Gulf of Kachch
(1,000MW) and sunderbans (100MW). The higher concentration of textile mills in
An wave energy power plant of 150 and around Mumbai, makes it as “Manchester
KW(maximum) has been installed at vizhinjam of India”. Presence of black cotton soil in

MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN INDIA W
N
E
S
LEGEND
COTTON
SILK
IRON & STEEL
SUGAR
PAPER
Not to Scale
Maharastra, humid climate, presence of textile industry in India after cotton textiles. Jute
Mumbai port, availability of hydro power, good is the golden fibre which meets all the standards
market and well developed transport facility of goods packing with its natural, renewable,
favour the cotton textile industries in Mumbai. bio degradable and eco-friendly products.
The major cotton textile industries are The first jute mill in India was established at
concentrated in the states of Maharashtra, Rishra near, Kolkata in 1854 by the English man
Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil George Auckland. India tops in the production
nadu. Coimbatore is the most important centre of raw jute and jute goods and second in
in Tamil nadu with 200 mills out of its 435 and the export of jute goods next to Bangladesh.
called as “Manchester of South India”. Erode, Jute production includes gunny bags, canvas,
Tirupur, Karur, Chennai, Thirunelveli, Madurai, pack sheets, jute web, carpets, cordage, hessians
Thoothukudi, Salem and Virudhunagar are the and twines. Now jute is also being used in plastic
other major cotton textiles centres in the state. furniture and insulation bleached fibres to blend
with wool. It is also mixed with cotton to make
b) Jute Textiles
Jute is a low priced fibre used mainly for National jute board
making package materials like gunny bags. is headquarter at
Today jute is blended with cotton and wool to Kolkata.
produce textiles. This is the second important

of sugar. At present this is the second largest agro
CSTRI is the only based industry of India after cotton textiles. India
research institute in is the world’s second largest producer of sugar
the country dedicated cane after Brazil. Sugar industry is decentralized
to the Research and located near the sugarcane growing areas as
& Developmental they are weight loosing and bulky to transport.
activities related to silk
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of
technology. CSTRI was
sugar, producing about 50% of the country’s
established in the year 1983 by the Central
total. Other major producers are Maharashtra,
Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of
Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
India having head quarter at Bengaluru
Tamil nadu, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat, Haryana
and Madhya Pradesh states. These states account
carpet and blankets. The major jute producing for more than 90% of the sugar mills and sugar
areas are in West Bengal and concentrated production.
along the Hooghly river within the radius of six
kilometre of Kolkata. Titagarh, Jagatdat, Budge- Forest based industries
Budge, Haora and Bhadreshwar are the chief Forest provide us with different types of
centres of jute industry. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, material which are used as raw material for
Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh and Odisha certain industries like paper, lac, sports goods,
are the other jute goods producing areas. plywood etc.
c) Silk Industry a) Paper industry
India has been well known for the Paper Industry produces numerous types
production of silk since the ancient times. India of papers that comes in various use such as sheet
is the second largest producer of raw silk next paper, paper boxes, tissues, paper bags, stationery,
only to China. envelopes and printed-paper products such as
Karnataka is the largest producer of books, periodicals, and newspapers. In India
silk. Other major producers of silk are West the Soft wood is the principal raw material used
Bengal, Jammu Kashmir, Bihar, Jharkhand, for making paper especially newsprint and high
Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Assam class printing papers. Paper is the pre-requisite
and Tamil nadu states. for education and literacy and its use is an index
of advancement in these two fields as well as the
Office of the Development overall well being of the society.
Commissioner for Handlooms
was set up as an attached
non-participating office on
20th November, 1975 under
the Ministry of Commerce.
At present it is functioning
under the Ministry of
Textiles, headquarters at
Udyog Bhawan, New Delhi.
d) Sugar Industry The first paper mill of

Sugar can be produced from sugar cane, India was started in 1812 at
sugar-beets or any other crop which have sugar Serampore in West Bengal.
content. In India, sugar cane is the main source

The first successful effort was made in has sufficient deposits of limestone, dolomite,
1867 with the setting up of the Royal Bengal manganese and silicon which are required for
paper mills at Ballyganj near Kolkata. The raw the industry.
materials for paper industry includes wood
pulp, bamboo, salai and sabai grasses, waste Automobile Industry
paper and bagasse. West Bengal is the largest
India is set to emerge not only as a
producer of paper in the country followed by
large domestic market for automobile
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil nadu.
manufacturers, but also as a crucial link in
National Newsprint the global automotive chain. It is one of the
and Paper Mills (NEPA) is most dynamic industrial groups in India.
at Nepanagar in Burhanpur The first automobile industry of India was
District of Madhya Pradesh. started in 1947. The industry is the Premier
Automobiles Ltd located at Kurla (Mumbai).
Mineral based industries It was followed by the Hindustan Motors Ltd
Mineral based industries use both at Uttarpara (Kolkata) in 1948. At present,
metallic & non metallic minerals as raw India is the 7th largest producer of automobile
materials. The major mineral based industry manufacturers which include two wheelers,
of country is the iron steel industry commercial vehicles, passenger car, jeep,
scooty, scooters, motor cycles, mopeds and
a) Iron and steel industries three wheelers. Major centres are at Mumbai,
Chennai, Jamshedpur, Jabalpur, Kolkata,
Iron and steel industry is called a Pune, New Delhi, Kanpur, Bengaluru, Sadara,
basic metallurgical industry as its finished Lucknow and Mysuru.
product is used as raw material by host of
other industries. Several industries like Chennai is nicknamed as the “Detroit
engineering, heavy machines and machine of Asia” due to the presence of major
tools, automobile, locomotives and railway automobile manufacturing units and allied
equipment industries use iron and steel as industries around the city.
their primary raw material. Due to this,
the steel producing capacity of a country is Tata Motors, Maruti Suzuki, Mahindra &
generally taken as an indicator of its level of Mahindra and Hindustan Motors are the
industrial development. largest passenger car manufacturers of Indian
companies in the country. Presence of foreign
The first attempt to car companies such as Mercedes Benz, Fiat,
produce iron and steel unit General Motors, Toyota and the recent entry
was set up at Porto Novo in of passenger car manufacturers BMW, Audi,
Tamil nadu in 1830. Volkswagen and Volvo makes the Indian
automobile sector a special one. Tata Motors,
The modernization of the industry was Ashok Leyland, Eicher Motors, Mahindra &
started in 1907 with the establishment of Tata Mahindra and Ford Motors are the major Indian
Iron and Steel Company at Sakchi, now called companies which manfacture commercial
Jamshedpur. Iron and steel industry of India is vehicles. MAN, ITEC, Mercedes-Benz, Scania
mainly concentrated in the states of Jharkhand, and Hyundai are the foreign companies engage
West Bengal and Odisha. Proximity to the coal in the manfacture of commercial vehicles.
fields of Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro and Karanpura Two-wheeler manufacturing is dominated by
and the iron ore mines of Mayurbhanj, Keonjar Indian companies like Hero, Bajaj Auto and
and Brona are responsible for this. This area also TVS.

S.No Name of Industry Place Establishment Year Product
Tata Iron and Steel Jamshedpur,
1 1911 Pig Iron
Company(TISCO) Jharkhand
Indian Iron and Steel Burnpur,Hirapur,
2 1972 Pig Iron & Crude steel
Company (IISCO) Kulti, West Bengal
Visweshwaraya Iron Steel
3 Bhadravati,Karnataka 1923 Alloy and Sponge steel
Ltd(VISL)
Hisdustan Steel Ltd (HSL) Railway Equipments and
4 Bhilai, Chattisgarh 1957
Collaborated with Russia Ship Building
Hindustan Steel Ltd(HSL) Hot and Cold rolled
5 Collaborated with Rourkela,Odisha 1965 sheets, Galvanized sheets
Germany and electrical plates
Hindustal Steel Ltd(HSL) Alloy steel, Construction
6 Collaborated with United Durgapur,West Bengal 1959 materials and railway
kingdom equipments
Hisdustan Steel Ltd(HSL)
7 Bokaro, Jharkhand 1972 Sludge and Slog
Collaborated with Russia
8 Salem Steel Ltd Salem, Tamil Nadu 1982 Stainless Steel
9 Vijayanagar Steel Plant Tornagal,Karnataka 1994 Flat steel and Long Steel
Visakhapatnam Steel Visakhapatnam,
10 1981 Hot Metal
Plant(VSP) Andhra Pradesh
MAJOR ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS, SOFTWARE
AND AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRIES IN INDIA
W E
S
SOFTWARE
INDUSTRIES
AUTOMOBILE
INDUSTRIES
ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS
Not to Scale
INDUSTRIES

Electrical and Electronic Industries The main centres of IT parks are located
Heavy electrical industries manufacture in Chennai, Coimbatore, Thiruvananthapuram,
equipment used for power generation, Bengaluru, Mysuru, Hyderabad,
transmission and utilization. Turbines for steam Visakhapatnam, Mumbai, Pune, Indore, Gandhi
and hydro power plants, boilers for thermal Nagar, Jaipur, Noida, Mohali and Srinagar.
power plants, generators, transformers, switch
Major challenges of Indian
gears etc. are the chief products of this industry.
Industries
The most important company in the field of
heavy electrical is Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd Industries in India face many problems.
(BHEL). It has its plants at Hardwar, Bhopal, Some major problems are listed below.
Hyderabad, Jammu, Bengaluru, Jhansi and
• Shortage and fluctuation in Power Supply.
Tiruchirappalli. This Industry covers a wide
range of products including television sets, • Non- availability of large blocks of land.
transistor sets, telephone exchanges, cellular
• Poor access to credit.
telegram, computers and varied equipments for
post and railway, defence and meteorological • High rate of interest for borrowed loan.
department.
• Non- availability of cheap labourers.
Bengaluru is the largest producer of
• Lack of technical and vocational training
electronic goods in India, hence it is called as
for employees.
the “Electronic Capital of India”. The other
major producers of electronic goods centers are • Inappropriate living conditions nearby
Hyderabad, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, industrial estates.
Kanpur, Pune, Lucknow, Jaipur and Coimbatore.
Wealth Creation
Make in India program and Sharing
was launched in 2014 to put

India on the world map as a Create Jobs
major hub for global design Community
Development
and manufacturing.
Software Industry
India is home to some of the finest software
companies in the world. The software companies
Balanced
in India are reputed across the globe for their Regional
Exports Entrepreneurship
efficient IT and business related solutions. The Development
Indian Software Industry has brought about a

tremendous success for the emerging economy.
In India, software industry began in 1970
with the entry of Tata Consultancy Services
(TCS). Along with this, L & T, Infotech, i-Flex, Standard of Living
GDP and
Accenture, Cognizant, GalexE Solutions India Per Capita Income
Pvt Ltd and ITC Infotech are the major software

industries in the country. At present, there are
more than 500 software companies all over
India. It exports software service to nearly 95
countries in the world. Challenges of Indian Industries

SUMMARY
Natural resource - raw materials obtained naturally from the earth.
Renewable resource – the resources that can be replenished.
Non renewable resource - the energy that cannot be replenished easily.
Agro based industry – the industries that depend on agriculture for their raw materials.
Mineral based industries – the industries that use minerals as raw materials.
Forest based industries – the industries run with the help of forest products.
6. The most abundant source of energy is

a) Bio mass b) Sun
EXERCISE c) Coal d) Oil
7.
The famous Sindri Fertilizer Plant is
located in
a) Jharkhand b) Bihar
answer
c) Rajasthan d) Assam
1. Manganese is used in______.
8.
The nucleus for the development of the
a) Storage batteries chotanagpur plateau region is
b) Steel Making
a) Transport
c) Copper smelting
b) Mineral Deposits
d) Petroleum Refining
c) Large demand
2. The Anthracite coal has ___________.
d) Power Availability
a) 80 to 95% Carbon
II Match the following
b) Above 70% Carbon
1. Bauxite - Cement
c) 60 to 70% Carbon
2. Gypsum - Aircraft
d) Below 50% Carbon
3. Black Gold - Electrical goods
3.
The most important constituents of
4. Iron ore - Coal
petroleum are hydrogen and
5. Mica - Magnetite
a) Oxygen b) Water
c) Carbon d) Nitrogen III Answer the following Questions briefly
4. The city which is called as the Manchester of 1. Define the resource and state its types.
South India is 2. What are minerals and state its type?
a) Chennai b) Salem 3. State the uses of magnesium.
c) Madurai d) Coimbatore 4. What is natural gas?
5.
The first Nuclear Power station was 5. Name the different types of coal with their
commissioned in carbon content.
a) Gujarat b) Rajasthan 6. Mention the major areas of jute production
c) Maharashtra d) Tamil nadu in India.

7. Name the important oil producing regions 3. Coal mining centres.
of India. 4. Areas of cultivation of cotton.
IV Distinguish between 5. Iron and Steel industries.
1. Renewable and non-renewable resources.
2. Metallic and non-metallic minerals. REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Agro based industry and mineral based
industry. 1. Singh,S. and J.Saroha – Geography of India,
New Delhi, Access Publishing Inida Pvt Ltd.
4. Jute industry and sugar industry.
5. Conventional energy and non- conventional 2. Tiwar R.C. – Geography of India, Allahabad,
energy. Prayag Pustak Bhawan.
V Answer the following in a paragraph 3. Government of India, Ministry of mines,

Coal, Textiles, Steel, Petroleum and Natural
1. Write about the distribution of cotton textile
gas – Annual report 2017 -18
industries in India.
2. Describe the major challenges of Indian 4. Annual Reports of the Indian Bureau of
industries. Mines - 2017.
VI On the outline map of India mark the 5. Human geography, Kings page number 323
following 6. Economic and Commercial Geography,
1. Iron ore production centres. Professor S.A.Ghazi
2. Centres of Petroleum and Natural Gas 7. Development of industries in India, from
production. Independence till today
ICT CORNER
India - Resources and Industries
Visit school Bhuvan?

School Bhuvan visualizes natural
resources, environment and
their sustainable development in
India.
Steps
• Scroll Down and click on ‘Explore’
• Click on ‘Thematic Serious 2’ in top menuandSelect ‘Mineral’
Website URL:
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

Unit - 5
India - Population,
Transport,
Communication &
Trade
Learning Objectives
To understand the growth and distribution of population in India

To know about the Human Development in India.
To learn the transport systems of India.
To understand the communication system of India.
To assess the nature of trade in India.
Introduction Census
Population census is the total process of
The study on human population is one
collecting, compiling, analysing or otherwise
of the most important aspects in geography
disseminating demographic, economic and
of any region. The human population has
social data pertaining, at a specific time, of all
many components but the most fundamental
persons in a country or a well-defined part of a
are its number, composition, distribution
country. It happens in an interval of ten years.
and density. Therefore, it is essential to
The data collected through the census are used
study these components. The study on these for administration, planning, policy making as
aspects also would reveal the workforce of well as management and evaluation of various
the country. programmes by the government.
5.1 Population In India the first census was carried
The total number of people residing in a out in the year 1872. But the
country at a specified period of time is called first complete and synchronous
the 'Population' of that country. India is the census was conducted in 1881.
second most populous country in the world And the 2011 census represents
the fifteenth census of India.
next only to china. India covers only 2.4
percent of the land area of the world, but is
the home of about 17.5 percent of the world’s Distribution and Density of
Population
population. It shows that the proportion of
population of India is far higher than the The term 'Population Distribution' refers
proportion of its area. Thus, a little more than to the way the people are spaced over the earth’s
one out of every six persons in the world is surface. The distribution of population in India
from India. is quite uneven because of the vast variation
186

in the availability of resources. Population is network, industrialization, ur banization,
mostly concentrated in the regions of industrial employment opportunity etc.
centres and the good agricultural lands. On the
Density of population
other hand, the areas such as high mountains,
arid lands, thickly forested areas and some It is expressed as number of persons per
remote corners are very thinly populated and sq km. According to 2011, the average
some areas are even uninhabited. Terrain, density of population of India is 382 persons
climate, soil, water bodies, mineral resources, per sq.km. India is one of the most thickly
industries, transport and urbanization are the populated ten countries of the world. The
major factors which affect the distribution of most densely populated state of India is Bihar
population in our country. and the state with least population density
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state is Arunachal Pradesh. Among the union
in the country with a population of 199.5 territories, Delhi is the densely populated one
million followed by Maharashtra (112.3 with 11,297 per sq.km, while Andaman and
million), Bihar (103.8 million) West Bengal Nicobar Islands have the lowest density of
(91.3 million) and the combined Andhra population.
Pradesh and Telangana (84.6 million). Population Growth and Change
These five states account for about half of
the country’s population. Sikkim is the least Population change refers to an increase
populous state of India(0.61 million). Delhi or decrease of population of an area from
with 16.75 million population tops among the one period to another period. Population
Union territories. growth is influenced by the birth rate, death rate
and migration. These three make the changes in
The uneven distribution of population in
population.
the country is the result of several factors such
as physical, socio-economic and historical Birth rate refers to the number of live
ones. The physical factors include relief, births per thousand people in a year and the
climate, water, natural vegetation, minerals Death rate refers to the number of deaths per
and energy resources. Socio-economic factors thousand people in a year. The rapid decline in
consists of the religion, culture, political issues, death rate is the major cause of the rapid growth
economy, human settlements, transport of population in India.
The following table shows the decadal growth rate of population from 1901 to 2011.
(Growth Rate of Populaon in India)

14.22% (31,86,60,580)
30
13.31% (36,10,88,090)
11% (27,89,77,238)
5.75% (25,20,93,390)
20
(% of Populaon)
21.54% (1,02,70,15,247)
17.64% (1,21,01,93,422)
-0.31% (25,20,93,390)
21.64% (43,92,34,771)
24.80% (54,81,59,652)
24.66% (68,33,29,097)
23.87% (84,33,87,888)
0% (23,89,96,237)
10
0
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
(Census based on every ten years)
Source: Census of India -2011
187 India - Population, Transport, Communication & Trade

5.2 Migration in Puducherry. The lowest sex ratio is recorded
in the union territory of Daman and Diu(618).
It is the movement of people across
regions and territories. It can be internal Literacy Rate
(within a country) or international (between The people who are able to read and
the countries). Internal migration does not write are known as literates. It is an important
change the size of population of a country but indicator of quality of people. The percentage
it influences the distribution of population in a of literate people to the total population is
nation. It plays an important role in changing termed as literacy rate. There has been a steady
the composition and distribution of population. improvement in the literacy levels in India.
In India, the mass migration is from rural to India’s literacy rate as per 2011 census is 74.04%.
urban. Unemployment and under employment From this, the literacy rate of male is 82.14% and
in the rural areas are the push factors and the the female is 65.46%. It shows that still there is a
employment opportunity and higher wages vast gap (16.68%) between the male and female
in the urban areas caused by the industrial literacy rates. Kerala ranks first in the country
development are the pull factors of migration in with a literacy rate of 93.91% followed by union
the country. territory Lakshadweep with 92.28%. The lowest
Population composition literacy rate is found in Bihar (63.82 %).
Population composition refers to the Occupational structure
characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, The economically active part of a
caste, religion, language, education, occupation country’s population is enumerated during
etc. The study of composition of population the census operations and stated as workers.
helps us to understand the social, economic Workers are placed under three fold categories
and demographic structure of population. in census record. They are main workers,
Age composition marginal workers and non-workers. According
The age composition of population refers to the Census of India, all those who had worked
to the number of people in different age groups for the major part of the preceding year (at least
in a country. Population of a nation is generally 6 months or 183 days) are recorded as main
grouped in to three broad categories. In India, workers. Those who worked for less than six
the children who has less than 15 years of age months are recorded as marginal workers and
constitute 29.5% and the people above 60 years the people who have not worked at all comes
constitute 8.0%. So, the dependent population in under non workers.
India is 37.5%and the independent population Population Dynamics
(16-59 yrs) is 62.5%. It shows that our country
Human population dynamics is a field that
has enormous manpower.
tracks factors related to changes in the size of
Sex Ratio population and its characteristics. Predicting
Sex ratio is defined as the number of population changes is an important aspect of
females per 1000 male population. population studies.
Problems of over Population
The sex ratio in our country is always
unfavourable to females. Give reasons. In India, growing pressure of Population
on resource base, created many socio-
According to 2011 census, the sex ratio of economic, cultural, political, ecological and
the country is 940 females per 1000 males. This environmental problems. The Population
suggests that the size of female population is problems vary in space and time and differ
lower than males. It is 1084 in Kerala and 1038 from region to region. Some of the major
India - Population, Transport, Communication & Trade 188

issues created by the overpopulation in our 5.4 Transportation
country are overcrowding, unemployment and
under employment, low standard of living, Transport is a system in which passengers
malnutrition, mismanagement of natural and and goods are carried from one place to
agricultural resources, unhealthy environment another. Transport system is considered as the
etc. lifeline of a country. Earlier man travelled on
foot or used animals for transport. With the
5.3 Urbanization discovery of wheel, transport was made easier
and gradually different means of transport
The process of society’s
were developed. There are three major means
transformation from rural
of transport in the world.
to urban is known as
urbanization.
Means of Transport
Urbanization in India
The level of urbanization
Land Water Air
is measured in terms of percentage of urban
population. Domestic
Road ways Inland
Goa is the most urbanized state. Himachal airways
Railways waterways
Pradesh is the least urbanized state. Among the International
Pipelines Ocean routes
Union territories, Delhi is the most urbanized Airways
region followed by Chandigarh. Among the
major states, Tamil Nadu continues to be the Roadways
second most urbanized state with 48.4% percent
of urban population followed by Kerala and Roads play an important role in carrying
Maharashtra. goods and passengers for short, medium and
long distances. It is highly suitable for short
Impact of Urbanization distance services. It is comparatively easy and
Urbanization and population cheap to construct and maintain roads. Road
concentration go hand – in – hand and are transport system can establish easy contact
closely related to each other. Rural to urban between farms, fields, factories and markets
migration leads to population explosion in and can provide door to door transport
urban areas. Metropolitan cities like Mumbai, services. Roads are the most universal mode
Kolkata and Delhi have more population than of transport. Indian roads are cost efficient. It
that can accommodate. is used by all sections of people in the society.
The following are the major problems of In India the densest road network is found
urbanization in India. in the northern plains where it is relatively
It creates urban sprawl.
It makes overcrowding in urban centres. Shershah suri built the shahi
It leads to shortage of houses in urban areas. (Royal) road to strengthen and
It leads to the formation of slums. consolidate his empire from
It increases traffic congestion in cities. the Indus valley to the Sonar
valley in Bengal. This road
It creates water scarcity in cities.
from Kolkata to Peshawar was renamed
It creates drainage problem.
as Grand Trunk(GT) road during the
It poses the problem of solid waste
British period. At present, it extends from
management.
Amristar to Kolkata.
It increases the rate of crime.

easy to construct roads. In mountainous area, b) State Highways
it is quite difficult to construct roads. Road
The state highways are usually roads that link
density is the highest in Kerala and lowest in
important cities, towns and district headquarters
Jammu &Kashmir.
within the state and connect them with national
For the purpose of construction and highways or highways of neighbouring states.
maintenance, roads are classified into These roads are administered and financed by
National Highways (NH), State Highways state governments.
(SH), District Roads, Rural Roads (Village c) District Roads
roads), Border Roads and International
District Roads provide connectivity
Highways.
between the district and taluk headquarters
1. Classification of Roads in India with the state highways and national highways.
a) National Highways (NH) District Roads are constructed and maintained
by the Public Works Department of the states.
National Highways form the most
important system of road transportation in d) Rural Roads (Village Roads)
India. These highways are running through These roads are vital for providing links in
length and breadth of the country connecting the rural areas. It links the different villages with
capitals of states, major Ports, rail junctions, their neighbouring towns. They are maintained
industrial and tourist centres. Ministry of Road by Village Panchayats.
Transport and Highways of India, is responsible
e) Border Roads
for the development and maintenance of
National Highways in India. The longest These are the roads of strategic importance
National highway is NH-44 which runs from in border areas. They are constructed and
Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh to Kanniyakumari in maintained by Border Roads Organization. It
Tamil Nadu covering a distance of 2369 km. The was established in 1960 for the development of
shortest national highway is NH-47A, which the roads of strategic importance in the northern
runs from Ernakulum to Kochi port (Willington and northeastern border areas. Border Roads
Island) covering a distance of 6 km. Organization has constructed world’s highest road
joining Chandigarh and Leh in Ladakh. This road
National Highways Authority runs at an average altitude of 4,270 meters.
of India (NHAI) was
f) Golden Quadrilateral
established in 1995. It is an
autonomous body under the Golden Quadrilateral 5,846 km long road
Ministry of Surface Transport. of 4/6 lanes connects, India’s four metropolitan
cities: Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai-Delhi.
This project was launched in 1999.
Hots
What are the highlights and benefits of the
Golden Quadrilateral Highways?
g) N
orth–South and East-West
Corridors
North-South corridor aims at connecting
Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with
Kaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including
Kochi-Salem Spur) with 4,076km long road.

India - Roadways
N N
W E W E
S S
Not to scale

The East-West corridor has been planned to goods. Its role in transporting raw materials
connect Silchar in Assam with the port town to industries and finished goods to markets
of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640km of road is invaluable. Indian railways network is the
length. The two corridors intersect at Jhansi. largest in Asia and second largest in the world.
h) Expressways For operations and management, the Indian
These are multi-lane good quality highways Railways is organized into 17 zones.
for high speed traffic. Some of the important S.
expressways are; (i)Mumbai-Pune Road, (ii) Zone Headquarters
No.
Kolkata-Dumdum Airport road (iii) Durgapur- 1. Northern Railway New Delhi
Kolkata road and (iv) Yamuna expressway North-Western
2. Jaipur
between Delhi and Agra. Railway
3. North-Central Railway Allahabad
4. North-Eastern Railway Gorakhpur
North-East Frontier
5. Guwahati
Railway
6. Eastern Railway Kolkata
7. East coast Railway Bhubaneswar
8. East-Central Railway Hazipur
9. West-Central Railway Jabalpur
10. Central Railway Mumbai (VT)
Mumbai
11. Western Railway
(Churchgate)
Mumbai-Pune Road
12. Southern Railway Chennai
i) International Highways 13. South-Central Railway Secunderabad
These are the roads that link India 14. South Eastern Railway Kolkata
with neighbouring countries for promoting 15. South-Western Railway Hubball
South East Central
harmonious relationship with them. These 16. Bilaspur
Railway
highways have been constructed with an aid
from world bank under an agreement with
17. Konkan Railway Navi Mumbai
the Economic and Social Commission for On the basis of width of the track, the
Asia-Pacific (ESCAP). These roads connect Indian railways fall under four categories.
important highways of India with those of the 1. Broad gauge (1.676 meter width)
neighbouring countries such as Pakistan, Nepal, 2. Meter gauge (1 meter width)
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
3. Narrow gauge (0.762 meter width)
Railways 4. Light gauge (0.610 meter width)
Indian railway system is the main artery of
• The first sub-urban railway was
the country’s inland transport. Railways cater to
started in 1925 in Mumbai.
the needs of large scale movement of traffic, both
• Gatiman Express is the fastest
for freight and passenger, thereby contributing
operational train in India. This
to economic growth. Railways are considered
train connects New Delhi and
as the backbone of the surface transport system
Agra and touches 160 km/h.
of India. It promotes national integration by
bringing people together. It also promotes trade,
a) Metro Railways in India
tourism, education etc. Railways help in the
commercialization of the agriculture sector by There are 8 cities with metro rail
facilitating the bulky movement of perishable connectivity in India. They are Kolkata (West

Bengal), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), Delhi, Pipeline transport
Bengaluru (Karnataka), Gurgaon (Haryana), Pipelines provided a very convenient mode
Mumbai (Maharashtra), Jaipur (Rajasthan) of transport to connect oil and natural gas
and Kochi (Kerala). The metro in Kolkata is the fields, refineries and to the markets. In the past,
first one in India. It is also called as Mass Rapid these were used to transport water to cities and
Transit System (MRTS). As of September 2018, industries. Now solids can also be transported
India has 507 km of operational metro lines and through a pipeline when converted into slurry.
381 stations. The initial cost of laying pipeline is high but
subsequent running cost is minimum. It can
The state of Meghalaya has no be laid through difficult terrain as well as under
railway network. water. It ensures steady supply of goods and
reduces the transshipment losses and delays.
W E
S
Not to scale

Oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur, from 95% of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70
Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab and percent by value moves through ocean routes.
gas pipeline from the Hazira in Gujarat ot Coastal shipping plays an important role in
Jagadispur in Uttar Pradesh. transport of bulk goods in India. Shipping is not
Waterways only the most economical mode of transport,
A waterway is an important mode of it is also an environment friendly mode. The
transport for both passenger and cargo traffic sea and oceanic routes are mainly used for
in India. It is the oldest and also the cheapest international trade and are connected through
means of transport and most suitable for ports. There are 13 major and 200 minor or
carrying heavy and bulky materials from one intermediate ports in India. The major ports
country to another. It is a fuel-efficient and eco- are administered by the Central Government
friendly mode of transport. The water transport and minor ports are managed and administered
is of two types- by various state governments. The major ports
on the east coast are Kolkata (including Haldia
1. Inland Waterways
Dock), Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Chennai,
2. Ocean water ways(sea routes). Ennore and Tuticorin. The major ports on the
a) Inland Waterways west coast are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava Seva
(Jawaharlal Nehru Port), New Mangalore,
India has an extensive network of inland Marmagao and Kochi.
waterways in the form of rivers, canals, lakes
and backwaters. It depends upon the depth and India has four major shipyards.
width of the waterways and the continuity of the 1. Hindustan shipyard in Vishakhapatnam
water flow. For the development, maintenance
2. Garden Reach workshop in Kolkata,
and regulation of national waterways in the
country, the Inland water ways Authority was 3. Mazagaon Dock in Mumbai
setup in 1986. 4. Kochi Shipyard in Kochi
The major national waterways are:
India is the second largest ship owning
National Waterway 1 country in Asia and ranks 16th in the World.
It extends between Haldia and Allahabad,
Air Transport
measures 1620 km and includes the stretches of
the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system. Airways are the quickest, costliest, most
National Waterway 2 modern and comfortable means of transport,
Air transport facilitates connectivity on a
This waterway includes the stretch of the
national, regional and international scale. It has
Brahmaputra river between Dhubri and Sadiya
made accessibility easier by connecting difficult
a distance of 891 km.
terrains like high mountains and sandy deserts.
National Waterway 3
It carries passengers, freight and mail. Air
This waterway extends between Kollam transport plays a key role in times of emergency
and Kottapuram in the state of Kerala. It is the as well as in the event of natural and man-made
first national waterway in the country with 24 calamities like floods, epidemics and wars.
hour navigation facilities along its entire stretch
of 205 km. Air transport in India made a beginning on
18th February, 1918 when Henry Piquet carried
b) Oceanic Routes a mail from Allahabad to Naini. In 1953, eight
Oceanic routes play an important role in different airlines which were in operation in the
the transport sector of India’s economy. About country were nationalised.

Domestic Airways fly within the internet, e-mail etc. Personal Communication
boundaries of a country and International system enables the user to establish direct
Airways connect major cities of the world. The contact.
Indian Air lines and Air India are the two airline
The Indian postal network is the largest in
services run by the government of India. Indian
the world with 1,55,000 post offices. Of these
Air lines provides the domestic air services and
more than 1,39,000 post offices are located
Air India provides international air services.
in rural areas. The postal service was opened
Presently, there are 19 designated international
to the public in the country in 1837. The first
airports available in the country.
Indian postal stamp was issued in 1852 in
Hots Karachi. Collecting and delivering mail is the
primary function of the department of posts. It
Why is air travel preferred in the north
introduced the Quick Mail Service in 1975. The
eastern states?
Quick Mail Service functions on the basis of
Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd the system of PIN (Postal Index Number) code
which was introduced in 1972. The premium
Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd has been
products include the Money order, e-money
providing Helicopter support services to the
order, Speed Post, Express Parcel Post, Business
petroleum sector, including ONGC and oil
Post, Media Post, Satellite Post, Retail Post,
India Ltd. It is a public sector company based
Greeting Post, Data Post, Speed Net and Speed
in New Delhi. Its operations are based at the
Passport Services.
Juhu Aerodrome in Vile Parle (West) Mumbai.
Pavan-Hans is a Mini Ratna–I category public India has one of the largest
sector undertaking. It often provides services telecommunication networks in Asia. Apart
to various state governments particularly north from the urban areas more than two-thirds of the
east India and Inter Island, Ferry services villages in India have already been covered with
in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, services to Subscriber Trunk Dialing (STD) telephone
Lakshadweep Island etc., facility, while International communication
Airports Authority of India (AAI) can be made through ISD (International
Subscriber Dialing). There is an uniform rate
Airports Authority of India (AAI) was
of STD facilities all over India. Telephone is a
constituted in 1995. It provides security to
form of oral communication. It is considered
Indian Airports. AAI under the ministry
very essential for the growth of commerce. It is
of Civil Aviation is responsible for creating,
the most preferred form as it provides instant
upgrading, maintaining and managing civil
communication. Mobile phone, fax and internet
aviation infrastructure in India.
are the other personal communication used in
5.5 Communication the country.
Communication is a process that involves Mass Communication Systems
exchange of information, thoughts and ideas.
Technology does wonders in communication Mass Communication enables millions
fields. Communication is categorized in to of people to get the information at the same
personal and mass communications. time. It is a great way to provide education
as well as entertainment. It helps in creating
Personal Communication awareness among the people regarding various
The exchange of information between the national policies and programmes. The Mass
individuals is called personal communication. It Communication Systems can provide the
includes post and telegraph services, telephone, information to people in two methods. They are
mobile phone, short message services, fax, Print Media and Electronic Media.

E
Not to scale
N
S
W
E
N
S
W

Electronic Media: Radio broadcasting in India Satellite Network
was started in 1923 by the Radio club of Bombay. Satellite
Since then it gained immense popularity and

changed the social and cultural life of people.
It was named as All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 Corporate
Headquarters
Enterprise
and again it was renamed as Akashwani in Internet

Teleport
Emergency
Response
1957. It broadcasts a variety of programs related Business

Connuity
to information, education and entertainment.

PSTN Router Data/Internet
Fax
Voice
Special news bulletins are also broadcasted on Central

Office Server
special occasions like session of parliament and

PSTN= public switched telephone network
state legislatures. Satellite system in India can be grouped

Television broadcasting has emerged as into two
the most effective audio-visual medium for 1. The Indian National Satellite System
disseminating information and educating the (INSAT)
masses. Television network in India is known 2. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System
as Doordarshan (DD) which started Common (IRS).
National Program (CNP) services and it is The INSAT, established in 1983, is a
extended to the backward and remote rural multipurpose system for telecommunication,
areas. meteorological observation and for various
Internet (contraction of interconnected other programs. The INSAT series are used
network) is the global system of for relaying signals to television, telephone,
interconnected computer networks that radio, mobile phone. It is also useful in weather
use the Internet protocol suite to link detection, internet and military applications.
devices worldwide. Social media are The INSAT series, GSAT series,
interactive computer-mediated technologies KALPANA-1, HAMSAT, EDUSAT are the
that facilitate the creation and sharing major communication satellite used for
of information, ideas, career interests communication purpose. GSAT–7A is the
and other forms of expression via virtual recent launch (December 19, 2018) for
communities and networks. communication programs. INSAT-1B launched
Print Media: Newspapers are the most on 30th August 1983 is the first communication
common but powerful means of communication satellite in INSAT series.
come under print media. India has many 5.6 Trade
newspapers which carry information on local,
national and international events to the people. Trade is an important phenomenon that
decides the economic growth of a country. Trade is
Satellite Communication
an act (or) process of buying, selling or exchanging
The use of Satellite in getting a continuous of goods and services. The primitive method of
and synoptic view of larger area has made trade was known as the Barter system where goods
this communication system very vital for were exchanged for goods. Later on, money was
the country. Satellite images are used for introduced as a medium of exchange in buying and
weather forecasting, monitoring of natural selling of goods. The difference in value between
calamities, surveillance of border areas etc. The the imports and exports is called balance of trade.
communication through satellites emerged as a The situation in which the value of exports exceeds
new era in communication in our country after the value of imports is termed as favourable balance
the establishment of Indian Space Research of trade and the reverse position is termed as
Organization (ISRO) in 1969. unfavourable balance of trade.

Types of Trade
Hots
Trade in general, is of two types. They are
1. Internal trade Find out the major trade blocs which are
2. International trade useful for multilateral trade.
The trade carried on within the domestic
territory of a country is termed as Internal Exports
trade. It is also called as Domestic trade or The major exports of India are tea, marine
Local trade. Land transport (roadways and products, ores and minerals, leather products,
railways) plays a major role in this trade. Local gems and jewels, sports goods, chemicals and
currency is used in internal trade. It helps to related products, plastics and rubber articles,
promote a balanced regional growth in the articles of stones, plaster, cement, asbestos,
country. mica, glass ware, paper and related products,
Trade carried on between two or more base metals, optical, medical and surgical
countries is called International trade. It is instruments, electronic items, machinery, office
also called as external trade or foreign trade. equipments, textiles and allied products.
Export and Import are two components of Imports
International trade. Export means goods and
services sold for foreign currency. Import The major imports are petroleum products,
means goods and services bought from overseas pearls, precious stones and semi-precious
producers. Waterways and Airways play a vital stones, gold and telecom instruments.
role in this type of trade. Foreign currency is
involved in international trade. The trade between
Activity
any two countries is called Bilateral trade. The Find out the countries which have trade
trade between more than two countries is called realtionship with India
Mutilateral Trade.
SUMMARY
The total number of people residing in a country at a specified period of time is called the size
of population of that country.
The growth of population is determined by the birth rate, death rate and migration of people.
The process of society’s transformation from rural to urban is known as urbanization.
Communication is classified into the personal and mass communications.
Trade is an exchange of goods and services. Internal and International trades are its types.
Import and exports are the components of an International Trade.
EXERCISE
2. transport provides door to
door services.
a) Railways b) Roadways
answer
c) Airways d) Waterways.
1.
The scientific study of 3.
T he length of Golden Quadrilateral
different aspects of population is called superhighways in India is
a) Cartography b) Demography a) 5846 km b) 5942 km
c) Anthropology d) Epigraphy c) 5630 km d) 5800 km

4.
The National Remote sensing 2. Personal communication and mass
Centre(NRSC) is located at . communication.
a) Bengaluru b) Chennai 3. Print Media and Electronic Media.
c) Delhi d) Hyderabad 4. Roadways and Railways.
5. The transport useful in the inaccessible 5. Waterways and Airways.
areas is 6. Internal trade and International trade.
a) Roadways b) Railways
V Answer the following in a paragraph
c) Airways d) Waterways
1. What is urbanization? Explain its problem.
6. Which of the following is associated with 2. E xplain the importances of satellite
helicopter service? communication in India.
a) Air India b) Indian Airlines 3. C lassify and explain the roadways in
c) Vayudoot d) Pavan Hans India.
7. The major import item of India is
VI On the outline map of India mark the
a) Cement b) Jewells
following
c) Tea d) Petroleum
1. National Highway NH-44
II Match the following 2. Major seaports in India.
1 Border Road 3. Major International Airports in India.
Organisation - S atellite 4. Densely populated state of India.
communication 5. State of highest literacy in India
2 INSAT - Impact of 6. Railways zones of India.
Urbanization
3 Mazagaon Dock - 1990
REFERENCE BOOKS
4 Urban sprawl - Mumbai
5 Konkan Railways - 1960 1. D.R.Khullar (2014) India, A comprehensive
- Hyderabad Geography.
2. Surender Singh and Jitender Saroha (2014)
III Answer the following Questions briefly
Geography of India, New Delhi: Access
1. What is migration? State its types. publishing
2. Write any four advantages of railways. 3. Census of India (2011) Provisional
3. Write a note on Pipeline network transport Population Totals, “Urban Agglomerations
in India and Cities”.
4. State the major Inland waterways of India
5. What is communication? What are its INTERNET RESOURCES
types?
6. Define “International trade”. 1. www.Commerce,gov.in
7. State the merits of Roadways. 2. www.konkan Railway.com
3. www.Community.data.gov.in
IV Distinguish between
1.
Density of population and Growth of
population.

Unit - 6
Physical
Geography
of Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
� To know the history of formation of the state

� To study the major physiographic divisions of the state
� To understand the nature of climate, soils and natural vegetation
� To familiarise the students with the geographical conditions of their living places
� To know the major natural disasters and their occurrences in Tamil Nadu
LOCATION OF TAMIL NADU IN INDIA

Introduction
N
The study of one’s own region is the first W E
step to become a global citizen. The purpose S
of studying our local territory is to understand
life in our environment. In the last five lessons,
you have learnt about various geographical
characterstics of our country. In this lesson
and those that follow, we shall learn about the
geography of Tamil Nadu. You will get to know
about the etymology, history of formation,
location, size, physical divisions, rivers, climate,
soil and natural vegetation of Tamil Nadu in
this chapter.
Its exquisite physiography and climate
makes our state unique in India. It has long
and sunny beaches, waterfalls, hills, forests and Not to Scale
varied flora and fauna.
As per, the States � Name the first state of India created on

Reorganisation Act, 1956, state linguistic basis.
boundaries were reorganised � Why was the capital of Tamil Nadu
on some linguistic basis. renamed?
200

6.1 Location and Size Divisions Numbers
Tamil Nadu is one of the 28 states of Districts 37 (32+5)
India, located in the southern most part Revenue Divisions 76
of the country. It extends from 8°4'N to
13°35'N latitudes and from 76°18'E to 80°20'E Taluks 226
longitudes. Its extremities are Firkas 1,127
� in eastern - Point Calimere Revenue Villages 16,564
� in western - hills of Anaimalai Municipal Corporations 15
� in northern - Pulicat lake Municipalities 125
� in southern - Cape Comorin Panchayat Unions (Blocks) 385
It covers an area of 1,30,058 sq.km and is Town Panchayats 561
the 11th largest state in India. It covers 4% of
the area of our country. Village Panchayats 12,618
Boundaries and Neighbours Lok Sabha Constituencies 39
Tamil Nadu is bounded by the Bay of Assembly Constituencies 234

Bengal in the east, Kerala in the west, Andhra
Pradesh in the north, Karnataka in the Physiographic Divisions
northwest and Indian Ocean in the south. Gulf
Let’s see the major physical features of
of Mannar and Palk Strait separate Tamil Nadu
from the Island of Sri Lanka, which lies to the Tamil Nadu and their characteristics.
southeast of India. The state has 940 km long Tamil Nadu is located on the Peninsular
coastline, the second-longest in India after
Plateau, known as Deccan Plateau. It is also a
Gujarat.
part of the ancient Gondwana land that broke
Administrative Divisions away 135 million years ago during Cretaceous
Already we have learnt that the state Period. Tamil Nadu is divided into the
of Tamil Nadu had only 13 districts at physical divisions of Western Ghats, Eastern
the time of its formation. After that, the Ghats, Plateaus, Coastal and Inland plains.
state was reorganised several times for the
administrative convenience. At present there 6.2 Western Ghats
are 37 districts in Tamil Nadu, including the
newly created districts such as Kallakurichi, Western Ghats extend from the Niligris
Tenkasi, Chengalpet, Ranipet and Tirupathur. in the north to Marunthuvazh Malai at
The administrative divisions of the state are Swamithope in Kanyakumari district in the
given in the following table. south. Height of the Western Ghats ranges
from 2,000 to 3,000 metres. It covers an area
Activity of about 2,500 sq.km. Though the Western
• Find out the coastal districts of Tamil Ghats is a continuous range, it has some
Nadu with the help of a map. passes. The passes are Palghat, Shencottah,
• Mark the districts of Tamil Nadu which Aralvaimozhi, and Achankoil. The Niligris,
share their boundary with the states of Anaimalai, Palani hills, Cardamom hills,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala
Varusanadu, Andipatti and Agasthiyar hills
separately.
are the major hills of Western Ghats .
201 Physical Geography of Tamil Nadu

N
W E
S
Not to Scale
All districts of Tamil Nadu

except the Chennai, The
Between which latitude and longitude,
Nilgiris and Kanyakumari
is your school located?
were bifurcated at different
points of time.
Physical Geography of Tamil Nadu 202

Nilgiri Hills Peaks in Western Ghats Height(m)
The Nilgiri hills is located in the doddabetta 2,637
Northwestern part of Tamil Nadu. It consists of Mukkuruthi 2,554
24 peaks with more than 2,000 metres height. Vembadisolai 2,505
Doddabetta is the highest peak (2,637 metres) Perumalmalai 2,234
of this hills followed by Mukkuruthi (2,554
Kottaimtalai 2,019
metres). Ooty and Coonoor are the major hill
stations located on this hills. It has more than Pagasura 1,918
2,700 species of flowering plants and the state Cardamom Hills
animal Nilgiri Tahr is found in this hill.
These hills are also known as Yela Mala
hills located in the southwestern part of
Tamil Nadu. It acquires its name from the
cardamom spice, which is commonly grown
here. Pepper and coffee are the other crops
cultivated over the hills. They meet the
Anaimalai hills in the northwest, the Palani hills
in the northeast and Varusanadu and Andipatti
hills in the southeast.
Doddabetta
Varusanadu and Andipatti Hills
Anaimalai Another eastward extension of Western
Anaimalai is located in the border of Ghats is Varusanadu and Andipatti hills.
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is located to the Megamalai (the highway mountain),
south of Palghat Gap. Anaimalai Tiger Reserve, Kalugumalai, Kurangani hill station, and Suruli
Aliyar Reserved Forest, Valparai hill station, and Kumbakarai waterfalls are found on these
Kadamparai hydroelectric Power Plant are hills. Srivilliputhur Grizzled Squirrel Wild life
located on this hills. Aliyar and Tirumurthy Sanctuary is located in the southern slope of
dams are located at the foothills of this range. these hills in Virudhunagar district. Vaigai river
and its tributaries originate in this region.
Palani Hills
Pothigai Hills
Palani hills are the eastward extension of
the Western Ghats. These hills are located in Its major part lies in Tirunelveli district with
Dindigul district. Vandaravu (2,533 metres) is its southern slope in the Kanyakumari district.
the highest peak in the Palani hills. Vembadi Pothigai hills are called with different names
Shola (2,505 metres) is its second highest peak. such as the Shiva Jothi Parvath, Agasthiyar hills
The hill station of Kodaikanal (2,150 metres) lies and Southern Kailash. These hills feature richest
in the south central portion of the range. biodiversity in the Western Ghats. This area is
known for its rich evergreen forest, waterfalls
and ancient temples. Kalakkad Mundanthurai
Tiger Reserve is located in this region.
Mahendragiri Hills
This continous range is situated along
the border of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli
districts and is a part of the southern range of
the Western Ghats. Its average height is 1,645
Palani Hills metres.

6.3 The Eastern Ghats Major hills in Tamil Nadu
Districts Hills
Unlike Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats is a
Maruthamalai, Velliangiri
discontinuous and irregular one. It is dissected Coimbatore
and Anaimalai
at many places by the rivers, which drain
Theertha malai, Chitteri and
into the Bay of Bengal. Its height ranges from Dharmapuri
Vathalmalai
1,100 to 1,600 metres. These hills separate the
plains from plateaus. Javadhu, Servarayan, the Dindigul Pazhamalai and Kodaikanal
Kalrayan, Kollimalai and Pachaimalai are the
major hills of the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu Erode Chenni hills and Sivan hills
and are located in northern districts of the state. Javadhu, Yelagiri and
Vellore
Javadhu Hills Rathinamalai hills
Javadhu hills are an extension of the Namakkal Kolli hills
Eastern Ghats spread across parts of Vellore
Servarayan, Kanjamalai and
and Tiruvannamalai districts and separates Salem
Chalk hills
these two districts. Many peaks with the height
of 1,100–1,150 metres are located in this range. Kallakurichi Kalvarayan
Melpattu is its highest peak. Many parts of this
range are covered with bluish grey granites. It Villupuram Gingee hills
is noted for its fruit bearing trees, medicinal
herbs and sandalwoods. Due to illegal logging, Perambalur Pachaimalai
sandalwood trees are disappeared now.
Kanyakumari Marunthuvazhmalai
Kalvarayan Hills
Mahendragiri and
The name ‘Kalvarayan’ comes from the Tirunelveli
Agasthiyarmalai
word ‘Karalar’, the ancient name of the present
The Nilgiris Nilgiri hills
tribes. It is another major range of hills in the
Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. This range, along
from a local deity, Servarayan. The highest peak
with the Pachaimalai, Aralvaimalai, Javadhu
in the southern part of the Eastern Ghats is
and Servarayan hills, separates the river basins
located in this range. The peak is Solaikaradu
of Cauvery and Palar. The height of this hill
and its height is 1,620 metres. The hill station
ranges from 600 to 1,220 metres.
Yercaud, which is known as poor man’s Ooty, is
Servarayan Hills located on this range. Servarayan temple is its
It is a mountain range located near the highest point (1623 metres).
Salem city with the height ranging from 1,200 Kolli Hills
to 1,620 metres. The name of the range comes
It is a small mountain range located in
Peaks in Eastern Ghats Height(m) Namakkal district. It covers an area of about
Shervarayan temple 1,623 2,800 sq.km. It rises up to 1300 metres. This is a
Mazhamalai 1,500 mountain range that runs almost parallel to the
Urgamalai 1,486 east coast of South India. Arpaleeswarar temple
Kuttirayan 1,395 located on this range is an important pilgrim
Muganur 1,279
centre. It has the largest cover of evergreen or
Valsamalai 1,034
shola forest when compared to other parts of
hy are mountain heights measured from
W the Eastern Ghats. Several coffee plantations,
mean sea level and not from ground level? fruits, flowers and silver-oak estates are found
in this region.

N
W E
S
Not to Scale

Pachaimalai is found in Salem, Erode, Karur, Tiruchirapalli,
Pudukottai, Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and
It is the lowest hill range, spreads over
Nagapattinam districts.
the districts of Perambalur, Tiruchirapalli and
Salem. In Tamil language, pachai means green. Coastal plains of Tamil Nadu are also
The vegetation in this range is greener than the called Coromandel or Cholamandalam (land
vegetative cover of the other hills in this region. of Cholas) plain, which extends from Chennai
Hence it is named as ‘Pachai malai’. Jackfruit is to Kanyakumari. It is formed by the rivers that
a popular seasonal agricultural product of this flow towards east drain in the Bay of Bengal. It
hills. is more than 80 kilometres wide at some places.
Though it is an emerged coast, some parts
6.4 Plateaus
are submerged into the sea. The sand dunes
Plateaus of Tamil Nadu are located between formed along the coast of Ramanathapuram
the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. It is and Thoothukudi districts are called Teri. Coral
roughly triangular in shape and covers an area rocks are found at the head of Gulf of Mannar in
of about 60,000 sq.km. the east coastal plain.
Bharamahal plateau is a part of the Mysore Beaches
plateau situated in the northwestern part of
Tamil Nadu. Its height ranges from 350 to 710 The Coromandel Coast along the Bay of
Bengal consists of many beautiful and exotic
metres. Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts
beaches. The golden sands of Tamil Nadu
are located in this region.
beaches are scattered with palm and casuarinas
Coimbatore plateau lies between the Nilgiris groves. Marina and Elliot beaches of Chennai,
and Dharmapuri districts. Its height varies from Kovalam beach in Kanchipuram and Silver
150 to 450 metres. This region includes Salem, beach in Cuddalore are some of the famous
Coimbatore and Erode districts. Moyar river beaches in Tamil Nadu.
separates this plateau from the Mysore plateau.
6.6 Drainage
Rivers like Bhavani, Noyyal and
Amaravathi, which originate from Western Rivers of Tamil Nadu are its lifeline. Though
Ghats, form valleys in this region. Many it has many rivers, the rivers of Cauvery, Palar,
intermontane plateaus are found in the region Ponnaiyar, Vaigai and Thamirabarani are the
of the Nilgiris. Sigur plateau is one such plateau. notable ones. Most of the rivers of Tamil Nadu
Madurai plateau found in Madurai district originate from Western Ghats and flow towards
extends up to the foothills of the Western Ghats. east and drain into the Bay of Bengal. All the
Vaigai and Thamirabarani basins are located in rivers of the state are non-perennial except
this zone. Thamirabarani. It is perennial as it is fed by both
the southwest and northeast monsoons.
6.5 Plains
Cauvery
The plains of Tamil Nadu may be divided The river Cauvery originates at
into two, namely Talacauvery in the Brahmagiri hills of
1. Inland plains Kodagu(coorg) district of Karnataka in the
Western Ghats. Total length of Cauvery river
2. Coastal plains
is 805 km. About 416 km of its course falls in
Inland plains are drained by the rivers Tamil Nadu. It serves as the boundary between
Palar, Ponnaiyar, Cauvery and Thamirabarani. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for a distance
Cauvery plains is one of the most important of 64 km. It forms Hogenakkal waterfalls in
fertile plains of the state. The plains of Cauvery Dharmapuri district. Mettur Dam, also called

as the Stanley Reservoir, is located across Then Pennaiyar/Then Ponnaiyar
this river in Salem district. A tributary called
It originates from the eastern slope of
Bhavani joins Cauvery on the right bank about
Nandi Durga hills in eastern Karnataka. It
45 km from the Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter,
drains an area of 16,019 sq.km, of which nearly
it takes easterly course to enter into the plains
77% lies in Tamil Nadu. It flows for a distance
of Tamil Nadu. Two more tributaries, Noyyal
of 247 km in the southeasterly direction in the
and Amaravathi, confluence the river on the
districts of Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri, Vellore,
right bank at Thirumukkudal 10 km from
Tiruvannamalai, Cuddalore and Villupuram. It
Karur. The river is wider in this region, where
branches into two, viz. Gadilam and the Ponnaiyar
it is called as ‘Agandra Cauvery’.
near Tirukoilur Anaicut. Gadilam joins the Bay
In Tiruchirappalli district, the river of Bengal near Cuddalore and Ponnaiyar near
branches into two parts. The northern the Union Territory of Puducherry. Chinnar,
branch is called Coleroon or Kollidam and Markandanadhi, Vaniar and Pambar are its
the southern branch remains Cauvery. From tributaries. Heavy rain at the river’s source
here, the Cauvery delta begins. After flowing cause sudden but short-lived floods. The river is
for about 16 km, the two branches join again extensively dammed for irrigation, especially in
to form the ‘Srirangam Island’. The Grand Tamil Nadu. There are reservoirs at Krishnagiri
Anaicut, also called as Kallanai was built across and Sathanur across this river. The Ponnaiyar
the river Cauvery. After Kallanai, the river is considered sacred by Hindus and festivals are
breaks into a large number of distributaries held during the Tamil month of Thai (January–
and forms a network all over the delta. The February).
network of distributaries within the delta of
Cauvery in the coast is called as the ‘Garden Vaigai
of Southern India’. It merges into Bay of Vaigai river rises from the eastern slopes of
Bengal to the south of Cuddalore. the Varusanadu hills of Western Ghats of Tamil
Nadu. It drains an area of 7,741 sq.km, which
Pamban, Hare, Krusadai, lies entirely in the state of Tamil Nadu. It flows
Nallathanni Theevu, Pullivasal, through the districts of Madurai, Sivaganga
Srirangam, Upputanni, and Ramanathapuram. Its length is 258 km. It
Island Grounds, Kattupalli discharges its water into the Ramnad Big Tank
Island, Quibble Island and and some other small tanks. The surplus water
Vivekananda Rock Memorial are some from the tanks is finally discharged into Palk
major islands of Tamil Nadu Strait near Ramanathapuram.
Palar Thamirabarani
The Palar river rises beyond Talagavara The name is interpreted as Thamiram
village in the Kolar district of Karnataka. (copper) and Varuni (streams of river).
The Palar drains an area of 17,871 sq.km, The water of this river gives a copper like
out of which nearly 57% lies in Tamil Nadu appearance due to the presence of dissolved
suspended red soil. It originates from a peak
and the rest in the states of Karnataka and
in Pothigai hills on the Western Ghats above
Andhra Pradesh. Ponnai, Goundinya Nadhi,
Papanasam in the Ambasamudram taluk.
Malattar, Cheyyar and Kiliyar are its major The origin of the river is associated with Sage
tributaries. Its total length is 348 km, out of Agasthiyar. It courses through the districts
which 222 km of its course falls in Tamil Nadu. of Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi and finally
It flows through the districts of Vellore and flow into the Bay of Bangal near Punnaikayal
Kancheepuram before entering into Bay of in Thoothukudi district. Karaiyar, Servalar,
Bengal near Kuvattur. Manimuthar, Gadananathi, Pachaiyar, Chittar

and Ramanathi are its main tributaries. It is 6.7 Climate
the only perennial river in South India.
You have already learnt that the Tropic of
N
TAMIL NADU
MAJOR RIVERS ANDHRA W E Cancer divides India roughly into two equal
PRADESH S
parts and the state Tamil Nadu lies to the south
Nan i
d
of Tropic of Cancer, which is near the Equator.
Palar As it receives vertical sunrays, the temperature
Ch e
yy
ar of the state is relatively high throughout the year.
Ch
nn
a
Though the state falls within the hot climatic
i
KARNATAKA
r
Kaliveli
Hogenakkal Saa Tank
zone, the east coast of Tamil Nadu enjoys
nur
Falls Meur
Pala Dam
r
(Stanley)
ry
Gam
ukha
Pon
naiya
r
Puducherry tropical maritime climate. The Bay of Bengal and
ve
Indian Ocean influence the climate of the coastal
Moyar
Cau
Bhavani Wellingto Vell r BAY OF
Makur n a
regions.
Bhavanisagar
Lake BENGAL
Aiyar
Noyil
y Delta Region
Viranam
am Lake
Cauvery llid
ra
va
Ko
While the east coast experiences tropical
Am
maritime climate, the western region of the state
er
Azhiyar
Cauv
Parambik
ulam lla enjoys the mountainous climate. Low altitude
Va
r
Vaigai
Var Palk Strait and distance from the sea are the reasons for high
KER
shala
temperature and dry conditions in the central
i
ALA
Va
i
Ar
iga
part of Tamil Nadu. The migration of vertical

jun iga
i
Va
a
Palk Bay
sun’s rays leads to the formation of different

Va
pa
ip
seasons in Tamil Nadu as follows.

r
Chi
ar
Gulf of
Tha Mannar
mira
bar
Seasons of Tamil Nadu
ani
Kothaiyar
Tank
Not to Scale Season Period

INDIAN OCEAN
Winter Season January-February
Major waterfalls in Tamil Nadu Summer Season March- May
District Waterfalls Southwest Monsoon June-September
Dharmapuri Hogenakkal Northeast Monsoon October –December
Thirunelveli Kalyanatheertham, Winter Season

Courtallam
During January and February, the vertical
Theni Kumbakkarai and Suruli rays of the sun fall between the Tropic of
Capricorn and the Equator. Hence, Tamil Nadu
Namakkal Agayagangai
and India on the whole receive slanting rays
The Nilgiri Catherine and Pykara from the sun. So, the weather is slightly cooler
during these months. Winter temperature in
Salem Kiliyur Tamil Nadu varies from 15°C to 25°C. However,
in the hill stations, the winter temperature
Virudhunagar Ayyanar
drops below 5°C occasionally. Some valleys
Coimbatore Vaideki, Sengupathi, in the Nilgiris record even 0°C. This drop in
Siruvani and Kovaikutralam temperature leads to the formation of thick mist
and frost. This season is practically dry.
Tiruppur Tirumurthy
Summer Season
Madurai Kutladampatti
The apparent migration of the sun towards
Kanyakumari Tirparappu, Kaalikesam, north during March, April and May results in
Ulakkai and Vattaparai the reception of vertical sun’s rays by South

India. Thus there is a steady rise in temperature of returning of southwest monsoon wind, it is
from the equator. Hence, Tamil Nadu located also called as the retreating monsoon. This is the
to the south of Tropic of Cancer, experiences main rainy season for Tamil Nadu, accounting
high temperature. Generally the temperature for its 48% of annual rainfall. Coastal districts of
varies from 30°C to more than 40°C. During the state get nearly 60% of their annual rainfall
this season particularly in the month of May, and the interior districts get about 40–50% of the
southern part of the state receives some annual rainfall during this season.
rainfall from pre-monsoon showers (Mango/
Blossom showers) and some parts experience Tropical cyclones are common during this
convectional rainfall. season. Cyclone originating from the Bay of Bengal
bring heavy rainfall to the east coastal regions of
1. What is Agni Nakshatram? Tamil Nadu. More than 50% of the state’s rainfall is
received from tropical cyclones during this period
2. Group the districts of Tamil Nadu into and east coastal region receives 100 to 200 cm of
low, moderate and heavy rainfall regions. rainfall. The rainfall received by the central and
northwestern parts is 50–100 cm. The cyclones
Southwest Monsoon sometimes disturb the cultivation of crops and
The intense heating of the landmass of the cause severe damage to life and property.
north by the sun during March to May creates Chinnakallar near Valparai
a well-developed low pressure in North India, is the 3rd wettest place in
which draws wind from the Indian Ocean. India and the wettest place in
This results in the formation of southwest Tamil Nadu.
monsoon. During this season, Tamil Nadu is
located in the rain shadow region for the wind, 6.8 Soils of Tamil Nadu
which blows from the Arabian Sea. As a result,
Tamil Nadu receives only a meagre rainfall The soils in Tamil Nadu are broadly
from this monsoon. Rainfall during this season classified into five types according to their
decreases from west to east. Coimbatore plateau characteristics. They are 1. alluvial soil, 2. black
receives an average of 50 cm rainfall. However, soil, 3. red soil, 4. laterite soil, 5. saline soil.
the southern districts like Kanyakumari, Alluvial Soil
Tirunelveli and The Nilgiris record 50–100 cm
rainfall during this period. The rainfall is scanty Alluvial soils are formed by the deposition
in the eastern part of the state. of silt by the rivers. It is found in the river
valley regions and the coastal plains of Tamil
Northeast Monsoon Nadu. Generally this type of soil is found in the
The northeast monsoon season commences districts of Thanjavur, Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam,
from the month of October and lasts till mid- Villupuram, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli and
December. The high pressure created over Kanyakumari. It is also found to a small extent
Central Asia and northern part of India becomes along the river valleys in few interior districts.
the source for the northeast monsoon winds.
The apparent migration of the sun from Tropic Black Soil
of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn causes a Black soils are formed by the weathering
change in receiving temperature and air pressure of igneous rocks. It is also known as regur
during this season. It makes the wind to blow soil. As cotton grows well in this soil, it is also
towards Bay of Bengal from North India and get called as black cotton soil. Black soils are found
deflected by Coriolis force and takes the northeast extensively in the districts of Coimbatore,
direction. Hence it is known as northeast Madurai, Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli and
monsoon. As the northeast monsoon is a part Thoothukudi.

Red Soil India’s forest cover. The forest types in the state
varies from wet evergreen to scrub forests.
Red soils cover over two-thirds of the
total area of Tamil Nadu. They are found Forest Types
particularly in the central districts of the state. The forest in the state is broadly divided
It is dominantly found in Sivagangai and into five types as follows
Ramanathapuram districts.
Tropical Evergreen Forest
Laterite Soil
This forest type is found in the regions that
This soil is formed by the process of receive heavy rainfall. It is a dense, multi-layered
intense leaching. Laterite soils are found in forest. It is found in the upper slopes of Western
some parts of Kancheepuram, Tiruvallur and Ghats of Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari, the Nilgiris
Thanjavur districts and some patches over the and Coimbatore districts. The major tree species
mountainous region in the Nilgiris. of this forest are cinnamon, Malabar ironwood,
Saline Soil panasa, java plum/jamun, jack, kindal, ayani
and crape myrtle. The semi-evergreen type of
Saline soils in Tamil Nadu are confined
forest in the state is found over the regions of
to the Coromandel coast. Vedaranyam has a
sub-tropical climate over the Eastern Ghats. The
pocket of saline soil. However, the tsunami
prominent regions are Servarayan, Kollimalai
waves on December 26, 2004 brought a lot of
and Pachaimalai. Species of Indian mahogany,
sand and deposited it all along the east coast
monkey teak, woolly cassia, jack and mango
of Tamil Nadu. The tsunami made the coastal
trees are common in this region.
areas unsuitable for cultivation to a considerable
extent. Montane Temperate Forest
6.9 Soil Erosion It is found in sheltered valleys of Anaimalai,

Nilgiris and Palani hills over a 1000 metres
Soil is a non-renewable resource. It is very altitude. They are known as ‘Sholas’. The trees
difficult to replace the soil once it gets degraded. in this forest are evergreen and usually short.
Deforestation, overgrazing, urbanisation and Nilgiri champa, wights litsea and rose apple are
heavy rain are responsible for soil erosion in the common trees found in this forest.
Tamil Nadu. Soil erosion reduces the fertility Tropical Deciduous Forest
of soils, which in turn reduces agricultural
productivity. So, it is necessary to take intensive This type of forest lies in the margin of
care to conserve the soil resources. semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. The
trees in this forest shed their leaves during the
6.10 Natural Vegetation dry season. The trees reach up to a height of 30
metres. Some trees of this forest are silk cotton,
Natural vegetation refers to the forest
kapok, kadamba, dog teak, woman's tounge,
cover. Landforms, nature of soil, temperature
axlewood and siris. Bamboos are also common
and rainfall are the major factors that control in this type of forests. Some trees of this forest
the distribution of natural vegetation. As per are economically important.
National Forest Policy, 1988, a minimum of
one-third of the total geographical area must Mangroves Forest
be under forest cover. The total forest cover of This type of forest is found in the coastal
Tamil Nadu is far lower than this. According to areas, river deltas, tails of islands and over
the Tamil Nadu State of Forest Report - 2017 sea faces where accretion is in progress. The
assessment, the area under forest in the state vegetation is typically evergreen, moderate in
is 26,281 sq.km, which constitutes 20.21% of height and has leathery leaves. The vegetation
the total area. Tamil Nadu constitutes 2.99% of of this forest is adapted to survive in tidal

Pichavaram mangrove forest is located near 6.11 Wild life
Chidambaram, Cuddalore district. This is the
second largest mangrove forest in the world Animals and birds live in forests constitute
covering about 1,100 hectares (11 sq.km) of the wild life. Tamil Nadu has a variety of wild
area. It is separated from the Bay of Bengal by animals, birds and reptiles. hills are an ideal
a sandbar. It consists of species like Avicennia refuge for elephants, bisons, tigers, deer and
and Rhizophora. monkeys.
Several Wildlife sanctuaries and National

Parks have been set up to protect the animal life
in the state.
S. No Biosphere Reserves in Tamil Nadu

1 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
mud and salt water. Asiatic mangrove, white
mangrove, wild jasmine/Indian pivot etc. 2 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
are some of the notable trees of this forest. 3 Agasthiyarmalai Biosphere Reserve
Pichavaram, Vedaranyam, Muthupet, Chatram
and Thoothukudi are the places in Tamil Tamil Nadu is a state with varied climate,
Nadu where the mangrove forest is found to a landforms and resources. This makes our state
considerable extent. a distinct one among the Indian states. In Tamil
Role of Mangroves in Coastal Zone
Nadu, If the available resources are utilised
Management.
rationally, it may continue to be at top in the
country. So, it is the duty of the every individual
Mangroves helps in the prevention of coastal
to strive towards achieving this goal.
erosion from waves and storms. It also
protects coral reefs and sea grass meadows 6.12 Natural Disasters
from being smothered in sediments.
in Tamil Nadu
Tropical Thorn Forest A sudden natural catastrophe that causes
Thorn forest in Tamil Nadu is found where great damage or loss to lives and properties is
there is a little rainfall. These forests are found from called as disaster.
plains up to 400 meters altitude. The common
trees of this forest are rusty acacia, wheel, neem According to United Nations office
and palm. Shrubs are common vegetation in for Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster Risk
this type of forest. This type of forest is found in Reduction( UNDRR) is the concept and practice
the districts of Dharmapuri, Ramanathapuram, of reducing disaster risks through systematic
Virudhunagar and some parts of interior districts. efforts to analyse and reduce the causal factors
of disasters. This includes reducing exposure to
Districts with prominent forest hazards, lessening the vulnerability of people
cover in Tamil Nadu
and property, wise management of land and
District Area (sq km) environment, and improving preparedness and
Dharmapuri 3,280
early warning for adverse events.
Coimbatore 2,627
Erode 2,427 Here we will discuss about the natural
Vellore 1,857 disasters in Tamil Nadu and the measures to
The Nilgiris 1,583 be adopted before, during and after different
Dindigul 1,662 disasters.

Tamil Nadu Wildlife Sanctuaries & Bird Sanctuaries
N Andhra Pradesh Pulicat Lake
W E
Pulicat L
Lake
S Birds Sanctuary
Tiruvallur
Vedanthangal
Birds Sanctuary
Vellore
Kancheepuram
Krishnagiri
Karnataka
Thiruvanamalai Karikili
Birds Sanctuary
Cauvery North
C
Wildlife Sanctuary
W
Dharmapuri Villupuram
Oussudu Lake Birds Sanctuary
O
Salem Bay of Bengal

Sathyamangalam
Wildlifee Sanctuary
S c
San
Erode Cuddalore
Nilgiris Vellode
Birds Sanctuary
M
Mudumalai Namakkal Perambalur
W
Wildlife Sanctuary
Ariyalur Nagapattinam
Coimbatore
imb Thiruchirapalli Karaivetti Birds Sanctuary
Indira Gandhi
Wildlife Sanctuary Karur Vaduvoor Birds Sanctuary
V
Thirupur Thanjavur Tiruvarur
Tii
T
Point Calimere
Udayamarthandapuram
y Birds Sanctuary
Wildlife Sanctuary
- Block A and Block B Nagapattinam
Dindigul Pudukottai
Kodaikanal Point Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary Wildlife Sanctuary
Vettangudi Birds Sanctuary
V Palk Strait
Theni Madurai
Sivaganga
Megamalai
M Ramanathapuram
Wildlife Sanctuary
W Palk Bay
Virudhunagar Sakkarakottai Tank Birds Sanctuary
Grizzled Giant Squirrel Theerathangal
Wildlife Sanctuary Bird Sanctuary Kanjirankulam Birds Sanctuary
K
Chitrangudi Birds Sanctuary Sri Lanka
Gangaikondan Melaselvanur-Keelselvanur
Spotted Deer Sanctuary Birds Sanctuary
Thoothukudi
Mundanthurai
Wildlife Sanctuary Vallanadu
V
Gulf of
Tirunelveli Black Buck Sanctuary
B Mannar Wildlife Sanctuary
W
Kalakad Koonthankulam-Kadankulam
Wildlife Sanctuary Birds Sanctuary
Arabian Sea Nellai
N
Wildlife Sanctuary
W Birds Sanctuary
Kanyakumari
Wildlife Sanctuary
Kanyakumari
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean

Landslide numbers and important information; fold and
roll up things on to higher ground.
A collapse of a mass of earth or rock from
a mountain or cliff is called landslide. Water During: Be quick, keep safe and ensure that
is the most common trigger of a landslide. children and elderly are safe by leaving the
Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu is identified as one of house to a higher ground; turn off all electrical
the most vulnerable districts in the country and appliances and gas; leave the area before its
landslides pose a major threat in this area. The get too late; do not drive through the water;
other regions which are prone to land slides are stay away from power lines or broken power
Coimbatore and palani hill of Dindigul district transmission cables and try to keep away from
where Kodaikanal hill station is located. flood water.
Risk Reduction Measures After: Make sure to get back inside your
house, keep all power and electrical appliances
Before: Create awareness; stay alert and awake;
off before it is okay to put them on and wear
monitor the news updates; make evacuation appropriate dress before cleaning house which
plan; listen for any unusual sounds that might is necessary to clean the contamination.
indicate moving debris such as trees cracking,
boulders knocking and consider leaving the
place of landslide if it is safe to do so.
Flood
Cyclone
The coastal regions of Tamil Nadu are often
hit by the tropical cyclones formed in Bay of
Landslide Bengal during northeast monsoon. Occurrence
After- Stay away from the slide area; listen to of flood, losses to lives and properties are the
local radio or television stations for the latest recurring one in the state. Based on the cyclone
emergency information; watch for flooding, hit areas, the state of Tamil Nadu can be divided
which may occur after a landslide or debris flow; into five zones namely very high, high, medium,
check for injured and trapped persons near the low and very low cyclone prone zones.
slide, without entering the direct slide area.
Flood
Flood is a common one in the coastal
districts of Tamil Nadu during northeast
monsoon. The recent flood occurred in the state
was in 2015.
Risk Reduction Measures
Before: Know about relief centres and
evacuation routes; keep emergency phone Cyclone

Some methods of water conservation are:
Before: Ignore rumours, stay calm, don’t be
Protection of water from pollution;
panic; Keep your mobile phones charged to
redistribution of water; rational use of
ensure connectivity; use sms; listen to radio;
groundwater; population control; renovation
watch TV; read newspapers for weather
of traditional water sources; use of modern
updates. Keep your documents and valuables in
irrigation methods; increasing forest cover;
water proof containers; prepare an emergency
changing crop pattern; flood management
kits with essential items for survival; secure
and use of geothermal water are some of the
your house; carry out repairs; don’t leave sharp
major water conservation methods.
objects loose; untie cattle/animals for their
safety. Fishermen should keep a radio set with
extra batteries handy; keep boats and rafts tied Fire Accident
up safely and don’t venture out in the sea. Tamil Nadu is a tropical
During: Take care of the old and young, keep state. The high temperature
all family members inside the house; switch of during summer leads to
all electrical appliances, stay in an empty room, occasional forest fire in
movable items should be kept securely tied; try deciduous and thorn forests.
to help your neighbours but, don't go out during
cyclone.
After: Those who shifted to the cyclone centre
must remain there till instructions are received;
strictly avoid loose electrical wires after the
cyclone; beware of snakes and other animals
immediately after the cyclone; clear debris
and carcasses from/near the premise after
the cyclone and report losses truthfully and Forest Fire
accurately to the authorities.
Drought Before: Create defensible space to separate your
home from flammable vegetation and materials
Tamil Nadu is water deficit state. It is
(30 feet); follow all local fire and building codes;
almost a regular one and not a seasonal one. It
keep all trees and shrubs trimmed. Use approved
depends mostly on northeast monsoon for its
fire resistant materials; make evacuation plans
rain. Its failure ends in disastrous.
with family members which include several
To manage the water deficit, rain water options with an outside meeting place.
harvesting and water conservation methods
have to be implemented strictly. During: Listen to radio; watch tv; read
newspapers for updates; if adequate water are
available fill buckets with water. turn a light
on a room in case of smoke; turn off gas and
electrical appliances and be ready to evacuate
all family members.
After: Check with fire officials before attempting
to return to your home; use caution when re-
entering a burned area - flare ups can occur;
check grounds for hot spots and check the roof
Drought and exterior areas for sparks and embers.

Tsunami upper storey of the building or climb onto a roof
or tree or grab a floating objects; never go to the
Though Tsunami is not a common one in
shore to watch tsunami and listen to local radio
India, its incident in 2004 alerted India and the
stations as emergency management.
state of Tamil Nadu on this aspect.
After: Continue to listen to the radio; don’t
return to the evacuation zone until authorities
have given all clear; check yourself for injuries
and get first aid and help others.
6.12.7 Earthquakes
India is a vast country which experiences
many earthquakes at different periods. Generally
high risk zones of the country are located in the
Tsunami north and central parts. The state of Tamil Nadu
Risk Reduction Measures is located in the moderately low risk zone.
Before: if you live in a coastal area, know about

tsunami risk and local warning arrangements;
develop household emergency plan; know During: Take cover under a strong table or any
where the nearest high ground is and how you other piece of furniture and remain under cover
will reach it. until the shaking stops.
During: Take your get away kit, don’t travel After: Proceed cautiously once the earthquake
areas at risk; move immediately nearest high has stopped and always avoid roads, bridges that
ground; if you can’t escape tsunami, go to an might have been damaged by the earthquake.
For the management of disasters in the state, the following forces and
organizations are in service.
State/Union Territories organizations District Organizations
1. State Disaster Management Authority 1. District Magistrate (Chairman-District

(Chairman-Chief Minister) Collector)
2. Relief/ Disaster Management Department 2. Revenue Department
3. Police 3. Civil Administration,
4. Forest Department 4. Local Police,
5. Fire and Civil Defence Services 5. Civil Defence,
6. Health Services 6. Fire & Emergency Services,
7. Transport Department 7. Home Guards (also Local Community,
8. Public Works Department Non-Governmental Organisations,
9. Veterinary Services Voluntary Agencies) etc.
10. Food & Civil Supplied Department.
SUMMARY
Physical geography is the branch of geography dealing with the different physical aspects
such as landforms, drainage, climate, soil, natural vegetation etc.
Tamil Nadu is broadly classified into three physical divisions namely mountains (Western
and Eastern Ghats), plateaus (Bharamahal, Coimbatore and Madurai) and plains (inland
and coastal).

Cauvery, Palar, Ponnaiyar, Vaigai and Thamirabarani are the major rivers of Tamil Nadu.
Soils of Tamil Nadu are classified into five types according to their characteristics. They
are alluvial, black, red, laterite and saline.
The forest cover of Tamil Nadu is 20.21% of its geographical area. Evergreen, deciduous,
mangrove, thorny and montane temperate are its major forest types.
Disaster Risk Reduction is reducing risks through systematic efforts.
Natural disasters are earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, cyclones, droughts and forest
fires.
5. Which one of the following rivers is flow into
the Arabian Sea?
a) Periyar
b) Cauvery
EXERCISE
c) Chittar
d) Bhavani
answer 6.
The district with largest mangrove forest
cover in Tamil Nadu is
1.
The latitudinal extent of
Tamil Nadu is a) Ramanathapuram
a) 8°5′N to 13°35′N b) Nagapattinam
b) 8°5′S to 13°35′S c) Cuddalore
c) 8°0′N to 13°5′N d) Theni
d) 8°0′S to 13°05′S 7.
Retreating monsoon wind picks up
moisture from
2. The longitudinal extent of Tamil Nadu is
a) Arabian sea
a) 76°18′ E to 80°20′E
b) Bay of Bengal
b) 76°18′ W to 80°20′W
c) Indian Ocean
c) 86°18′ E to 10°20′E
d) Timor sea
d) 86°18′ W to 10°20′W
8. Which of the following district is affected
3. The highest peak in Tamil Nadu is by sand dunes to a large extent?
a) Anaimudi a) Theni
b) Doddabetta b) Madurai
c) Mahendragiri c) Thanjavur
d) Servarayan d) Ramanathapuram
4. Which of the following passes is not located 9. The district which has the largest forest
in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu? cover in Tamil Nadu is
a) Palghat a) Dharmapuri
b) Shencottah b) Vellore
c) Bhorghat c) Dindigul
d) Achankoil d) Erode

II Fill in the blanks VII Give reasons for the following
1. The plateau which lies between the Nilgiris 1. Eastern Ghats are not a continuous range.
and Dharmapuri districts is __________. 2. Tamil Nadu receives low rainfall during
2. __________ is the highest peak in the southwest monsoon.
southern most part of the Eastern Ghats. 3. Cuddalore is a multiprone disaster zone.
3. The riverine Island of Srirangam is located
VIII Answer the following in a paragraph
between __________ and __________
branches of cauvery. 1. Describe the nature of the plateau region
of Tamil Nadu.
4. __________is the Tamil Nadu state animal.
2. Write an account on river Cauvery.
III Match the following 3. Explain the characteristic features of
1. Winter season - Pre-monsoon summer and winter seasons of Tamil
Nadu.
2. Summer season - June to September
4. Bring out the types and distribution of
3. Southwest monsoon - March to May soils in Tamil Nadu.
4. North east monsoon - January and 5. What are the Risk reduction measures
February taken before and after cyclone.
5. Mango Shower - October to IX Map study
December
1. Mark important rivers, distribution of soil
IV Assertion type Question and forest types on different Tamil Nadu
1. Assertion (A): Tamil Nadu does not receive maps.
much rainfall from southwest monsoon.
Reason (R): It is situated in the rain shadow REFERENCE BOOKS
area of the Western Ghats.
1. Geography of Tamil Nadu by Kumarasamy
a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) (2018), Varthamana Publication, T. Nagar,
explains (A). Chennai
b) Both (A) and (R) are true but, (R) does 2. Kumaraswamy, S.V. (2014). Geography of
not explain (A). Tamil Nadu (Tamil Version), Sakthi Abirami
c) (A) is true but, (R) is false. Pathipagam, Coimbatore.
d) (R) is true but, (A) is false. 3. Statistical Hand Book of Tamil Nadu (2016).
Department of Economics and Statistics,
V Answer the following in brief Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai.
1. State the boundaries of Tamil Nadu. 4. Mathew, M. (2018). Manorama Yearbook –
2. What is ‘Teri’? 2018 (English Version), Manorama
3. How is coastal plain formed? Company Ltd., Kottayam.
4. Name the major islands of Tamil Nadu.
INTERNET RESOURCES
5. Name the tributaries of river
Thamirabarani. 1. http://www.tn.gov.in/ta/Tamil Nadustate
6. Define : Disaster Risk Reduction. 2. https://www.forests.tn.gov.in
7. During cyclone, how does the 3. http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/
Meterological department warn the index.php?title=Major_Rivers_Flowing_
fishermen? in_Tamil_Nadu
VI Distinguish between the following 4. http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/
1. Thamiraparani and Cauvery 5. http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/

ICT CORNER
Tamil Nadu: Disasters And Awareness
Through this activity

you will learn about Di-
saster Management Ac-
tivities in Tamil Nadu.
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 Change ‘Language’ in Top menu and go to ‘Media and Public Awareness’ and
select ‘Infographics’.
Step – 3 Click on ‘Download’ to view details of precautions by Tamil Nadu State

Disaster Management Authority
Step-1 Step-2
Step-3
Website URL:
https://tnsdma.tn.gov.in/
* Pictures are indicatives only.

* If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

Unit - 7
Human
Geography of
Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To understand the agricultural factors, major crops and their
distribution in Tamil Nadu
To learn about the water resources of Tamil Nadu
To study the mineral and industrial resources of Tamil Nadu
To analyze the population and its composition in Tamil Nadu
To learn about the man made disasters in Tamil Nadu
Introduction major occupation in Tamil Nadu. Agriculture

has been the mainstay of the state’s economy
Human geography refers to the study of since independence with more than 65% of the
ways of development of human societies and population depends upon this sector for their
their operation in relation to their physical living. Agriculture provides employment for
environment. This chapter focuses on the rural people on a large scale. There is a strong
distribution, characteristics and utilisation of link between agriculture and economic growth.
different resources in Tamil Nadu. We have Paddy, millets and pulses are the principal food
studied earlier that the earth is endowed with a crops of the state. Sugarcane, cotton, sunflower,
variety of natural resources such as landforms, coconut, cashew, chillies, gingelly, groundnut,
rivers, soil, natural vegetation, water and wildlife. tea, coffee, cardamom and rubber are the major
These resources are useful only when they are commercial crops.
utilised. Human beings use these resources
using their intelligence and skill. Thus, the 7.2 Geographical determinants
human beings are the most significant resource of Agriculture
on the earth surface. They turn all these natural Landform, climate, soil and irrigation are the
resources into useful products with their skills factors that determine the growth of agriculture.
and abilities.
Landform
7.1 Agriculture Tamil Nadu is a land of diverse landscape
The word "agriculture" is derived from the comprising of hills, plateaus and plains.
Latin words "ager and cultura", which means Among them the plains are most suitable
field and growing. Agriculture is a practice of for agriculture. The plains with alluvial soil
farming that includes the cultivation of crops, enhances agricultural productivity. Example:
rearing of animals, birds, forestry, fisheries Plains of cauvery. Agriculture in the plateau is
and other related activities. Agriculture is the moderate and is poor on the hills.
219 Human Geography of Tamil Nadu

Climate in the soil. Accordingly, the state has the
following cropping seasons.
Tamil Nadu is situated in the tropical
zone, which is nearer to the equator. The state
Name Sowing Harvesting Major crops
experiences a tropical climate. Hence, the
temperature in Tamil Nadu is relatively high Sornavari
August- Millets and
(chittirai April-May
almost throughout the year. So, only the tropical September cotton
pattam )
crops are cultivated. Water is another limiting
Samba July- January- Paddy and
factor of agriculture. Northeast monsoon is (Adipattam) August February sugarcane
the major source of rainfall for Tamil Nadu.
Fruits, vegetables,
Therefore, the major cropping season begins Navarai
November February-
cucumber and
with this season. The rainfall in this season and -December March
watermelon
the irrigation facilities affect agriculture to a
large extent. 7.4 Distribution of major
Soil crops in Tamil Nadu
Soil is one of the most essential elements
Paddy
of agriculture. It provides essential minerals or
nutrients for the growth of crops and vegetation. Paddy is the most important staple food
The regions of river valleys and the coastal crop of Tamil Nadu. Ponni and kichadi samba
plains are the most agriculturally productive are the major varieties of paddy grown in Tamil
regions of the state as they are covered with Nadu. Though it is cultivated all over Tamil
fertile alluvial soil. Nadu, its cultivation is highly concentrated
in Thanjavur, Tiruvarur, Tiruvallur,
Irrigation Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore and
Monsoon rainfall in the state is highly
irregular. Further it is seasonal. Hence, irrigation
becomes necessary for successful cultivation of
crops in the state. In the dry regions, rain-fed
crops are cultivated.
Types and regions of Agriculture
Practices in Tamil Nadu
Farming type Area practiced
Subsistence Practiced all over
intensive Tamil Nadu with few
agriculture exceptions. Paddy Cultivation
Plantation Hill slopes of Eastern The Tamil Nadu Rice

Agriculture and Western Ghats. Research Institute (TRRI) is an
Banks of River Indian research institute working
Mixed farming Cauvery and in the field of rice under Tamil
Thenpennai. Nadu Agricultural University
(TNAU).It is situated at Aduthurai, in Thanjavur
7.3 Cropping Seasons in district, it was established in April, 1985 in TNAU
Tamil Nadu to meet the research requirements of the region
with the help of existing Agricultural Colleges
Farmers select different crops for and Research centres and perform lead function
different seasons of cultivation. It is based on for rice and rice based cropping system research.
the temperature and availability of moisture
Human Geography of Tamil Nadu 220

Tirunelveli districts. It ranks third in the
production of rice among the states of India. The Second Green Revolution (Eco-Farming
deltaic region of river cauvery (the undivided or Organic Farming)
Thanjavur district) is the major rice-producing In organic farming synthetic fertilizers,
region of Tamil Nadu. So, this region is rightly pesticides, growth regulator and livestock
called as the "Granary of Tamil Nadu." feed additives are not used. This type of
farming rely on crop rotation, crop residues,
Millets animal manure, off-farm organic wastes
Millets form staple food of nearly one- and biological pest control to maintain soil
third of human population of Tamil Nadu. productivity. This farming method is being
adopted by very few farmers in the state.
Sorghum/jowar (cholam), ragi (kezhvaragu)
and bajra (kambu) are the major millets. These
that are grown in Tamil Nadu. Apart from its
are grown not only in drier areas but also in
use in food preparation, it is used in industries
the coastal plains. Sorghum is grown in the
as a lubricant, in the manufacture of varnish,
Coimbatore plateau and Kambam valley. Ragi is
grown in Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Vellore and soaps, candles, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
Cuddalore districts. Bajra is mostly cultivated Groundnut is the major oilseed of the state. The
in Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Karur, cultivation of groundnut is mostly concentrated
Perambalur and Salem districts. in Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Villupuram, Salem
and Pudukottai districts. It is also grown to some
India observed 2018 as national year of extent in Dharmapuri, Cuddalore, Perambalur
millets. FAO has decided to observe 2023 as and Madurai. Erode, Ramanathapuram,
the International year of millets. Sivagangai and Virudhunagar districts are
its minor producers. Coconut is grown in
Pulses Coimbatore, Thanjavur and Kanyakumari
Pulses are the major source of protein. districts.
Bengal gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea Sugarcane
and horse gram are the important pulses grown
It is one of the major cash crops of the
in Tamil Nadu. Pulses are grown in a wide range
state. It is an annual crop. It requires high
of climatic conditions mostly in drier regions
with or without irrigation. Mild cool climate temperature and heavy rainfall. It grows well in
and a low to moderate rainfall are best suited the tropical region. Major sugarcane-producing
for these crops. Pulses serve as excellent fodder. districts are Tiruvallur, Kancheepuram, Vellore,
Pulses are grown in almost all districts in the Cuddalore, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Erode
state except Chennai, Nilgiris and Kanyakumari. and Tirunelveli.
Coimbatore leads in the production of Bengal Cotton
gram. Vellore and Kanyakumari districts
Cotton is a fibre and cash crop. It requires
produce red gram.
black soil, long frost-free condition and warm
Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam and Thoothukudi and humid weather for its cultivation. Humid
districts are the principal producers of green
weather in the early stages and hot, dry weather
gram and black gram. Horse gram is widely
during harvest period is suitable for this crop.
cultivated in Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri
It is predominantly cultivated in Coimbatore
districts.
plateau and Vaigai-Vaippar river basins. It is
Oil Seeds also cultivated in Madurai, Ramanathapuram,
Groundnut, gingelly castor, coconut, Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, Salem
sunflower and mustard are some of the oilseeds and Dharmapuri districts.

N
TAMIL NADU W E
MAJOR CROPS
S
Not to Scale
LEGEND
PADDY SUGARCANE RAGI COTTON OIL SEEDS
PULSES MILLETS TEA COFFEE RUBBER

TANTEA (TANTEA-Tamil Nadu Tea Tamil Nadu Dairy Development
Plantation Corporation Limited) is one of Corporation Ltd. was transformed into the
the Biggest Black Tea Producers in India newly registered Tamil Nadu Co-operative
with high quality clonal tea. Its plantation Milk Producers Federation Limited
spreads over nearly 4500 hec. Popularly known as “Aavin”.
Plantation crops in dry land farming system. In the marginal or

Tea, coffee, cashew, rubber and cinchona undulating lands unsuitable for rearing of other
are the major plantation crops of the state. Tamil types of cattle like cow or buffalo, goat is the best
Nadu ranks second in area and production alternative. With very low investments, goat
of tea in India next to Assam. Tea plantations rearing can be made into a profitable venture
are found in the hills of the Nilgiris and for small and marginal farmers.
Coimbatore. The Nilgiris is the notable regions
Sheep
for tea plantations. Coffee plants are grown in
the hills of Western Ghats as well as Eastern Sheep is used for multiple purposes like
Ghats. It is also found in the hilly slopes of wool, meat, milk, skins and manure, and
Dindigul, Madurai, Theni and Salem districts. forms an important component of the rural
Yercaud, Kolli Hills and Kodaikanal are notable economy, particularly in the arid, semi-arid and
for coffee plantations. Tamil Nadu stands mountainous areas of Tamil Nadu. It provides a
second in area and production of coffee next to dependable source of income to the shepherds
Karnataka. Rubber plantations are significant in through the sale of wool and animals.
Kanyakumari. Pepper is confined to the warm
Fishing
and wet slopes of Eastern and Western Ghats of
Tamil Nadu. Cashew is extensively cultivated in Since Tamil Nadu is a coastal state, fishing
Cuddalore district. is one of the major occupations in the state.
With widespread reservoirs and rivers, inland
To promote organic farming a central fishing also is also seen to a considerable extent.
scheme named ‘National Project on Organic
Farming’ was launched Apart from general Marine Fishing
things (creating awareness, promoting An area of 41,412 sq.km of continental
organic fertilizers, training, capacity building shelves of the state favours coastal fishing
etc.), the scheme provides financial assistance and Tamil Nadu is one of the leading states in
through Capital Investment Subsidy Scheme marine fish production. Marine fishing is also
for agro-waste compost production units, called inshore fish or neritic fishing, carried out
bio-fertilizers/bio-pesticides production in oceans and seas. Large mechanised boats are
units, development and implementation used for fishing. In ocean or seawaters, fishing
of quality control regime, human resource within few kilometres from the shoreline is
development etc. called inshore fishing and the fishing far from
the shore typically 20–30 miles out in water
7.5 Livestock/Animal hundreds and thousands of feet deep is called
Husbandry off-shore fishing. The fish varieties caught
are sharks, flying fish, counch, catfish, silver
Livestock has remained an integral part of
bellies, and crabs. Chennai, Kanyakumari,
socio-economic fabric of rural people.
Tirunelveli, Nagapattinam, Thanjavur and
Goat Ramanathapuram districts contribute about
Goat is also known as ‘poor man’s cow’ 40% to marine fish production in the state. Their
in India. It forms a very important component coastal location favours fishing in these regions.

Inland Fishing Mettur Dam
Inland fishing is carried out in lakes, The Mettur Dam was constructed in
rivers, ponds, estuaries, backwaters and a gorge, where river Cauvery enters the
swamps. Oysters and prawns are cultured plains. It is one of the oldest dam in India.
in original nurseries. Catamaran, diesel It provides irrigation to Salem, Erode, Karur,
boats and floating nets are used in fishing. Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and
Tamil Nadu Fisheries Department has Nagapattinam districts farmlands.
introduced several programmes for the
betterment of fishing. Vellore district leads
in the production of inland fish production
with 10% of state’s production. Cuddalore,
Sivagangai and Virudhunagar districts stand
second with 9% of inland fish catch each.
7.6 Water Resource
Water is the precious

gift of nature to humankind Mettur Dam
and millions of other species Bhavani Sagar Dam
living on the earth. The Bhavani Sagar Dam is located 80 km
Tamil Nadu constitutes away from Coimbatore city in the district of
4% of India’s land area and is inhabited by 6% Erode. It has been constructed across the river
of India’s population, but has only 2.5% percent Bhavani. This dam is one of the biggest earthen
of India’s water resources. More than 95% of the dams in the country.
surface water and 80% of the ground water have Amaravathi Dam
already been put into use.
The Amaravathi dam is situated 25 km
Surface Water away from Udumalpet in Tirupur district. The
Numbers dam has been constructed across the river
Resources
River Basin 17 Amaravathi, a tributary of Cauvery. The dam
was built primarily for irrigation and flood
Reservoirs 81 control. A small hydropower station has also
Tanks 41,127 been installed recently.
Tube wells and other Krishnagiri Dam
4,98,644
wells
Krishnagiri dam is situated at a distance of
Open wells 15,06,919 7 km from Krishnagiri towards Dharmapuri.
Total (Million Cubic
2046788 MCM Sathanur Dam
metres)
Sathanur Dam was constructed across
Multipurpose River Valley
the river Thenpennai in Chengam taluk. It is
Projects in the midst of Chennakesava hills. It irrigates
Multipurpose river valley projects are the land in Thandrampet and Tiruvannamalai
basically designed for the development of blocks. There is also a large crocodile farm and a
irrigation for agriculture and hydropower fish grotto. Parks are maintained inside the dam
generation. However, they are used for many for tourists and the gardens are used by the film
other purposes as well. industry.

Mullaiperiyar Dam for recharging its water resources, monsoon
Mullaiperiyar dam was built by the British failures lead to acute water scarcity and severe
administration in 1895. It has been constructed droughts. So, it is important to save water for us
on the Periyar river, which originates from and the future generation.
Thekkady hills of Kerala. The dam was built TAMIL NADU W
N
E
MULTIPURPOSE RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS
mainly for watering the farming land of Tamil S
Nadu, which is perennially drought-prone. POONDI SATYAMOORTHY SAGAR
CHEMBARAMBAKKAM
Vaigai Dam
This dam built across the river Vaigai near KRISHNAGIRI
Andipatti. The dam with a height of 111 feet can SATTANUR
store water up to 71 feet. It is located 7 km from METTUR GOMUKHI

Andipatti and 70 km from Madurai. This dam
was opened on 21 January, 1959. BAVANI SAGAR WELLINGTON
Manimuthar Dam PARAMPIKULAM
Manimuthar dam is located about 47 km AMARAVATHI

MANIMUTHARU
from Tirunelveli.
VAIGAI
The Papanasam Dam MULLAI
PERIYAR
It is also known as Karaiyar dam and is

PAPANASAM
located about 49 km away from Tirunelveli. LEGEND
The dam is used to irrigate Tirunelveli and KOTHAIYAR DAMS

LAKES
Thoothukudi districts.
Not to Scale
Parampikulam Aliyar Project

It is a joint venture of Tamil Nadu and 7.7 Mineral Resources
Kerala states. It envisages the construction of
Tamil Nadu is the leading holder of
seven interconnected reservoirs by harnessing
country's resources of vermiculite, magnetite,
the water of seven rivers, which include major
dunite, rutile, garnet, molybdenum and
rivers of Parambikulam and Aliyar.
ilmenite. The state accounts for the country's
Parappalar project is located near 55.3% of lignite, 75% of vermiculite, 69% of
Ottanchatram. Its storage capacity is 167 dunite, 59% of garnet, 52% of molybdenum and
million cubic feet of water. It is about 75 km 30% of titanium mineral resources.
from Madurai and is in Palani taluk. Important minerals are found in the state
Water Resource Management are as follows: Neyveli has large lignite resources.
Water resource management is the activity Coal is also availablein Ramanathapuram. Oil
of planning, developing, distributing and and gas are found in the Cauvery basin.
managing the optimum use of water resources. Iron deposits are found in Kanjamalai
The demand for water in Tamil Nadu is region in Salem district and Kalrayan Malai
increasing at a fast rate both due to increasing region of Tiruvannamalai district. Magnesite
population and also due to larger per capita ores are available near Salem. Bauxite is found
needs triggered by economic growth. Demands in Servarayan Hills, Kotagiri, Udagamandalam,
from other sectors such as domestic and Palani and Kollimalai areas. Gypsum is obtained
industries have been growing significantly. The in Tiruchirappalli, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi
state is heavily dependent on monsoon rains. and Virudhunagar districts. Ilmenite and
Since the state is entirely dependent on rains rutile are found in the sands of Kanyakumari

beach. Limestone is available in Coimbatore, Silk Textiles
Cuddalore, Dindigul, Kancheepuram,
Tamil Nadu occupies fourth position in
Karur, Madurai, Nagapattinam, Namakkal,
the country in silk production. Kancheepuram
Perambalur, Ramanathapuram, Salem and
silk is unique in its quality and is known
Tiruvallur districts. Magnesite is obtained in
for its traditional value all over the world.
Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Namakkal,
Kancheepuram, Arani, Kumbakonam, Salem,
the Nilgiris, Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Tirunelveli
Coimbatore, Madurai and Tirunelveli are the
and Vellore districts. Feldspar, quartz, copper
important silk-weaving centres in Tamil Nadu.
and lead are also found in some parts of the
Ramanathapuram has some specialised areas
state.
for the manufacturing of synthetic silk clothes.
7.8 Industries Leather Industry
Industries use raw
Tamil Nadu accounts for 60% of leather
materials and convert them
tanning processes of India and 38% of all leather
into usable product or goods.
footwear, garments and components. Hundreds
Textiles, sugar, paper, leather,
of leather tanneries are located around Vellore
cement, electrical equipment,
and nearby towns, such as Ranipet, Ambur
automobiles, information
and Vaniyambadi. The Vellore district is the
technology and tourism are
top exporter of finished leather goods in the
the major industries of Tamil Nadu.
country. Central Leather Research Institute
Textile Industry
Textile industry is one of the traditionally GI Tag
well-developed industries in Tamil Nadu. The GI(Geographical Indication)is a name or
textile mills are concentrated in Coimbatore, sign used on products which corresponds to
Tirupur, Salem, Palladam, Karur, Dindigul, a specific geographical location. It provides
Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, rights and protection of holders.
Madurai and Erode. Erode in Tamil Nadu is Some important GI Tags of Tamil Nadu are:
well known for marketing of handloom, power
loom and readymade garments. Coimbatore is Place Products
also known as the ‘Manchester of Tamil Nadu’. Arani Silk
Coimbatore, Tirupur and Erode contribute Kancheepuram Silk
a major share to the state’s economy through Coimbatore Wet Grinder and Coracotton
textiles. So, this region is referred as ‘Textile Thanjavur Paintings, Art plate,
Valley of Tamil Nadu’. Karur is known as ‘The Doll and veenai
Textile capital of Tamil Nadu’. Nagercoil Temple Jewellery
Erode Turmeric
Salem Venpattu(salem silk)
Bhavani Jamakkalam
Madurai Sungudi
Swamimalai Bronze Icons
Nachiarkovil Kuthuvilakku
Pattamadai Mat
Nilgiri Orthodox Embroidery
Mahabalipuram Stone sculpture
Sirumalai Hill banana
Eathomozhi Coconut
Textile Industry

(CLRI), a CSIR research laboratory, is located
in Chennai. The list of IT parks in Tamil Nadu
Tidel Park, Ascendas, Mahindra world city
Paper Industry
4 IT & ITES SEZ TIDEL-II, IT & ITES SEZ
Tamil Nadu Newsprint and Papers TIDEL-III, Coimbatore SEZ - Tidel Park
Limited (TNPL) is a government of Tamil
Nadu enterprise producing newsprint and
Special Economic Zones
printing and writing paper at its mill located
Special economic zones (SEZs) provide
at Kagithapuram in Karur district. TNPL is
an internationally competitive and hassle-
one of the most accomplished mills in the
free environment for exports. Units in SEZ
world, producing different varieties paper of
manufacture goods and provide a range of
acceptable quality primarily from bagasse and
services. SEZs are located in Nanguneri,
pulpwood. Other paper mills of the state are
Ennore, Hosur and Perambalur. IT & ITES
found in Pukkathurai of Kancheepuram district,
SEZ named TIDEL-II and TIDEL-III and Bio-
Bhavanisagar, Pallipalayam, Paramathi Vellore,
Pharmaceuticals SEZ are located in Chennai
Coimbatore, Udamalaipet, Thoppampatti,
and Coimbatore SEZ called the TIDEL Park–IV
Nilakkotai and Cheranmahadevi.
is located in the city.
Cement Industry Manufacturing & Engineering
Cement production and consumption Industry
continue to grow despite the general recession in The manufacturing industry is one of
the economy. India is one of the largest cement the vibrant sectors of the state economy and
producers and ranked second in the world with contributes significantly to the industrial output.
an annual production capacity of 181 million The manufacturing industry broadly covers
tons. Tamil Nadu Cements Corporation Limited manufacture of machinery and equipment,
(TANCEM) is one among the major cement motor vehicles, basic metal and alloy industries,
producers in Tamil Nadu operating two cement metal products and repair of capital goods.
units: one at Ariyalur and another at Alangulam. Automobile Industries
Asbestos cement sheet plant at Alangulam and
Tamil Nadu accounts for about 21% of
stoneware pipe unit at Virudhachalam are the
passenger cars, 33% of commercial vehicles
other units of TANCEM. Sankar Cement, Zuari and 35% of automobile components produced
Cement, Ultratech Cement, Madras Cement in India. Major automobile manufacturers
and Dalmia Cement are the major private like Ford, Hyundai, HM-Mitsubishi, Ashok
cement brands produced in Tamil Nadu. Leyland, and TAFE have their manufacturing
base in Tamil Nadu.
7.9 Information Technology
According to National Association of Handlooms and Powerlooms
Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM), The handloom sector in the state is the
the southern states continue to account for single largest cottage industry providing
more than half of the country's total export livelihood to a large number of rural people
of software. Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and promoting export earnings. These societies
together account for 59.6% of India's total mainly produce the cloth required for the
software exports. Tamil Nadu is the second scheme of ‘Free Supply of Uniforms to School
largest software exporter in the country next to Children and Free Distribution of Sarees and
Karnataka. Dhotis Scheme’.

Sugar Industry 7.10 Population
Sugar industry in Tamil Nadu is an The term ‘population’
important agro-based industry. It plays a vital refers to the number of
role in the economic development of the state, people living in a defined
particularly in rural areas. The sugar industry area. The statistical study
provides large-scale direct employment to of the characteristics of
several thousands and indirect employment human population is called
to several lakhs of farmers and agricultural demography.
labourers in the rural areas who are involved
Regions of High Population
in cultivation of sugarcane, harvesting,
transporting and other services. Coimbatore, Chennai, Tiruvallur,
TAMIL NADU N Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Dharmapuri, Salem,
MAJOR INDUSTRIES W E
Madurai and Tirunelveli are the most populous
S
districts in the state. Agriculture and industrial
development are the main causes of high
concentration of population of these districts.
Regions of Moderate Population
Tiruvannamalai, Cuddalore, Tiruchirapalli
and Thanjavur districts have a population 30–
35 lakh. Vellore, Dindugal, Virudhunagar and
Thoothukudi districts each have a population of
15–20 lakh. Other than agriculture, small-scale
industries and fishing along the coastal areas are
LEGEND
TEXTILE
the major occupations of people in these districts.
Regions of Sparse Population
LEATHER
SUGAR
The coastal districts Nagapattinam,

PAPER
SILK
CEMENT Tiruvarur, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram and

Not to Scale
INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY Sivagangai have a less than 15 lakh. The Nilgiris
district has a population of less than 10 lakh
ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS
population.
Tourism Industry
Population Density
Tourism is considered as an industry
The state ranks 12th among the Indian
because of its enormous potential in creating
states in population density. The national
employment for a large number of people.
average density of population as per the 2011
In recent years, the state has emerged as
Census is 382. Chennai is the densest district
one of the leading tourist destinations for with 26,903 persons per sq.km followed by
both domestic and foreign tourists. Tourism Kanyakumari, Tiruvallur, Kancheepuram,
in Tamil Nadu is promoted by Tamil Nadu Madurai, Coimbatore, Cuddalore,
Tourism Development Corporation (TTDC). Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Salem, Vellore and
The presence of ancient monuments, pilgrim Tiruchirappalli. These are the regions with
centres, hill stations, a variety of natural high density of population. The least density
landscapes, long coastline, along with rich of population is recorded in the Nilgiris and
culture and heritage make Tamil Nadu the the other districts have moderate density of
best destination for tourists. population.

Religion Railways
Hinduism, Christianity and Islam are Tamil Nadu has a well-developed
the major religions in the state. The Hindus rail network as part of Southern Railway,
constitute the largest of the population, followed headquartered at Chennai. The present Southern
by Christians and Muslims. Jainism, Sikhism Railway network extends over a large area of
and Buddhism and people of other religions India’s southern peninsula, covering Tamil
also presence in the state. Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, minor portions of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Chennai has
Sex Ratio
a well-established suburban railway network,
The sex ratio represents the number of a mass rapid transport system(MRTS) and is
females per 1000 males. currently developing a Metro system, with its
The highest sex ratio is found in the first underground stretch in operation since
Nilgiris district followed by Thanjavur district. May 2017.
The lowest sex ratio is reported in Dharmapuri Airways
district followed by Salem district.
Tamil Nadu has four major international
Literacy Rate airports. Chennai International Airport is
The district of Kanyakumari has reported currently the third largest airport in India after
the highest literacy rate while Dharmapuri Mumbai and Delhi. Other international airports
district has the lowest rate. A high level of literacy in Tamil Nadu include Coimbatore, Madurai
rate is also seen in Chennai, Thoothukudi, the and Tiruchirapalli airports. It also has domestic
Nilgiris and Kancheepuram districts. airports at Tuticorin and Salem.
Waterways
7.11 Transport and
Tamil Nadu has three major ports. They
Communication are in Chennai, Ennore and Tuticorin. It
has an intermediate port at Nagapattinam
Roadways
and 15 minor ports. All the minor ports are
The State has a total road managed by the Tamil Nadu Maritime Board,
length of 167,000 km, In which Chennai Port. This is an artificial harbour and
60,628km are maintained by the second principal port in the country for
state Highways Department. handling containers.
It ranks second in India with a
share of over 20% in total road 7.12 Communication
projects under operation in
Communication is derived from the Latin
the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
word communicare, meaning ‘to share’. The
act of conveying or exchanging information is
NH - 44 is the longest called means of communication. They are mass
national highway in Tamil Nadu communication and personal communication.
which runs from Hosur to Postal Districts and Headquarters in
Kanniyakumari (627.2 km) Via Tamil Nadu
Dharmapuri-Salem-Karur-
Dindigul-Madurai-Tirunelveli. Zone /districts Head quarters
Chennai Chennai
NH - 785 is the shortest national
Western Coimbatore
highway in Tamil Nadu which runs from
Central Thiruchirapalli
Madurai to Tuvarankuruchi. (38 km).
Southern Madurai

TAMILNADU TRANSPORT
TAMILNADU - -TRANSPORT
17_Geography_Unit_7_EM.indd 230
ROADWAYS Andhra Pradesh RAILWAYS
N Thiruvallur
W E N Chennai
Bengaluru Vellore
Chennai Bengaluru Katpadi
S W E
Chengalpattu
Kanchipuram S Jolarpet
Humann Geography of Tamil Nadu

Krishnagiri
Mysuru
Thiruvanamalai
Dharmapuri Dharmapuri
Thiruvanamalai
Puducherry Villupuram Puducherry

Salem
Cuddalore Bay of Cuddalore
Bya of
Bengal Attur
Udagamandalam Udagamandalam
Bengal
Erode Viruthachalam
Erode Perambalur
Namakkal
Coimbatore Ariyalur
Ariyalur
230
Coimbatore Karaikal Karur
Tiruppur Thanjavur (Puducherry) Thanjavur
Tiruchirappali
Kerala Pollachi
Thiruvarur
Thiruvarur Nagapattinam
Thirissur
Pudukottai Dindigual
Thanjavur
Bodi Vedaranniyam
Madurai Madurai
Kerala
Sivangangai Sivangangai
Viruthunagar Viruthunagar Manamadurai
Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram
Ramaeswaram Thenkasi Ramaeswaram
Golden Quadrilateral Highway Maniyachi

Thirunelveli Thoothukudi Thirunelveli
North-South Corridor Highway Thoothukudi
Se
Thiruvananthapuram
Arab a
ian
National Highway Arumuganeri Broad Gauge (BG)
Se
Arab a
ian
Tiruchendur Electrified
State Highway
Kanyakumari Nagercoil um ari
Indian Ocean Highway Numbers Indian Kanyak Ocean Narrow Gauge
SEA WAYS
SEAWAYS Andhra Pradesh AIRWAYS
AIRWAYS Andhra Pradesh
Kattupalli
lli
li Thirupati
N N
11-04-2020 12:35:45
W E W E Chennai
S S Bangaluru Vellore
Viruthunagar Viruthunagar Manamadurai
Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram
Ramaeswaram Thenkasi Ramaeswaram
Golden Quadrilateral Highway Maniyachi

Thirunelveli Thoothukudi Thirunelveli
North-South Corridor Highway Thoothukudi
Se
Thiruvananthapuram
Arab a
ian
National Highway Arumuganeri Broad Gauge (BG)
Se
Arab a
ian
Tiruchendur Electrified
State Highway TAMILNADU - TRANSPORT
Kanyakumari Nagercoil umari
Indian Ocean Highway Numbers Indian Kanyak Ocean Narrow Gauge
17_Geography_Unit_7_EM.indd 231
SEA WAYS
SEAWAYS Andhra Pradesh AIRWAYS
AIRWAYS Andhra Pradesh
Kattupalli
lli
li Thirupati
N N
W E W E Chennai
S S Bangaluru Vellore
Karnataka Karnataka
Puducherry Salem
Puducherry
Cuddalore
Bay of
Thiruchopuram
m
Bay of
Bengal
Bengal
Coimbatore
Thirukkadaiyur
ur
231
Thiruchirappalli
Karaikal
Kara
(Puducherry)
Nagapattinam
Na
Kerala
Major Sea Ports Madurai

to Colombo
Kerala
Minor Sea Ports Kochi
to Colo
Important Sea Routes

mbo
to C
Rameswaram to Vishakhapatnam
olo
to Kolkata
Valinokkam
mb
to Yongon
o
Se
Arab a
to Malaysia
ian
to Nagapattinam to International Air Route

Sh
to Colombo arj Thoothukudi
ah
Domestic Air Route
Koodankulam
Se
Manappad
M
Man
Ma Thiruvananthapuram International Airports
Arab a
Kanyakumari
K
ian
Not to Scale
Domestic Airports
Indian Ocean
O Indian Ocean
Humann Geography of Tamil Nadu
11-04-2020 12:35:46
7.13 Trade 7.14 Imports of Tamil Nadu
Export and import are the two components Machineries like transport equipment,
of trade. Export means goods and services sold for machine tools, non-electrical machinery,
foreign currency. Tamil Nadu contributes 12.2% electrical machinery, pharmaceutical products,
to the country’s exports. Import refers to goods petroleum, fertilizers and newsprint are its
and services are brought from overseas producers. major imports. The state contributes 10.94% to
Tamil Nadu imports many goods from outside. the country’s trade through major ports.
The difference between the values of export and
import is called the balance of trade.
Major Exports of Tamil Nadu

tobacco, cereals, cotton, sugarcane, paddy, groundnut,
(i) Agricultural Products
spices and vegetables.
wallets, purses, pouches, handbags, belts, footwear and
(ii) Leather Products
gloves
pearls, precious stones, gold jewellery, decorations
(iii) Gems and Jewellery
and antiques
(iv) Chemicals and related products paper, chemicals, rubber and glass.
The above discussion shows that Tamil Nadu is an important state of India in terms of size,
population, resources and economic development. People in the state are well secured. The new
schemes introduced by the state government periodically have enabled notable progress in various
fields.
SUMMARY
Human Geography is the branch of geography dealing with how human activity
affects or is influenced by the nature.
Tropical crops like paddy, millets, pluses, oilseeds and plantation crops of tea, coffee,
cashew, rubber etc are the major crops of Tamil Nadu.
Tamil Nadu has 55.3% of lignite, 75% of vermiculite, 69% of dunite, 59% of garnet,
52% of molybdenum and 30% of titanium.
EXERCISE 2.
Second staple food of the people of
Tamil Nadu is
a) Pulses b) Millets
answer
c) Oilseeds d) Rice
1. The delta which is known as Granary of
3.
A major hydro-electric power project of
South India is
Tamil Nadu is
a) Cauvery delta b) Mahanadi delta
a) Mettur b) Papansam
c) Godavari delta d) Krishna delta
c) Sathanur d) Thungabahdra
Humann Geography of Tamil Nadu 232

4. Number of major and minor ports in Tamil (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
Nadu are (d) (A) is false but (R) is false
a) 3and15 b) 4 and15
V Answer the following in brief
c) 3 and16 d) 4 and15
1.
Explain the cropping seasons of Tamil
II Fill in the blanks Nadu
1.
Agriculture of Tamil Nadu constitutes 2. Why is Coimbatore called the Manchester
____________ % of its economy. of Tamil Nadu?
2.
Sathanur dam is constructed across the 3. Name the important multipurpose projects
river ____________. of Tamil Nadu.
3. ___________ is the third largest airport in
4. What is MRTS?
India after Mumbai and Delhi.
5.
List out the air ports and sea ports of
4. The difference between the value of exports
Tamil Nadu.
and imports is called ___________.
VI Distinguish between the following
III Match the following
1. Bauxite – Salem 1. Marine Fishing and inland fishing
2. Gypsum – Servaroy hills 2. Food crops and non- food crops
3. Iron – Coimbatore 3. Surface water and ground water

4. Limestone – Tiruchirapalli VII Give reasons for the following
IV Questions 1-2 are assertion and 1.

Farmers switch over from inorganic to
reasoning type organic farming.
1. Assertion (A): Coimbatore, Tiruppur and 2.
Cities are densely populated than the
Erode region is called as The Textile Valley villages.
of Tamil Nadu.
3.
Karur is Called theTextile Capital of
Reason (R): They contribute a major share Tamil Nadu.
to the states economy through textiles.
VIII Answer the following in a paragraph
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A) 1.
Write about the plantation farming of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but, (R) does Tamil Nadu.
not explain (A) 2.
Give an account on water resources of
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false Tamil Nadu.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
3.
Bring out the mineral distribution in
2. Assertion (A): The Nilgiris is the least Tamil Nadu.
populated district of Tamil Nadu
4.
State the densely populated regions of
Reason (R): It is located in the western Tamil Nadu and account for its high
most part of Tamil Nadu. density.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A) 5. Explain the different modes of transport
available in Tamil Nadu.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but, (R) does
not explain (A) 6. Write about Road safety rules
233 Humann Geography of Tamil Nadu

IX Map exercise 4. Mathew, M. (2018). Manorama Yearbook –
2018 (English Version), Manorama Company
1. Mark the areas of major crops, minerals,
Ltd., Kottayam.
dams, air ports and sea ports.
INTERNET RESOURCES
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Geography of Tamil Nadu by Kumarasamy 1. http://www.tn.gov.in/ta/Tamil Nadustate
(2018), Varthamana Publication, T. Nagar, 2. http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/
Chennai
3. http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/
2. Kumaraswamy, S.V. (2014). Geography of
Tamil Nadu (Tamil Version), Sakthi Abirami 4. http://www.fisheries.tn.gov.in/
Pathipagam, Coimbatore. 5. https://www.census2011.co.in/census/
3. Statistical Hand Book of Tamil Nadu (2016). state/tamil+nadu.html
Department of Economics and Statistics,
Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai.
Humann Geography of Tamil Nadu 234

GLOSSARY winter) marked by particular weather
patterns and daylight hou.
Back waters: The part of a river
which are stagnant and do not reach the Weather: The state of the atmosphere
sea as they are pushed by the current. at a particular place and time as regards
heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind,
Distributary: A branch or outlet rain, etc.
which leaves a main river and does not
rejoin it, carrying its water to the sea or a Wildlife: Wild animals collectively; the
lake. native fauna (and sometimes flora) of a
region.
Doab: A land between the two
converging rivers. Soil: Soil is the uppermost layer of
the land surface composed of minerals,
Estuary: Mouth of a river where it organic matter, living organisms and water
enters the sea through a single channel
with a hollow. Khadar: Newer alluvium soil found in
valley flooded almost every year
Perennial Rivers: The rivers
which flow throughout the year and have Bhangar: Older alluvium soil found
permanent source of water. in30 mts above flood level
Pass: A narrow gap through the Soil erosion: Removal of top soil
mountains providing a route or passage
Soil conservation: Prevention
way.
of soil from erosion and protecting its
Peninsula: The land area covered with fertility.
ocean on three sides.
Irrigation: Watering of plants through
Subcontinent: A large area of a artificial means.
continent that stands distinct from the rest
Multipurpose projects:
of the continent and possesses almost all
Construction of dams across rivers aimed
the characteristics of a continent.
at many purposes
Standard Time: The local time of
Agriculture: It is the process of
central meridian of ones country.
producing food, feed, fibre and many
Tributary: A river or stream which other desired products by the cultivation
contributes its water to main river. of certain plants and the raising of
domesticated plants
Climate: The weather conditions
prevailing in an area in general or over a Biogas: The production of methane and
long period. carbon- di- oxide from plants and animal
wastes.
Meteorology: The branch of science
concerned with the processes and Fossil fuel: Any naturally occurring
phenomena of the atmosphere, especially carbon or hydrocarbon coal, oil and
as a means of forecasting the weather. natural gas.
Season: Each of the four divisions of Ore: It is a deposit in the earth crust with
the year (spring, summer, autumn, and one or more value minerals
235 TAMILNADU - TRANSPORT

Solar power: Heat radiation from the Delta: A triangular shaped alluvial tract
sun converted into electricity. formed at the mouth of a river.
Thermal power station: An Density of population: The
electricity generating plants which burns average number of inhabitants living per
coal or oil. sq km area
Barter: A direct exchange of goods Drought: It is a natural disaster of
between any two parties.No money is below average precipitation in a given
involved in the trade. region resulting water shortage.
Foreign exchange: The mechanism Drowning: death caused by being
or process by which payments between underwater and not being able to breath.
any two places operating under different
national currency systems are effected Endemism: The ecological state
without passing of actual money or gold, of a species being unique to a defined
etc. geographic location, such as an island,
nation
Harbour: An extensive stretch of deep
water near the seashore where vessels can Exports: Goods dispatched from one
anchor securely. It is used for exports and country to another.
imports of goods.
Flood: A large amount of water that has
Port: The commercial part of a harbour spread from a river
with the facility of loading and unloading
of goods and space for the storage of cargo. Imports: Goods bought into a country
from another country.
Bay: A broad inlet of the sea where the
land curves inwards Land slide: sudden fall of mass of the
rocks etc down side of the mountain
Beach: A pebbly or sandy shore,
especially by the sea between high- and Literates: The people with the ability
low-water marks to read and write.
Biogas: The production of methane and Leaching: It is a process in rainy

carbon- di- oxide from plants and animal seasons which all the soluble minerals are
wastes washed away by runoff water so the soil is
infertile
Commercial crops: Crops which
are cultivated to be sold to gain profit from Latitude: The imaginary parallel lines
sale. which run east to west on the globe.
Cyclone: A cyclone is a large scale air Longitude: The imaginary vertical
mass that rotates around a strong centre of lines which run north to south on the
low atmospheric pressure. globe.
Dams: A barrier constructed to hold Mangroves: Salt tolerant evergreen
back water and raise its level, forming forest ecosystem found mainly in tropical
a reservoir used to generate electricity, and sub-tropical coastal and/or inter-tidal
supply water and other uses. regions.
TAMILNADU - TRANSPORT 236

Manchester: An industrial city and Regions: An area, especially part of
metropolitan district in north-western a country or the world having definable
England/items for the home made characteristics but not always fixed
of cotton, linen, etc., such as sheets, boundaries.
pillowcases, or tablecloths.
Reserved Forest (RF): An area
Meteorology: The science of weather. constituted under the provisions of the
Indian Forest Act or other State Forest
Mixed farming: It is a type of farming Acts, having full degree of protection. In
which involves both the growing of crops Reserved forests all activities are prohibited
and the raising of livestock simultaneously unless permitted.
in a land holding.
Reservoirs: A large natural or artificial
Monsoon: Season lake used as a source of water supply.
Natural resources: Materials or Sedimentary rock: A rock which
substances occur in nature and are used has been formed by the consolidation of
for economic gain sediments.
Open Forest: Lands with forest cover Sex ratio: The number of females per
having a canopy density between 10 to 40 1000 males.
percent.
Stampede: a situation in which a large
Plantation agriculture: Well number of animals or people running in
organized and managed farming with a the same direction in an uncontrolled way
single crop on a large scale. It is a capital causing injuries and deaths
intensive farming. Tea, coffee and rubber
Strait: A narrow passage of water
are the major plantation crops.
connecting two seas or two other large
Plateau: An extensive elevated area of areas of water.
relatively a flat land.
Subsistence intenensive
Population: All the people living in a farming: It is a type of farming in
particular country, area, or place which crops grown are consumed by the
family with little surplus to sell.
Population census: Official
enumeration of population along with Unclassed Forest: An area recorded
economic and social attributes of a region as forest but not included in reserved or
at a specified interval. protected forest category.
Protected Forest(PF): An area UNESCO World Heritage Site:

notified under the provisions of the Indian Representing the main ecosystem of the
Forest Act or other State Forest Acts, planet in which genetic resisources would
having limited degree of protection. In be protected, and where research on the
protected forest all activities are permitted ecosystem as well as monitoring and
unless prohibited. training work could be carried.
237 TAMILNADU - TRANSPORT

CIVICS
18_Civics_Unit_1_EM.indd 238 23-03-2020 19:43:12

Unit - 1
Indian
Constitution
Learning Objectives
To know about the making of Indian Constitution
To know the Salient features of Indian Constitution
To understand the Fundamental Rights and Duties
To know the Directive Principles of State Policy
To understand the Centre-State relations and the Emergency Provisions
Introduction Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha, the oldest member,

was elected as the temporary President of the
The Constitution is the fundamental law
Assembly. While the work was in progress,
of a country which reflects the fundamental
Dr. Sahchidananda Sinha died. Dr. Rajendra
principles on which the government of that
Prasad was elected as the President of the
country is based. It is the vehicle of a Nation’s
Assembly. Similarly, both H.C. Mukherjee and
progress. The concept of constitution was first
V.T. Krishnamachari were elected as the Vice-
originated in U.S.A.
Presidents of the Assembly. The Assembly met
1.1 The Need for for 11 sessions along with 166 days of meetings.
a Constitution During the discussion, 2473 amendments were
All Democratic countries have a constitution presented. Some of them were accepted. The
that governs them. A constitution puts down Assembly worked through various committees
certain principles that form the basis of any kind and the draft of the Constitution was prepared by
of a state that we as citizens, desire to live in. A the Drafting Committee under the chairmanship
constitution tells us the fundamental nature of of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He is recognised as the
our society. ‘Father of the Constitution of India’.
1.2 Making of Indian

Constitution
The Constitution of India was framed by a
Constituent Assembly setup under the Cabinet
Mission Plan, 1946. The Assembly consisted
of 389 members representing Provinces
(292), States (93), the Chief Commissioner’s
provinces (3) and Baluchistan (1). The Assembly
held its first meeting on December 9, 1946. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
239

After the draft had been new words - socialist, secular and integrity.
discussed by the people, the The Preamble begins with the phrase ‘We, the
press, provincial assemblies People of India’. Thus, we can say that the people
and others, the Constitution of India are the source of our Constitution. The
was finally adopted on Preamble of our Constitution states that India
November 26, 1949, is a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic
contained a Preamble, 22 Republic. Its aim is to secure to all Indian
parts, 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. The drafted citizens Social, economic and political justice.
Constitution came into force on 26th January,
1950. This day is known as the Republic Day. It Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
is being observed every year. were the important slogans during
the French Revolution in 1789.
Prem Behari Narain Raizada was They are given importance in the
the calligrapher of the Indian Preamble of our Constitution.
Constitution. The original
constitution was handwritten by
him in a flowing italic style. 1.5 Citizenship
The word ‘Citizen’ is derived from the Latin
1.3 Salient features of term ‘Civis’. It means resident of a City State.
Indian Constitution The Constitution of India provides for a single
and uniform citizenship for the whole of India.
It is the lengthiest of all the written
Articles 5 to 11 under part II of the Constitution
constitutions of the world.
deals with the citizenship.
It has borrowed most of its provisions from
the constitutions of various countries. Citizenship Act (1955)
It is partly rigid and partly flexible. The Citizenship Act of 1955 provides for
acquisition and loss of citizenship after the
It establishes a federal system of government. commencement of the Constitution. This Act
It makes India as a secular state. has been amended so far eight times.
It provides an independent judiciary. Acquisition of Citizenship
It introduces Universal Adult Franchise and According to the Citizenship Act, 1955, the
accords the right to vote to all citizens above citizenship could be acquired through any of
18 years of age without any discrimination. the following methods.
1.4 Preamble 1. By Birth: All persons born in India on or after
January 26, 1950 are treated as citizens by birth.
The term ‘preamble’ refers to the introduction
or preface to the Constitution. It consists of the 2. By Descent: A person born outside India on
ideals, objectives and basic principles of the or after January 26, 1950 shall be a citizen of
Constitution. It has great value and has been India by descent, if his father is a citizen of India
described as the ‘key to the Constitution’. at the time of his birth.
The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is 3. By Registration: A person can acquire

based on the ‘Objective Resolution’, drafted by citizenship of India by registration with
Jawaharlal Nehru, which was adopted by the appropriate authority.
Constituent Assembly on January 22, 1947. It has 4. By Naturalisation: A foreigners can
been amended once by the 42nd Constitutional acquire Indian citizenship, on application for
Amendment Act of 1976, which added three naturalization to the Government of India.
Indian Constitution 240

5. By Incorporation of Territory: In the event the “Guardian of the Constitution”. According
of a certain territory being added to the territory to Dr. Ambedkar, Article 32 is “the heart and
of India, the Government of India shall specify soul of the Constitution”.
the persons of that territory who shall be citizen (a) Habeas Corpus:
of India. Safeguards people from illegal arrests.
Loss of Citizenship (b) Mandamus:
The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes It protects the petitioner who requires legal
three ways of losing citizenship whether help to get his work done by respective public
acquired under the Act or prior to it under the authorities.
Constitution, viz, renunciation, termination (c) Prohibition:
and deprivation. It prohibits a subordinate court from acting
1. It can be voluntarily renounced by a citizen. beyond its jurisdiction.
(d) Certiorari:
2. It can be terminated if a person acquires the
It quashes an order issued by a subordinate
citizenship of some other country.
court by overstepping its jurisdiction.
3. The central government can deprive a (e) Quo Warranto:
naturalized citizen, if it satisfied that It prevents usurpation of public office through
the citizenship was acquired by fraud, illegal manner.
false representation or concealment of
material facts or indulges in trade with Suspension of Fundamental Rights
enemy countries or if the person has been When the President makes a Proclamation
sentenced to imprisonment for a period of of Emergency under Article 352, the freedoms
2 years. guaranteed under Article 19 are automatically
suspended. The President can suspend other
1.6 Fundamental Rights fundamental rights through specific orders.
The Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part These orders must be approved by the Parliament.
III of the Constitution from Articles 12 to 35. Differences between
In this regard, the framers of the Constitution Fundamental Rights and Directive
derived inspiration from the Constitution of Principles of State Policy
USA. Originally, the Constitution provided for
Directive Principles of
seven Fundamental Rights. At present, there Fundamental Rights
State Policy
are only six Fundamental Rights. Part III of the
Constitution is rightly described as the Magna It was derived from It was drawn on
Carta of India. While Fundamental Rights are the Constitution of the the model of the
available to all persons, certain Fundamental USA. Constitution of Ireland.
Rights are available only to Indian Citizens. Even the Government These are mere
cannot take away or instructions to the
Right to constitutional remedies
abridge these rights. Government.
(Articles - 32) These are enforceable These are not
A writ is an order or command issued by a by a court of law. enforceable in any court.
court in writing under its seal. It is in the nature These have legal These have moral and
of a command or prohibition from performing sanctions. political sanctions.
certain acts that are specified in the orders of The implementation
These rights strengthen
the court. Both the Supreme Court and the of these principles
political democracy in
High Courts are empowered to issue five kinds ensures social and
the country.
of writs. That is why the Supreme Court is called economic democracy.
241 Indian Constitution

I. RIGHT TO EQUALITY II. RIGHT TO FREEDOM
Art. 14 - Equality before law. Art. 19 - Freedom of speech and expression,

Art. 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on assembly, association, movement,
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or residence and profession.
place of birth. Art. 20 - Protection in respect of conviction for
Art. 16 - Equality of opportunity in matters of offences.
public employment. Art. 21 - Protection of life and personal liberty.
Art. 17 - Abolition of Untouchability. Art. 21A - Right to elementary education.
Art. 18 - Abolition of titles except military and Art. 22 - Protection against arrest and detention
academic. in certain cases.
III. RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION IV. RIGHT TO RELIGION
Art. 25 - Freedom of conscience and free

profession, practice and propagation of
religion.
Art. 23 - Prohibition of traffic in human beings Art. 26 - Freedom to manage religious affairs.
and forced labour. Art. 27 - Freedom from payment of taxes for
Art. 24 - Prohibition of employment of children promotion of any religion.
in factories, etc. Art. 28 - Freedom from attending religious
instruction or worship in certain
educational institutions.
V. CULTURAL & EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS
VI. RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES
Art. 29 - Protection of language, script and

culture of minorities. Art. 32 - It allows individuals to seek redressal
Art. 30 - Right of minorities to establish and for the violation of their fundamental
administer educational institutions. rights.
Right to Property (Art. 31) Violation

was deleted from the list of which
of Fundamental Rights by Fu nd ame nt a l
the 44 th Amendment Act, right is associated
1978. It is made a legal right with the theme
under Article 300-A in Part XII of the depicted in the
Constitution. stamps?

1.7 Directive Principles of (c) To uphold and
State Policy protect the
s o v e r e i g n t y,
The Directive Principles of State Policy are unity and
enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution integrity of India
from Articles 36 to 51. The Constitution does
(d) To defend the
not contain any classification of Directive
country and
Principles. However, on the basis of their
render national
content and direction, they can be classified
service when
into three broad categories, viz, socialistic,
called upon to
Gandhian and liberal-intellectual. These
do so
principles are not enforceable by the courts.
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of
But they are fundamental for the
common brotherhood among all the people
governance of the country. They aim at
of India transcending religious, linguistic
promoting the Social Welfare of the people.
and regional or sectional diversities; to
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar described these principles
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity
as ‘novel features’ of the Indian Constitution.
of women
The 86th Amendment Act of 2002 changed (f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of
the subject -matter of Article 45 and made our composite culture
elementary education a fundamental right (g) To protect and improve the natural
under Article 21 A. The amended directive environment including forests, lakes, rivers
requires the State to provide early childhood and wildlife, and to have compassion for
care and education for all children until living creatures
they complete the age of six years.
(h) To develop scientific temper, humanism and
the spirit of inquiry and reform
1.8 Fundamental Duties (i) To safeguard public property and to abjure
The Fundamental Duties in the Indian violence
Constitution are inspired by the Constitution (j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres
of former USSR. In 1976, the Congress party of individual and collective activity, so that
set up the Sardar Swaran Singh Committee the nation constantly rises to higher levels of
to make recommendations on fundamental endeavour and achievement
duties. The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 (k) To provide opportunities for education to
added some responsibilities of citizens to our his child or ward between the age of six
Constitution called the Fundamental Duties. and fourteen years. (The 86th Constitutional
This amendment added a new part, namely, Amendment Act, 2002 has also introduced
Part IVA to the Constitution. This new part the 11th Fundamental Duty under 51A(k)
consists of only one Article that is Article 51A under which all citizens of India or parents
which for the first time specified a code of ten shall provide opportunities for education to
fundamental duties of the citizens. their children between age of 6 and 14 years)
List of Fundamental Duties
1.9 Centre-State Relations
(a) To abide by the constitution and respect its
ideals and institutions, the National Flag Legislative relations
and the National Anthem. The Union Parliament has the power to
(b) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which legislate for the whole or any part of the
inspired the national struggle for freedom territory of India, which includes not only the

States but also the Union Territories or any of the Finance Commission appointed by the
other area for the time being, included in the President under Article 280 of the Constitution.
territory of India. The Seventh Schedule of Late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi appointed
the Constitution embodies three lists namely, the Sarkaria Commission in 1983 to make an
the Union List, State List and Concurrent List enquiry into the Centre-State relations. The
consisting of 97, 66 and 47 items respectively. Central government has implemented 180
The Parliament enjoys the exclusive power to (out of 247) recommendations of the
legislate on subjects enumerated in the Union Commission. The most important is the
List. The State Legislature has exclusive right to establishment of the Inter-State Council in 1990.
legislate on the State List. Both Parliament and
State Legislatures have power to legislate on In 1969, the Tamil Nadu
subjects contained in the Concurrent. List. But Government appointed a three-
in case of conflict between the law of the State member committee under
and the Union on a subject in the Concurrent the chairmanship of Dr. P V
List, the law of Parliament prevails. Rajamannar to examine the entire question
of Centre-state relations.
The Union List, State List and
Concurrent List consisting
1.10 Official Language
at present 100, 61 and 52
items respectively. The 42nd Part XVII of the Constitution deals with
Amendment Act of 1976 the official language in Articles 343 to 351.
transferred five subjects to Concurrent List Initially, the Constitution recognised 14
from State List, that is, education, forests, regional languages which were included in the
weights and measures, protection of wild Eighth Schedule. At present, 22 languages are
animals and birds, and administration of recognised.
justice; constitution and organisation of all
Activity
courts excepts the Supreme Court and the
List out the recognised languages in the
high courts.
Eighth Schedule of the Constitution?
Administrative relations
In 2004, the Government of
The Administrative power of a State extends India decided to create new
only to its own territory and with respect to category of languages called as
which it has legislative competence, whereas the “classical languages”. So far, the
Union has exclusive executive power over: (a) six languages are granted the
the matters with respect to which Parliament classical language status namely Tamil (2004),
has exclusive power to make laws and (b) the Sanskrit (2005), Telugu (2008), Kannada
exercise of its powers conferred by any treaty or (2008), Malayalam (2013) and Odia (2014).
agreement.
1.11 Emergency Provisions
Financial relations
National Emergency (Article 352)
Article 268-293 in Part XII deal with the
Financial relations between centre and the The President under Article 352 can declare
states. The Centre and States are empowered emergency if he is satisfied that India’s security
by the Constitution to impose various kinds is threatened due to war, external aggression
of taxes. And certain taxes are imposed and or armed rebellion, or if there is an imminent
collected by the centre and divided between danger or threat. When a national emergency
centre and states based on the recommendation is declared on the ground of war or external

aggression it is known as external emergency. Procedure of Amendment
On the other hand, when it is declared on
An amendment of this Constitution may be
the ground of armed rebellion it is known as initiated only by the introduction of a Bill for
internal emergency. This type of emergency has the purpose in either House of Parliament,
been declared three times so far: in 1962, 1971 and when the Bill is passed in each House
and 1975. by a majority of the total membership of
State emergency (Article 356) that House and by a majority of not less than
two-thirds of the members of that House
Under Article 356, the President can declare
present and voting, it shall be presented to
an emergency in a state if the Governor
the President who shall give his assent to the
reports that a situation has arisen under which Bill and thereupon the Constitution shall
the government of a State cannot be carried stand amended in accordance with the terms
on in accordance with the provisions of the of the Bill. The constitution amendment can
Constitution. The continuance of such an be brought about only by the Parliament.
emergency beyond one year is possible only if State legislatures cannot initiate for any
emergency under Art. 352 are in operation or amendment to the Constitution.
the Election Commission certifies that there Types of Amendments
are difficulties in holding Assembly elections.
Maximum duration of the emergency can Article 368 provides for three ways of
amendments.
be three years. The State is governed by the
Governor on behalf of the President. For the 1. Amendment by simple majority of the
Parliament
first time, the President’s Rule was imposed in
Punjab in 1951. 2. Amendment by special majority of the
Parliament
Financial emergency (Article 3. Amendment by special majority of the
360) Parliament and the ratification of half of
the state legislatures.
Article 360 authorises the President to
declare financial emergency if he is satisfied
42 nd amendment of the
that the financial stability or credit of India
Constitution is known as the
or of any of its parts is in danger. In this type
mini Constitution.
of emergency, salaries and allowances of
any class of persons serving State or Union,
including judges of the Supreme Court and 1.13 Constitutional
High Court can be reduced by an order of Reform Commissions
the President. This type of emergency has not The National Commission to Review the
been declared in India so far. Working of the Constitution was set up by a
1.12 Amendment of the resolution of the Government of India in 2000
headed by M.N.Venkatachaliah. In April 2007,
Constitution
a three member commission headed by the
The term amendment denotes change, former Chief Justice of India M.M.Punchchi
improvement and modification. Article was set up by the then Government to take a
368 of the Constitution in Part XX, deals fresh look at relative roles and responsibilities
with the powers of Parliament to amend the of various levels of Government and their
Constitution and its procedure. inter-relations.

SUMMARY
The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly set up under the Cabinet
Mission Plan, 1946.
The Preamble of our Constitution states that India is a Sovereign Socialist Secular
Democratic Republic.
The word ‘Citizen’ is derived from the Latin term ‘Civis’. It means resident of a City State.
According to Dr. Ambedkar, Article 32 is “the heart and soul of the whole Constitution”.
In 2004, the Government of India decided to create new category of languages called as
“classical languages”.
GLOSSARY
Preamble the introduction to the constitution of India முகவுரை
Secular state A state which protects all religions equally சமயச் சார்பற்ற அரசு
Discrimination unfair treatesment of a person or group பாகுபாடு
Writ written command of court நீதிப்பேராணை
Sovereignty supreme power or authority இறையாண்மை
Heritage something handed down from one’s ancestors பாரம்பரியம்
Autonomy independence in one’s thoughts or actions தன்னாட்சி
Proclamation an announcement பிரகடனம்
EVALUATION
4. Find the odd one out.
(a) Right to Equality
I Choose the Correct
Answer (b) Right against Exploitation
(c) Right to Property
1. Which of the following sequences in right
regarding the Preamble? (d)Cultural and Educational Rights
(a) R epublic, democratic, secular, 5.
One of the following is not an instance of an
socialist, sovereign exercise of a fundamental right?
(b) S overeign, socialist, secular, republic, (a) Workers from Karnataka go to Kerala to
democratic work on the farms
(c) S overeign, republic, secular, socialist, (b) Christian missions set up a chain of
democratic missionary schools
(d) S overeign, socialist, secular, (c) Men and Women government employees
democratic, republic got the same salary.
2. How many times has the Preamble to the (d) Parents property is inherited by their
Constitution of India amended? children
(a) Once (b) Twice (c) Thrice (d) Never 6.
Which one of the following rights was
3.
A foreigner can acquire Indian citizenship described by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the
through heart and soul of the Constitution?
(a) Descent (b) Registration (a) Right to freedom of religion
(c) Naturalisation (d) All of the above (b) Right to equality

(c) Right to Constitutional remedies III Match the Following
(d) Right to property 1. Citizenship Act - Jawaharlal Nehru
7.
How can the Fundamental Rights be 2. The Preamble - 42nd Amendment
suspended? 3. The mini Constitution - 1955
(a) If the Supreme Court so desires 4. Classical language - 1962
(b) If the Prime Minister orders to this 5. National Emergency - Tamil
effect IV Give short Answers
(c) If the President orders it during the 1. What is a Constitution?
national emergency 2. What is meant by citizenship?
(d) All of the above 3. List out the fundamental rights guranteed
by Indian Constitution.
8. We borrowed the Fundamental Duties from the
4. What is a Writ?
(a) American Constitution 5. What are the classical languages in India?
(b) Canadian Constitution 6. What is national emergency?
(c) Russian Constitution 7. List out the three heads of the relations
between the Centre and the States.
(d) Irish Constitution
V Answer in Detail
9.
Under which Article financial emergency
1. Explain the salient features of the
can be proclaimed?
Constitution of India.
(a) Article 352 (b) Article 356 2. Point out the Fundamental Rights.
(c) Article 360 (d) Article 368 3. Write briefly on the Right to Constitutional
10. Which of the following committees/ Remedies.
commissions made recommendations 4. Mention the differences between
about the Centre-State Relations? Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles of State Policy.
1. Sarkaria Commission
VI Project and activity
2. Rajamannar Committee
1. Collect information about the various
3. M.N.Venkatachaliah Commission members of the Constituent Assembly and
Select the correct answer from the their social background.
codes given below 2. Collect the pictures of the Members of the
(a) 1, 2 & 3 (b) 1 & 2 Drafting Committee and their social
(c) 1 & 3 (d) 2 & 3 background.
II Fill in the Blanks REFERENCE BOOKS

1.
The concept of constitution first originated
in ________. 1. D.D. Basu - Introduction of the Constitution of
India, S.C. Sarkar & Sons (Private) Ltd, 1982.
2.
________was elected as the temporary
President of the Constituent Assembly. 2.
PM Bakshi - The Constitution of India,
Universal Law Publishing - an imprint of
3.
The Constitution of India was adopted
LexisNexis, 2018.
on________.
4.
________ writs are mentioned in Article INTERNET RESOURCES
32.
1. https://www.india.org/
5.
Fundamental duties have been given to the
citizen of India under Article________. 2. https://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p03.html

Unit - 2
Central
Government
Learning Objectives
To know the powers of the President and Vice President
To Know the about the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
To understand the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
To know about Supreme Court
Introduction character of our nation, have provided a federal

arrangement for her governance. The Central
The Central Government is the supreme Government consists of three organs, namely,
government in our country. The head Union Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.
quarter of the Central Government is at New The Union Executive consists of the President
Delhi. Articles 52 to 78 in part V of Indian of India, the Vice-President, and the Council
Constitution deals with the Union Executive. of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, and
The makers of the Indian constitution, by giving the Attorney General of India. The Legislature
due recognition to the vastness and plural is known as the Parliament. It consists of two
Central Government
Executive Legislature Judiciary
President of India Parliament Supreme Court of India
Vice-President Chief Justice of India

Rajya Sabha Lok Sabha
Prime Minister 238 Elected Other Judges 27

12 Nominated
by the State
Assemblies by the President
Council of
Ministers 543 Elected by the people 2 Nominated by the President
248

houses, namely the Rajya Sabha and the Lok
It is a well known fact that the
Sabha. The Union Judiciary consists of the
President of India resides at
Supreme Court of India.
Rashtrapati Bhavan in New
Delhi. The residence and the
2.1 The President of India office of the President are
located in the same building. However he
The President is has two other office cum residences where
the nominal executive he conducts office at least once a year. They
authority. The chief are 'The Retreat Building' at Shimla and the
executive of the Indian 'Rashtrapati Nilayam' at Hyderabad. These
union is the President. locations one in North and other one is South
He is designated symbolise the unity of the country and unity
of the diverse culture of the people.
as the First citizen
of India. He is the Election of the President
supreme commander DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD The President is elected by an electoral college
of the armed forces. (First President of India) in accordance with the system of proportional
The President is also the Constitutional head of representation by means of single transferable
the Union Executive. According to Article 53 vote. The Electoral College consists of the
of the constitution, the executive power of the elected members of both houses of Parliament
Union shall be vested in the President which and the elected members of the states and
shall be exercised by him directly or through elected members of National Capital Territory
officers subordinate to him in accordance with of Delhi and Puducherry. Once elected as the
Constitution. President has to take an oath of office before the
Chief Justice of India. The President is elected
Qualification for the election as for a term of five years and can be re-elected.
President
Powers of the President
He should be a citizen of India. Executive Powers
He must have completed the age of
Article 77 requires that every executive action
thirty-five years. of the Union shall be taken in the name of the
He must not hold any office of profit under President.
the Union, State or local Government.
He appoints the Prime Minister and the
He should have the other qualifications other members of the Council of Ministers,
required to become a member of the Lok distributing portfolios to them on the advice
Sabha. of the Prime Minister. He is responsible for
His or her name should be proposed by at making a wide variety of appointments.
least ten electors and seconded by another These include the appointment of Governors
ten electors of the Electoral College which of States, the Chief Justice and other Judges
of the Supreme Court and high Courts, the
elects the President.
Attorney General, the Comptroller and Auditor
The President cannot be a Member of General, the Chief Election Commissioner and
Parliament or of a State Legislature; if he is other Election Commissioners the Chairman
a member of any legislature, his seat will be and other Members of the Union Public
deemed to have been vacated on the date he / Service Commission Ambassadors and High
she assumes the office of President. Commissioners to other countries.
249 Central Government

Legislative Powers Military Powers
He inaugurates the session of the Parliament Article 53(2) lays down that “the supreme
by addressing it after the general election command of the Defence Force of the Union
and also at the beginning of the first session shall be vested in the President and the exercise
each year. This address is essentially identical thereof shall be regulated by law”.
in nature to a Speech from the Throne.The Diplomatic Powers
President summons Parliament at least twice in
a year. The President appoints Indian diplomats to
other countries and receives foreign diplomats
He may send messages to either House of the posted to India. The ambassador designate
Parliament with respect to a bill pending in the becomes ambassador after calling on the
House. All bills passed by the Parliament become President and presenting his credentials. All
“Laws of Acts” only after getting assent of the treaties and agreements with foreign States are
President. Money bills cannot be introduced in entered into, in the name of the President.
the Parliament without his approval. President
Emergency Powers
terminates the sessions of both or any of the
Houses of Parliament. He can even dissolve the The President has been empowered by the
Lok Sabha before the expiry of the term of the Constitution to proclaim National Emergency
House. under Article 352, State Emergency under
Article 356, Financial Emergency under Article
He nominates 12 persons who are eminent in
360.
literature, science, sports, art and social service
to the Rajya Sabha. He can also nominate Kerala and Punjab are the States where the
two persons belonging to Anglo-Indian President’s Rule was imposed for maximum
Community to the Lok Sabha, if in his opinion, number of times i.e., nine times in both
that community is inadequately represented in States.
the House.
Financial Power Removal of the President
Annual Budget of the Central Government The President may by writing under his
is presented before the Lok Sabha by the Union hand addressed to the Vice-President, resign
Finance Minister only with the permission of his office. The President may, for violation of
the President. He causes to be laid before the the Constitution, be removed from office by
Parliament the annual financial statement (the impeachment in the manner provided in Article
61; The Impeachment action can be brought
Union Budget). The Constitution of India places
about in the form of resolution in either house
the Contingency Fund of India is at the disposal
of the Parliament. It must be supported by not
of the President. No demand for a grant can be
less than One-Fourth of the total strength of the
made except on his recommendation. He can
House for its introduction. The President shall,
make advances out of the contingency fund of
in spite of the conclusion of his term, continue
India to meet any unexpected expenditure. He
to hold office until his successor enters upon his
constitutes a finance commission after every
office.
five years.
Judicial Powers 2.2 Vice-President
Article 72 confers on the President power to The vice-President occupies the second
grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions highest office in the country. He is accorded a
of punishment, or to commute the sentence of rank next to the President in the official warrant
any person convicted of an offence. of precedence. This office is modeled on the
Central Government 250

lines of the American passed by a majority of all the then members of
Vice-President. Article the council and agreed to by the House of the
63 of the constitution People. A resolution for this purpose may be
provides for a Vice moved only after a notice of at least a minimum
President of India. of 14 days has been given of such an intention.
This office has been Functions of the Vice President
created to maintain the
political continuity of The Vice-President is Ex-Officio Chairman of
DR. RADHA KRISHNAN
the state. (First Vice President of India) the Rajya Sabha.
He regulates the proceeding of the House.
Qualification for the election as
Vice President He decides the order of the House.
He should be a citizen of India. He decides the admissibility of a resolution

or questions.
He must have completed the age of thirty-
five years. He suspends or adjourns the House in case
of a grave disorder. When the President is
He must not hold any office of profit under unable to discharge his duties due to illness
the Union, State or local Government. or absence from the country, he attends
He should have the other qualifications to the functions of the President for a
required to become a member of the Rajya maximum period of six months.
Sabha.
Casting Vote
Election and term of the According to Article (100) of the Constitution,
Vice-President the vice-president can\only cast his vote
Article 66(1) the Vice- when there is a tie over the Bill in the Rajya
President, like the president, Sabha.It means that there is need for one
is elected not directly by the vote only to pass the Bill. No members have
people but the method of any right to oppose his decision.
indirect election. The term
of office of the Vice President 2.3 Prime Minister
is five years. His office may Article 74 (1) says: There shall be a council of
terminate earlier than the fixed term either by ministers with the Prime Minster as the head to
resignation, death or by removal. He is eligible aid and advice the President.
for re-election. Till then deputy chairman of
the Rajya sabha can perform the duties of the The post of Prime Minister of India has
chairman of the Rajya sabha. adopted the Westminster (England) model of
constitutional democracy. The parliment of
If the posts of President and England is situated in Westminister so it's called
Vice-President lie vacant, Chief Westminister parliment
Justice of India works as President. The leader of the
This situation happened in 1969 majority party in Lok
when Chief Justice M.Hidayutalla Sabha is appointed by the
was appointed as President of India. President as the Prime
Minister. The other
Removal of the Vice President ministers are appointed by
The Vice President may be removed from his the President on the advice
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
office by a resolution of the Council of States of the Prime Minister. If no (First Prime Minister of India)

party commands absolute majority in the Lok restricts the number of the Council of Ministers
Sabha, the President can summon the leader of including the Prime Minister to 15% of the total
any party who, in his opinion, can manage to members of the Lok Sabha.
form a ministry. The President administers to Categories of the Ministers
the ministers the oath of office and of secrecy. A
person who is not a member of the Parliament The ministers are classified under three ranks
can be appointed as a minister but he has to (i) Cabinet Ministers
get himself elected to the Parliament within six
(ii) Ministers of State
months. Ministers are individually as well as
collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. (iii) Deputy Ministers.
Duties and functions of Prime Cabinet Ministers
Minister The Cabinet is an informal body of
Article 78 mentioned the duties of the Prime senior ministers who form the nucleus of
Minister: administration. Important decisions of the
government are taken by the Cabinet, such as
The Prime Minister decides the rank
defense, finance, external affairs and home.
of his ministers and distributes various
departments. Ministers of State
The Prime Minister decides the dates and These ministers belong to the second category
the agenda of the meeting of the Cabinet of ministers in the council. They are also in
which he presides. charge of ministries or departments but they do
not participate in the meetings of the cabinet
The Prime Minister informally consults
unless invited to do so.
two or three of his senior colleagues when
he does not convene a Cabinet meeting. Deputy Ministers
The Prime Minister supervises the work of They are the lowest ranked ministers in
various ministers. the cabinet. They assist either the Ministers
of Cabinet or State in the performance of the
To converse to the President all decisions of
duties entrusted to them.
the Council of Ministers connecting to the
government of the affairs of the Union and 2.4 Parliament of India
proposals for legislation. The parliament is the legislative organ of the
The Prime Minister act as the link between Union government. The Parliament of India
the President and the Council of Ministers. consists of three parts they are the 1) President,
2) Rajya Sabha (the council of States) 3) Lok
The Prime Minister is the leader of the
Sabha (the House of the People). The Rajya
nation and chief spokesperson of the
Sabha is the Upper House and the Lok Sabha
country.
is the Lower House it is termed as bicameral
As the leader of the nation, the Prime legislature.
Minister represents our nation at all
international conferences like the
commonwealth, summit of the non aligned
nations and SAARC nations.
Council of Ministers
After the elections, the President of India, on
the advice of the Prime Minister, appoints the
council of ministers. The Constitution of India Parliament

Rajya Sabha Election
The council of State or Rajya Sabha consists Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by
of 250 members out of whom 238 represent the the elected members of the ‘State Legislative
states and the Union Territories, elected by the Assemblies’ in accordance with the system of
method of indirect election. proportional representation by means of the
single transferable vote. This process of election
The 12nominated members shall be chosen
is called “indirect election” as they are not
by the President from amongst persons having
elected by the people directly.
‘special knowledge or practical experience in
the field of literature, science, sports, art and Lok Sabha
social service. The Lok Sabha is the popular house of
Qualification of the Members the Indian Parliament and contains elected
representatives of the people. Maximum
He should be a citizen of India.
number of members can be elected for Lok
He should not be less than 30 years of age. Sabha is 552. The Lok Sabha as of today has 543
He should not hold any office of profit elected members. Out of these, 530 members
under any Government. are elected from different states and 13 members
from the Union Territories. The President
He should be a person with sound mind
generally nominates two members belonging to
and monetarily solvent.
the Anglo-Indian community. At present, the
He should not be the member of Lok Sabha Lok Sabha consists of 545 members.
or any other legislature.
Qualification of the Members
Term of House He should be a citizen of India.
The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and it He should not be less than 25 years of age.
cannot be dissolved. The members of the Rajya He should have his name in electoral rolls
Sabha are elected for a term of six years. One in some part of the country.
third of the members of Rajya Sabha retire He should not hold any office of profit
every two years, and new members are elected under the Union or State Government.
to fill the seats thus vacated. The Vice President
He should be mentally sound and
of India is the Ex-officio Chairperson of the
economically solvent.
Rajya Sabha. The Deputy Chairperson of the
Rajya Sabha is elected by the members of the The term of the House
Rajya Sabha. Generally the Lok Sabha enjoys a term of five
Money Bill: Rajya Sabha does years from the date of its first session. It can be
not have any power to amend or dissolved by the President before the expiry of
reject the Money bill. Lok Sabha its term on the advice of the Prime Minister.
can only introduce Money bill The emergency provisions of the Constitution
and once it is approved by the enable the President to prorogue or dissolve
Lok Sabha, it is passed to Rajya Sabha for its the Lok Sabha either on the advice of the Prime
approval. If Rajya Sabha fails to pass it within Minister or on being convinced that no party or
14 days then the bill gets passed without the no alliance of parties enjoys necessary majority
approval of Rajya Sabha. Also, Lok Sabha support in the House.
does not need to consider the amendments Election
proposed by the Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha can
The members of the Lok Sabha are directly
reject all the proposals and pass it.
elected by the people of the constituencies

created on the basis of population. The Election speaker is vacant or the speaker is absent from
Commission of India arranges, supervises and the sitting of the house, the deputy speaker
conducts elections to the Lok Sabha. presides, except when a resolution for his own
“Universal Adult Franchise” is followed removal is under consideration.
while electing the members of the Lok Sabha.
All Indian Citizens above 18 years of age who Parliament Session
are registered as voters will vote for their Budget Session February to May
representatives. Monsoon Session July to September
Winter Session November to
December
Powers and Functions of the

Parliament
The Parliament of India has the functions of
Legislation, overseeing of administration,
passing of Budget, ventilation of public
grievances, discussion of various subjects
like development plans, international
Universal Adult Franchise
relations and internal policies.
Functions of the Lok Sabha
Parliament is also vested with powers to
Any bill can be introduced and passed in impeach the President and to remove
the Lok sabha (Including Money Bill). Judges of the Supreme Court and High
It has the same power as Rajya Sabha to Courts, Chief Election Commissioner and
participate in case of impeachment of Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
president and the judges of Supreme Court. in accordance with the procedure laid
down in the Constitution.
It has equal power as Rajya Sabha in passing
any bill for constitutional amendment. The Parliament has the power to change the
boundaries of the States.
Lok Sabha members have the power to elect
Elected members of the Parliament from
the president, vice president.
Tamil Nadu.
2.5 Attorney General of
Motion of no confidence can only be India
Rajya Sabha – 18 members
introduced in Lok Sabha. The Constitution (Article 76) has provided
Lok Sabha – 39 members
for office of the Attorney General for India. He
The Speaker is the highest law officer in the country. He is
appointed by the President. He must be a person
The Lok Sabha is presided over by the who is qualified to be appointed the Judge of
‘speaker’ who is elected by its members. The the Supreme Court. He may be removed by the
office of the Speaker occupies an essential President at any time. He may also quit his office
position in our Parliamentary democracy. The by submitting his resignation to the President.
Speaker continues to be in the office even in the
houses dissolved, till a new Speaker is elected by Duties and Functions of Attorney
the new Lok Sabha. The Speaker presides over a General of India
joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament. He To give advice to the Government of India
has the power to decide whether a Bill is Money upon such legal matters which are referred
Bill or an ordinary one. While the office of to him by the President. Attorney General of

India has the right of audience in all courts in including the chief justice. At present, the
the territory of India. Further he has the right Supreme Court consists of 34 judges including
to speak and to take part in the proceedings of the chief justice.
both Houses of the Parliament or their joint
Appointment of Judges
sitting and any committee of the Parliament of
which he may be named a member, but without The Chief Justice of Supreme Court in India
a right to vote. He enjoys all the privileges and is appointed by the President of India. The
immunities that are available to a member of other judges are appointed by the President in
Parliament. consultation with the collegiums with Chief
Justice Head.
2.6 Judiciary
Qualification of Supreme Court
Judiciary is the third organ of the government. Judges
It plays a vital role in protecting the rights and He must be a citizen of India.
freedom of the citizens.
He should have worked as a Judge of a High
Supreme Court Court for at least 5 years.
The “Supreme Court is the Guardian of the He should have worked as an advocate of
Constitution”. Our judiciary is autonomous of High Court for at least 10 years.
the Legislative and Executive wing of the Union
He is in the opinion of the President, a
and State Government. An integrated judiciary
distinguished Jurist.
means a single judicial hierarchy for the whole
country. The judiciary plays an important role The constitution also provides for the
in defensive the rights and freedom of the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court on
citizens. It plays an important role in analyzing an ad-hoc (temporary) basis. The Chief Justice
and interpreting the necessities of laws and the and other judges of the Supreme Court hold
constitution. the office up to the age of 65 years. The judges
of the Supreme Court can resign before their
term by giving their resignation in writing to
the President. The Parliament also has power
to remove the Judges by invoking impeachment
provisions. The Supreme Court has its
permanent seat in “New Delhi”. It may also sit
any other place in India which may be decided
by the Chief Justice of India with the approval of
the President of India.
Supreme Court
Powers and Functions of the
The Supreme Court of India, Supreme Court
New Delhi was inaugurated (a) Original Jurisdiction
on January 28, 1950. It
The cases which are brought directly in the
succeeded the Federal Court
first instance to the Supreme Court come under
of India, established under the
Government of India Act of 1935. original jurisdiction. These may be (i) dispute
between the Government of India and one or
more States of (ii) Dispute between two or more
Composition of the Supreme Court
states (iii) The writs are issued by the Supreme
At the commencement of the constitution in Court for the enforcement of the fundamental
1950 our supreme court consisted of 8 judges rights.

(b) Appellate Jurisdiction The Supreme Court is authorized to make
The Supreme Court is the final appellate rules for regulating, generally the practice
court in the country. As regard the Appellate and procedure of the court with the
jurisdiction, the Supreme Court hears appeals approval of the President.
against the decisions of High Court in “civil, (e) Judicial Review
criminal and Constitutional” cases with a
certificate from the High Court that it is fit to The power of the judiciary to declare a law as
appeal in the Supreme Court. Such a case can unconstitutional is known as “Judicial Review”.
be brought before the Supreme Court only if The Supreme Court enjoys this power. The
the High Court certifies that the case invites a Supreme Court of India has Individual Review
substantial of law as to the interpretation of the Power with regard to
Constitution.
1. Dispute between the Centre and the States
(c) Advisory Jurisdiction
2. To interpret and clarify a provision of the
The Constitution confers on the President
constitution about which there are some
the power to refer to the Supreme Court any
question of law or fact which in his opinion is of doubts and differences of opinion.
public importance. 3. Protecting the fundamental rights,
(d) Miscellaneous Jurisdiction 4. Those laws passed by the legislatures which
The law declared by Supreme Court is binding are not in accordance with the Constitution.
on all courts within the territory of India.
SUMMARY
The Central Government consists of three organs, namely, Union Executive, Legislature and
Judiciary.
President appoints the Prime Minister and the other members of the Council of Ministers.
The Parliament of India consists of three parts they are the President, Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha.
The Attorney General for the India is the highest law officer in the country.
He is appointed by the President of India.
The “Supreme Court is the Guardian of the Constitution”.
The Chief Justice of Supreme Court in India is appointed by the President of India.
GLOSSARY
Terminate bring to an untimely end. முடிவுக்கு க�ொண்டு

வருதல்
C o n t i n g e n c y an amount of money that can be used to pay for எதிர்பாரா செலவு நிதி
fund problems that might happen.
Pardon Absolving the convict of all guilt and punishment. ப�ொதுமன்னிப்பு
Remission Quantitative reduction of punishment without தண்டனை குறைப்பு
affecting Nature of punishment.
Precedence priority of importance. முன்னுரிமை
Ex-officio because of an office. பதவியின் நிமித்தமாக

EVALUATION
1. _________ Bill cannot be introduced
in the Parliament without President’s
I Choose the correct approval.
answer 2. __________ is the leader of the nation and
1. The Constitutional Head chief spokesperson of the country.
of the Union is 3. ______________ is the Ex-officio
a) The President Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
b) The Chief Justice 4. ________ has the right to speak and to take
c) The Prime Minister part in the proceedings of both Houses of
d) Council of Ministers the Parliament.
2. Who among the following decides whether 5. The Chief Justice and other judges of the
a Bill is a Money Bill or not? Supreme Court hold the office up to the
a) The President age of ________years.
b) Attorney General 6. ____________ is the Guardian of the
c) Parliamentary Affairs Minister Constitution.
d) Speaker of Lok Sabha 7. At present, the Supreme Court consists of
3. The Council of Ministers is collectively _______ judges including the chief justice.
responsible to the: III Choose the correct statement
a) The President
1. i) T otal members of the Rajya Sabha is
b) Lok Sabha
250.
c) The Prime Minister
ii) The 12 nominated members shall be
d) Rajya Sabha chosen by the President from amongst
4. What is minimum age laid down for a persons experience in the field of
candidate to seek election to the Lok Sabha? literature, science, art, or social service
a) 18 years b) 21 years iii) The Members of the Rajya Sabha should
c) 25 years d) 30 years not be less than 30 years of age.
5. The authority to alter the boundaries of iv) The members of the Rajya Sabha are
state in India rest with? directly elected by the peoples.
a) The President a) ii & iv are correct
b) The Prime Minister b) iii & iv are correct
c) State Government c) i & iv are correct
d) Parliament d) i, ii & iii are correct
6. Under which Article the President is vested 2. i) The Chief Justice and other judges of the
with the power to proclaim Financial Supreme Court hold the office up to the
Emergency age of 62 years.
a) Article 352 b) Article 360 ii) Judiciary is the third organ of the
c) Article 356 d) Article 365 government.
7. The Chief Justice and other Judges of the iii) The cases involving fundamental rights
Supreme court are appointed by: come under the Appellate jurisdiction
a) The President of the Supreme Court.
b) TheAttorney General iv) The law declared by Supreme Court is
c) The Governor binding on all courts within the territory
d) The Prime Minister of India.

a) ii & iv are correct 4. Critically examine the Powers and
b) iii & iv are correct Functions of the Parliament.
c) i & iv are correct VII Project and activity
d) i & ii are correct 1. Organise a mock parliament in your
IV Match the following class. Discuss the role of President,
Prime Minister and Ministers.
1. Article 53 - State Emergency
2. Bring out the differences and similarities
2. Article 63 - Internal Emergency between the US and Indian President’s.
3. Article 356 - Executive power of 3. Make a list of Presidents and Prime
President Ministers of India.
4. Article 76 - Office of the Vice President
5. Article 352 - Office of the Attorney REFERENCE BOOKS
General
V Answer the brief questions 1. D.D. Basu - Introduction of the
Constitution of India, S.C. Sarkar &
1. How is President of India elected?
Sons (Private) Ltd, 1982.
2. What are the different categories of
2. PM Bakshi - The Constitution of India,
Ministers at the Union level?
Universal Law Publishing - an imprint
3. What is the qualification of Judges of the of LexisNexis, 2018.
Supreme Court?
3. Subhash Kashyap - Our Constitution,
4. Write short note: Money Bill. National Book Trust, India, 2011.
5. List out any two special powers of the
Attorney General of India? INTERNET RESOURCES
VI Answer in detail
1. Describe the Executive and Judicial 1. https://www.india.org/
powers of the President of India. 2. https://presidentofindia.nic.in/
2. Explain any three Jurisdiction of the 3. http://vicepresidentofindia.nic.in/
Supreme Court of India? 4. http://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/
3. What are the Duties and functions of 5. https://www.sci.gov.in/
Prime Minister of India?
ICT CORNER
Central Government
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below.
• Click on the items under the who’s who menu to view the current Governing bodies and
also know about the Lok Sabha & the Rajya Sabha.
• For example, click on the president from the leftside menu to view the details of the
President.
• Likewise you can view all the details of the current Governing bodies.
Website URL:
https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/whos-who

Unit - 3
State Government
Learning Objectives
Students acquire knowledge about the structure of the State Government
To understand the powers and functions of the Governor, Chief Minister,
Ministers and Speaker
To know about the State Legislature
Student understand the functioning of the judicial system in the State
Introduction states, The structure of the State Government, as

formed in the Centre, consists of three branches.
The Constitution of India envisages for a These are the Executive, the Legislature and the
federal government, having separate systems
Judiciary.
of administration for the union and the states.
There are 28 states, 9 union territories and one 3.1 The Executive
national capital territory known as Delhi in
The Governor
India. The constitution contains provisions for
the governance of both the union and the states. The Governor is the constitutional head of
It lays down a uniform structure for the State the state executive. Generally, there is a separate
Government, in part VI of the constitution from Governor in each State but if the situation
Article 152 to 237, which is applicable to all the warrants so, the same person may be appointed
State Government
Executive Legislature Judiciary
Governor High Court

Legislative Legislative
Council Assembly
Chief Minister (Upper House) (Lower House) District Courts
Council of Other Courts

Ministers
259

as the Governor of two or more States. Article Powers and Functions of the
154 vests the executive power of the State in the Governor
Governor.
The Governor is the head of the state executive
Appointment and he has enormous powers. In the exercise
The Governor of a State shall be appointed of functions and powers, the Governor, except
by the President. His usual term of office is five in certain cases, is to be guided by the aid and
years but he holds office during the pleasure of advice of the Council of Ministers headed by
the President. Generally, the Governor does the Chief Minister (under Article 163).
not belong to the State where he is appointed. Executive Powers
He can also be transferred from one state to He appoints the leader of the majority party
another by the President. He can also resign in the State Legislative Assembly as the
any time by addressing his resignation to the Chief Minister of the State.
President.
He appoints other members of the Council
The Legislature of a State or a High Court has of Ministers on the recommendation of the
no role in the removal of a Governor. A person Chief Minister.
may be appointed as a Governor for any number He appoints the Chairman and Members of
of terms. Two conventions have been set up in the State Public Service Commission.
the matter of appointing a person as Governor
He appoints the state election commissioner
of a State. He should not be a resident of the
and determines his conditions of service
State concerned and, the State Government
and tenure of office.
concerned is consulted and its views are sought
He acts as the chancellor of universities
regarding the proposed choice.
in the state. He also appoints the Vice
According to Article 158 (3A), where the Chancellors of universities in the state.
same person is appointed as Governor of two
He directly rules a State when there is the
or more States, the emoluments and allowances
imposition of the President’s rule in the
payable to the Governor shall be allocated
State.
among the States in such proportion as the
President may by order determine. Legislative Powers
The Governor is an integral part of the
Qualification
state legislature. But, he is not a member in the
Article 157 and Article either house of the legislature. In this capacity,
158 of the Constitution he enjoys the following legislative powers and
of India specify eligibility functions:
requirements for the post of
He has the right to summon, prorogue
governor. They are as follows:
the state legislature and dissolve the State
He should be a citizen of Legislative Assembly.
India. He can address the state legislature at the
He must have completed 35 years of age. commencement of the first session after
each general election and the first session
He should not be a member of Parliament or of each year.
of any State Legislature. If he is a member of He can send messages to the houses of the
any of Legislature, he automatically vacates state legislature relating to a bill pending in
his seat on assuming the office. the legislature.
He should not hold any other profitable He can appoint any member of the
occupation. Legislative Assembly to preside over its
State Government 260

proceedings when the offices of both the Judicial Powers
Speaker and the Deputy Speaker fall vacant. He appoints the Attorney-General of the
He can nominate one member to the State State.
Legislative Assembly from the Anglo-
He makes appointment, postings and
Indian Community. promotions of the District Judges in
He nominates 1/6 of the members of the consultation with the State High Court.
State Legislative Council from amongst The Chief Justice of the High Court in
the persons having special knowledge or the State is appointed by the President in
practical experience in literature, science, consultation with him.
art, cooperative movement and social

He can pardon, commute or reprieve
service.
punishment on receipt of appeals for mercy
Every bill passed by the state legislature will except death sentence.
become law only after his signature. But,
Discretionary Powers
when a bill is sent to the Governor after it is
passed by the legislature, he has the options The Governor can reserve a bill for the
to give his assent to the bill or withhold his consideration of the president.
assent to the bill or return the bill for the He can call the leader of any party to form
reconsideration of the legislature. ministry in the state when there is no clear-
He can promulgate ordinances when the cut majority to any party in the Legislative
state legislature is not in session under Assembly after the general elections.
Article 213. But, these ordinances must He can dismiss the Council of Ministers
be approved by the legislature within when it is unable to prove the confidence of
six months. He can also withdraw an the Legislative Assembly; and
ordinance at anytime.
Emergency Powers
He has to lay the annual reports of the
State Finance Commission, the State Public If the Governor is satisfied that the government
Service Commission and the Comptroller of the state is not carried on in accordance with
and Auditor General relating to the accounts the provisions of the Constitution, he may,
of the state, before the state legislature. under Article 356, recommend to the President
to impose President Rule in that State. As
Financial Powers
soon as the President Rule is imposed, the
The Constitution confers on the Governor, administration of the State is carried on by the
the duty to get prepared and introduced Governor as the representative of the President.
to the State Legislature, the annual budget
and also the supplementary budgets, if Privileges of the Governor
necessary. Article 361(1) provides for the following

Money Bills can be introduced in the privileges for the Governor;
Legislative Assembly only with his prior
The Governor of a State, is not be
recommendation. answerable to any court for the exercise and
He can make advances out of the state performance of the powers and duties of
Contingency Fund to meet any unforeseen his office or for any act done or purporting
expenditure. to be done by him in the exercise and
He constitutes a Finance Commission after performance of those powers and duties.
every five years to review the financial No process for the arrest or imprisonment
position of the panchayats and the of the Governor of a State, shall issue from
municipalities. any court during his term of office.
261 State Government

3.2 Chief Minister
Chairman and Members of the State
In the scheme of Parliamentary system of Finance Commission.
government provided by the constitution, the Relating to State Legislature
governor is the nominal executive authority The Chief Minister advises the Governor with
�
and the Chief Minister is the real executive regard to the summoning and proroguing
authority. In other words, the governor is the the sessions of the state legislature.
head of the State while the Chief Minister is the He announces the government policies on
�
head of the government. the floor of the house.
The appointment of the Chief Minister He can introduce the bills in the Legislative
�
The Chief Minister is appointed by the Assembly.
Governor of the State. He can recommend for the dissolution of
�
The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed. the Legislative Assembly to the Governor
He may remain as the Chief Minister as long anytime.
as he enjoys the support of the majority of the Council of Ministers
members of the Legislative Assembly. He has to
The Council of Ministers are collectively
resign when he losses confidence of the majority
responsible to the State Legislature. All the
in the assembly. It is ‘understood that normally
members of the Council of Ministers must be
he completes 5 years term like other members
the members of the State Legislature. Those
in the Legislative Assembly.
who are not the members at the time of their
Powers and functions of the appointment, must secure their seats in the
Chief Minister Legislature within a period of 6 months. If a no-
elating to the Council of
R confidence motion is passed by the Legislative
Ministers Assembly, the State Ministry shall resign.
The Chief Minister recommends the Article l63 provides for a Council of Ministers
persons who can be appointed as ministers to aid and advice the Governor. According
by Governor. to Article 163(1) there shall be a Council of
He allocates the portfolios among the Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head
ministers. to aid and advice the Governor in the exercise
He shuffles and reshuffles his ministry. of his functions, except in so far as he is by or
under this Constitution required to exercise his
He presides over the meetings of the
functions or any of them in his discretion.
Council of Ministers and influences its
decisions. Other Provisions relating to Ministers
He guides, directs, controls and coordinates Article 164(1) holds that the Chief Minister
the activities of all the ministers. shall be appointed by the Governor.
Relating to the Governor Article 164(1A) states that the total number
He advises the Governor in relation to the of Ministers, including the Chief Minister, in the
appointment of the following officials: Council of Ministers in a State shall not exceed
Advocate General of the State. fifteen percent of the total number of members
State Election Commissioner. of the Legislative Assembly.
Chairman and Members of the State Public he functions and powers of the
T
Service Commission. Council of Ministers
Chairman and Members of the State It formulates and decides the policies of the
Planning Commission. state and implements them effectively.

It decides the legislative programmes of The Legislative Assembly
the Legislative Assembly and sponsors all (Lower House)
important bills.
The Legislative Assembly is a popular house.
It controls the financial policy and decides It is the real centre of power in the State. It
the tax structure for the public welfare of consists of members directly elected by the
the state. people on the basis of adult franchise. The
It makes the important appointments of the strength of the Assembly varies from State to
Heads of Departments. State depending on the population. However
It discusses and takes efforts on the dispute the maximum strength of the Assembly must
with other states not exceed 500 or its minimum strength not be
It frames the proposal for incurring below 60. The term of office of the legislative
expenditure out of state reserves. assembly is 5 years. It can be dissolved even
It decides all the bills whether ordinary before the expiry of its term.
bills or money bills to be introduced in the The size of the Legislative Council cannot
Legislative Assembly. be more than one-third the membership of the
Each minister of the Council of Ministers Legislative Assembly (lower house) of that state.
supervises, controls and coordinates the But its size cannot be less than 40.
department concerned.
Composition
Annual Financial Statement called as
the Budget is finalised by the Council of The Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu
Ministers. consists of 235 members out of which 234
members are directly elected by the people from
3.3 The State Legislature
the constituencies on the basis of adult franchise
The Constitution provides a legislature for every and one member is nominated by the Governor
state. Most of the States have only unicameral from the Anglo-Indian community.
legislature i.e., Legislative assembly. Some State has Cabinet and Cabinet Committees
bicameral legislatures (example Bihar, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and A smaller body called Cabinet is the nucleus
Telangana). The lower house, legislative assembly of the council of minister. It consists of only
represents the people of the state the upper house; the cabinet ministers. It is the real centre of
Legislative Council represents special interests like authority in the state government.
teachers, graduates and local governments. The cabinet works through various
committees called cabinet committees. They are
of two types - standing and ad hoc. The former
are of a permanent nature while the latter are of
a temporary nature.
The Speaker
The Legislative Assembly elects two of its
members as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
The speaker may be removed from office by
Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly a resolution of the Assembly after giving a 14
days’ notice. Such a resolution must be passed
In Tamil Nadu, according to the strength
by a majority of the members present at the
of Legislative Assembly (234 members),
the number of ministers may be up to 36, time of voting. The speaker does not vacate
i.e. 15 percent of 234. his office, when the Assembly is dissolved. He
continues to be the Speaker until the first sitting

of the new Assembly. While the office of the Abolition or Creation of
speaker is vacant, the Deputy Speaker performs Legislative Councils
his functions.
Article 169 deals with the creation or
The Legislative Council
abolition of Legislative Council in a State.
(Upper House)
Article 169 holds that if the state Legislative
The legislative Council is the upper House of
Assembly passes a resolution by a majority of
the State Legislature.
not less than 2/3rd of the members present and
The Vidhan Parishads (Legislative Council) voting and by the majority of total strength of
forms a part of the state legislatures of India. In
the House, requesting the Parliament to create
Six of India’s 28 states the Legislative Council
or abolish the state Legislative council then the
serves as the indirectly-elected upper house of
a bicameral legislature. It is also a permanent Parliament may by law provide for the abolition
house because it cannot be dissolved. Every and creation of the Legislative Council.
Member of Legislative Council (MLC) serves 3.4 Functions of the State
for a six-year term, with terms staggered so that Legislature
the terms of one-third of members expire every
two years. MLCs must be citizens of India not Legislative powers
under 30 years of age, mentally sound and his The State Legislature can pass laws on all
name should be in the voter’s list of the state
subjects mentioned in the State List as per
from which he or she is contesting the election.
the constitution. It can also pass laws on
The Tamil Nadu Legislative Council concurrent subjects. The State made law in a
was abolished by Tamil Nadu concurrent subject will become inoperative
Legislative Council (Abolition)
when the centre also passes a law on the same
Bill, 1986. The Act came into force
on the 1st November 1986. subject. The passing of Bill into law follows the
same procedure, as in the union parliament.
Election to Legislative Council Every bill passes through three readings. Then
1/3 of the members are elected by local it becomes an Act with the Governor’s assent.
bodies. Financial Powers
1/12 of the members are elected by
Graduates of the universities in the State. The Legislature controls the finances of the
1 /12 of the members are elected by State. The Lower House enjoys greater power
Graduate teachers. than the Upper House in money matters.
1/3 of the members are elected by the Money bills can be introduced only in the
members of the Legislative Assembly. Lower House or the Assembly. No new tax can
1/6 is nominated by the Governor who is be levied without the sanction and permission
eminent in the field of literary excellence, of the Assembly.
art, social services or Co-operation.
Controls over the Executive
The Chairman
The Council of Ministers is responsible to
The Chairman (chair person he / she) is
the Presiding Officer of the Upper house. the Assembly. The Ministers have to answer
The Members elect a Chairman and a deputy questions asked by the members of the
chairman from among themselves. In the Legislature. They can be removed from office
absence of the chairman, the deputy chairman if the Assembly passes a vote of “no confidence
officiate the functions of the Legislative Council. motion” against the Ministry.

3.5 Judiciary of State Kohima and Aizwal. Delhi, though not a State,
has its own separate High Court. Every High
High Courts Court has a Chief Justice and a number of judges.
The institution of high court originated in The number of judges varies from State to State.
India in 1862 when the high courts were set up The number of judges of each High Court is
at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. In the course determined by the President. At present there
of time, each province in British India came to are 25 High Courts for 28 States (including new
have its own high court. After 1950, a high court Andhra Pradesh High Court established in 1st
existing in a province became the high court for January 2019 at principal seat in Amravati) and
the corresponding state. The High Courts are nine Union Territories.
the highest courts at State level. Jurisdiction and Powers of High Court
Original Jurisdiction
In their judicial capacity, the High Courts
of the Presidency towns (Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras) have both original and appellate
jurisdictions, while other High Courts have
mostly appellate jurisdiction.
Only in matters of admiralty, probate,
matrimonial and contempt of Court, they have
original jurisdiction. The Presidency High
Courts have original jurisdiction in which the
High Court of Madras
amount involved is more than `2000 and in
The Constitution of India provides for a criminal cases which are committed to them by
high court for each state, but the Seventh the Presidency Magistrates.
Amendment Act of 1956 authorised the
Appellate Jurisdiction
Parliament to establish a common high court
for two or more states or for two or more states As Courts of appeal, all High Courts entertain
and a union territory. appeals in civil and criminal cases from their
subordinate Courts as well as on their own.
For example, the States of Punjab and Haryana
They have, however, no jurisdiction over
and the Union Territory of Chandigarh have a
tribunals established under the laws relating to
common High Court situated at Chandigarh.
the Armed Forces of the Country.
The High Court of Guwahati is common for
four northeastern States of Assam, Nagaland, Writ Jurisdiction
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. The High Under Article 226 of the constitution, the
Court of Guwahati has its benches in Itanagar, High Courts are given powers of issuing writs
not only for the enforcement of the Fundamental
The High Court of Madras is the
Rights, but also for other purposes. In exercise
one of the three High Courts in
of this power, a Court may issue the same type
India established in the three
of writs, orders or directions which the Supreme
Presidency Towns of Bombay,
Court is empowered to issue under Article 32.
Calcutta and Madras by letters
patent granted by Queen Victoria, bearing The jurisdiction to issue writs under this
date 26 June 1862. The High Court building Article is larger in the case of High Courts, for
is the second largest judicial complex in the which the Supreme Court can issue them only
where a Fundamental Right has been infringed,
world after London.
a High Court can issue them not only in such

cases, but also where an ordinary legal right has Court of Record
been infringed. It has the power to issue the five All the decisions and decrees issued by the High
kinds of Writs like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Court are printed and are kept as a record for
Prohibition, Quo Warranto, Certiorari. future references by the Court as well as by the
Supervisory Jurisdiction lawyers, is such a need arises. Thus, it also acts
as a Court of Record.
High court has the power of superintendence
over all courts and tribunals functioning in its
territorial jurisdiction (except military courts or
tribunals) Thus, it may
Call for returns from them;
Make an issue, general rules and

prescribe forms for regulating the
practice and proceedings of them.
Prescribe forms in which books, entries
and accounts are to be kept by them; and
Settle the fees payable to the sheriff,
clerks, officers and legal practitioners of Statue of Sama Neethi Kanda Cholan at
them. Madras High Court
SUMMARY
The Governor is the constitutional head of the state executive.
�
The Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor of the State.
�
The Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the State Legislature.
�
The Legislative Assembly is the real centre of power in the State.
�
At present there are 25 High Courts for 28 States and nine Union Territories.
�
GLOSSARY
Constitution It has been defined as the fundamental law of a State. அரசியலமைப்பு

It is an inner body within the Council of Ministers which is
Cabinet
responsible for formulating the policy of the Government. அமைச்சரவை
the group of people in a country or part of a country who
Legislature
have the power to make and change laws சட்டமன்றம்
a special court chosen, especially by the government, to
Tribunal
examine particular problem தீர்ப்பாயம்
an official decision that is made after a group or
Resolution
organisation has voted தீர்மானம்

7. The minimum age for the membership of
EVALUATION the Legislative Council is
(a) 25 years (b) 21 years
I Choose the Correct (c) 30 years (d) 35 years
Answer
8. Which one of the following States does not
1. The Governor of the State possess a bicameral legislature?
is appointed by the (a) Andhra Pradesh
(a) Prime Minister (b) Telangana
(b) Chief Minister (c) Tamil Nadu
(c) President (d) Uttar Pradesh
(d) Chief Justice 9. The High Courts in India were first started
at
2. The Speaker of a State is a
(a) Calcutta, Bombay, Madras
(a) Head of State (b) Delhi and Calcutta
(b) Head of government (c) Delhi, Calcutta, Madras
(c) President’s agent (d) Calcutta, Madras, Delhi
(d) None of these 10.
Which of the following States have a
3. Which among the following is not one of common High Court?
the powers of the Governor? (a) Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
(a) Legislative (b) Executive (b) Kerala and Telangana
(c) Punjab and Haryana
(c) Judicial (d) Diplomatic
(d) Maharashtra and Gujarat
4. Who can nominate one representative of
the Anglo-Indian Community to the State II Fill in the blanks
Legislative Assembly? 1. G overnor of the state government
(a) The President surrenders his resignation to _______.
(b) The Governor 2. Members of the Legislative assembly
(MLAs) elected by the _______.
(c) The Chief Minister
3. _______ acts as the chancellor of universities
(d) The Speaker of State legislature in the state.
5. The Governor does not appoint 4. The Chairman and Members of the State
(a) Chief Minister Public Service Commission can be removed
only by the _______.
(b) Chairman of the State Public Service
Commission III Match the following
(c) Advocate General of the State 1. Governor - Head of the
(d) Judges of the High Court Government
6. The State Council of Ministers is headed by 2. Chief Minister - Head of the State
3. Council of Ministers - Tribunals
(a) The Chief Minster
4. MLC - Responsible for
(b) The Governor
the Assembly
(c) The Speaker 5. Armed forces - cannot vote for
(d) The Prime Minister grants

IV Choose the correct statement 2. Describe the legislative powers of the
1. Assertion (A): There are limitations on the Governor.
Legislative authority of the State Legislature. 3. Critically examine the functions and powers
Reason (R): Certain bills on the State List of the Council of Ministers
can be introduced in the State Legislature VII Project and Activity
only with the President’s approval.
1. Prepare a flow chart showing the State
a) (A) is false but R is true Government’s Administrative setup.
b) (A) is true but (R) is false 2. Students to list out the names of the Tamil
c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the Nadu Governor, Chief Minister, Ministers
correct reason for (A) and the Governors and Chief Ministers of
d) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the neighbouring States.
the correct reason for (A)
V Answer the brief questions REFERENCE BOOKS
1. What is the importance of the Governor of 1. D.D. Basu - Introduction of the Constitution
a state? of India, S.C. Sarkar & Sons (Private) Ltd,
2. What are the qualifications for the 1982.
appointment of Governor? 2. Subhash Kashyap - Our Constitution,
3. What is the original jurisdiction of the National Book Trust, India, 2011.
High Court?
4. What do you understand by the “Appellate INTERNET RESOURC ES
Jurisdiction” of the High Court?
1. www.tnrajbhavan.gov.in
VI Answer in detail
2. www.tn.gov.in
1. What are the powers and functions of the
3. www.hcmadras.tn.nic.in
Chief Minister?
ICT Corner
State Government
Steps
• Click on any state of the Indian map to view the official website of the state and its function.
• For example, click on the Tamilnadu state. An additional tab will open in the browser
where you can see the official website of Tamilnadu.
• Likewise you can view the details of the other states.
Website URL:
https://www.mea.gov.in/india-at-glance.htm

Unit - 4
India’s Foreign
Policy
Learning Objectives
After studying this lesson, students will be able to
Identify the basic principles of India’s foreign policy
Explain the meaning and significance of non-alignment
Analyse the stages of our foreign policy
Explain the importance of foreign policy
Recognise the difference between domestic policy and foreign policy
Introduction The Constitution of India 1950

Foreign policy can be defined as a Article 51
country’s policy that is conceived, designed Lays down Directive Principles of India’s
and formulated to safeguard and promote foreign policy.
her national interests in her external affairs,
The state shall endeavour to
in the conduct of relationships with other
countries, both bilaterally and multilaterally. It Promote International peace and
seeks to secure the best interests of the people, security
territory and economy of the country. It is a Maintain just and honourable relations
direct reflection of country’s traditional values between nations
and overall national policies, her aspirations Foster respect for international law and
and self-perception. Nations have also been international organisation
interdependent. Interdependence has been an Encourage settlement of international
incontrovertible fact of international relations. disputes by arbitration
The main tools of foreign policy are treaties and
executive agreements, appointing ambassadors,
foreign aid, international trade and armed 4.1 Main Objectives of Our
forces. Foreign Policy
The Ministry of External Affairs of India also National security
known as Foreign Ministry comes under National prosperity
Government of India is responsible for the
conduct of foreign relations of India. The Increasing the number of friendly nations
foreign Service Training Institute, New Delhi Achieving world peace and enable every
established in 1986 provides training for nation to peacefully co-exist
officers of Indian Foreign Services(IFS). Economic development
269

4.2 Panchsheel idealistic phase of India’s foreign policy under
the guidance of India’s first Prime Minister,
(derived from Sanskrit words, panch = five,
Jawaharlal Nehru. The new nations that
sheel = virtues)
got independence after the long period of
The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence colonial struggle found themselves in a very
(Panchsheel) between India (Prime Minister difficult situation with respect to economic
Jawaharlal Nehru) and China (Premier Chou- development. So it was necessary to align with
En-Lai) was signed on 28 April 1954, which either of the blocs – United States of America
stated that the two governments entered into an (USA) or Union Soviet Socialist Republic
agreement based on the following principles: (USSR). Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, was
opposed to the rivalry of the two superpowers
(America and Russia) who were trying to
extend their influence over the newly emerged
nations of Asia and Africa. So he chose the
path of Non-Alignment (i.e., not aligning with
any bloc) in the face of the bipolar order of
the Cold War and tried to form a third bloc of
nations in international affairs.
“Broadly, non-alignment means not tying
yourself off with military blocs…. It means
trying to view things, as far as possible, not
form the military point of view, though that
has to come in sometimes, but independently,
and trying to maintain friendly relations with
all countries”.
These principles were incorporated in the – Jawaharlal Nehru
Bandung Declaration signed in the Afro-Asian
Conference held in 1955 in Indonesia. 4.4 The Non-Aligned

Movement (NAM) in 1961
4.3 Basic Determinants of
a Foreign Policy The term ‘Non-Alignment’ was coined
by V. Krishna Menon in his speech at the
Geographical position and size of territory
United Nations in 1953. Non-alignment has
N
ation’s history, traditions and been regarded as the most important feature
philosophical basis of India’s foreign policy. It aimed to maintain
Natural resources national independence in foreign affairs by
The compulsion of economic development not joining any military alliance. The Non-
P
olitical stability and structure of Aligned Movement (NAM) was formed with a
government membership of 120 countries and 17 states as
observers and 10 international organisations.
Th
e necessity of peace, disarmament and
It has transformed from a political movement
non-proliferation of nuclear weapons
to an economical movement.
Military strength
The founding fathers of Non-Aligned
International milieu
Movement : Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Tito
Foreign Policy in 1950s and 1960s of Yugoslavia, Nasser of Egypt, Sukarno of
The period from Independence through Indonesia, and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana
1950s and 1960s constituted the most were the founding fathers of NAM.
India’s Foreign Policy 270

India's Foreign Policy during order (Liberalisation, Privatisation, and
Cold War Era Globalisation) emerged with the support of the
The Non-alignment roots did not prevent western powers. India entered into pacts with
India from entering into an alignment with global economic forum (GATT) and entered
the Soviet Union by the Indo-Soviet treaty into bilateral, trilateral, multilateral agreements.
of 1971 (20-year pact of ‘peace, friendship Its nuclear experiments resulted in intimidatory
and co-operation’). Then India embarked reactions from the western world.
on a substantial programme of military This shifts in India’s policy manifested in
modernisation. In 1974, India also conducted its various ways such as
first nuclear test at Pokhran under Subterranean Better relations with China – the Look
Nuclear Explosions Project, in response to East Policy (1992)
China’s nuclear test in 1964 at Lop Nor. The second nuclear test at Pokhran (1998)
Changing global conditions determine the in Rajasthan
foreign policy details. India got her political Defence procurement relationship with
freedom in the aftermath of a disastrous Second Israel
World War, and India had to be redeemed from Energy diplomacy with Arab countries
acute poverty illiteracy, and chaotic socio- and Iran
economic conditions. Hence our new nation
Agreeing to US nuclear missile defence
could not afford to military entanglements
program and
and military alliances. Avoidance of military
blocs was then not an option but a necessity. India’s vote against Iran at the
Non Alliance did not mean neutrality, but International Atomic Energy Agency
the freedom of nations to decide on issues India in the Resurgent 21st
independently. Non-alliance did not mean Century
demilitarisation of nations. It was meant to
The foremost task of India’s foreign policy
ensure de-escalation of conflicts and tension.
is to enable the domestic transformation of
Even wither discarding the ‘Non-Alliance’
India.
India could enormously strengthen her defence
system and could become a nuclear power. Flaws India has adjusted to meet the needs of
or faults in details of foreign policy executions intensified economic engagement with the
have been addressed time and again but India’s world, which is designed to meet the needs
basic policy of non-Alliance is still in force. of an increased inflow of capital, technology,
ideas and innovation for our development and
our re-emergence as one of the world’s leading
economies.
India engages with current global subjects
and articulates its international policies in
order to gain a prominent place and makes its
presence felt in on a global scale. It has joined
new global groups like the Group of 20 (G-20),
India, Brazil, South Africa (IBSA), and Brazil,
Russia, India, China, South Africa (BRICS),
First Nuclear Test at Pokhran (Rajasthan)
which gives more scope for India to play a
New Developments: in the 1990s larger role in global affairs.
and the 20th Century India’s global security concerns are
During the 1990’s along with the fall reflected in its military modernisation,
of the Soviet Union, a new global economic maritime security and nuclear policies.
271 India’s Foreign Policy

India has emerged as a major voice in 4.6 SAARC – South
global decision-making and management, and Asian Association for
as a bridge and balancing power in the emerging
Regional Cooperation
global strategic architecture. The response of
our policymakers at economic, political and SAARC is an economic and geopolitical
strategic level have enabled India to emerge as a organisation of eight countries that are primarily
potential great power though it faces enormous located in South Asia. The SAARC policies aim
developmental challenges. These challenges to promote welfare economics, collective self-
include sustaining the country’s economic reliance among the countries of South Asia
growth rate, ensuring energy and security. and to accelerate socio-cultural development
Non-military issues like climate change, energy in the region. SAARC Disaster Management
security, competition for scarce resources, food Centre was set up at New Delhi. The Centre is a
and water security, pandemics and migration. sleek body of professionals working on various
Though numerous and formidable, these dimensions of disaster risk reduction and
challenges are not beyond the reach of India’s management in South Asia. SAARC satellite is
policy establishment. a proposed communication–cum-meteorology
4.5 Basic Concepts of satellite by Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) for the SAARC region.
India’s Foreign Policy
Preservation of national interest The member countries are Afghanistan,
Achievement of world peace Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Maldives,
Disarmament Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
Fostering cordial relationship with other
countries Foreign Policy is a combination of strategies
Solving conflicts by peaceful means carefully formulated by a nation for
maintaining relationship with other nations.
Independence of thought and action as
per the principle of NAM Diplomacy is the instrument for
Equality in conducting international implementing foreign policy of a state.
relations
Anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism, anti-
racism
Policy of Disarmament
Since independence, global non-
proliferation has been a dominant theme of W
N
E
India’s nuclear policy. So India supported UN

S
disarmament programme. Indian nuclear

programme in 1974 and 1998 is only done for
strategic purposes.
The two themes of India’s nuclear doctrine are
No first use
Credible minimum deterrence
It has decided not to use nuclear power
for ‘offensive purposes’ and would never use
against any non-nuclear state. Indo-US civilian
nuclear deal marks a significant progress in
India’s foreign policy. Not to Scale

4.7 Contemporary context: in the Indo-Pacific and to
change and continuity become an integral part of
Asia. This policy emphasises
in India’s Foreign Policy a more productive role for
a) Prioritising an integrated neighbour- ASEAN and East Asian
hood: Neighbourhood First policy countries. The three big
India’s foreign policy has always regarded elements in our eastern policy
the concept of neighbourhood as one of are stronger emphasis on physical connectivity,
widening concentric circles, around the central commercial and security-related.
axis of historical and cultural commonalties. d) Economic development
India gives political and diplomatic priority Currently India’s political moves are being
to her immediate neighbours and the Indian influenced by economic imperatives. Many
Ocean Island states such as Maldives. This nations are moving to forge better relationship
centrality of neighbours in India’s foreign with India. Accelerated, balanced and inclusive
policy stems from the clear understanding that economic development is India’s primary
a peaceful periphery is essential for India to goal. India achieves this by ensuring peace
achieve her multifarious developmental goals. and security and by leveraging the nation’s
India provides neighbours with support as international partnership, to obtain all that is
needed in the form of resources, equipment and needed to fuel economic development, markets,
training. Greater connectivity and integration is investment, technology, linkage, mobility of
provided so as to improve the free flow of goods, personnel, fair global governance and a stable
people, energy, capital and information. and fair environment conducive for growth.
b) Bridging diplomacy and development e) India as a leading power
One of the major objectives of India’s India is a member of the G20, the East
foreign policy has been to leverage international Asia Summit and the BRICS coalition, a
partnership for India’s domestic development. testament to its status as a large country with
This includes improving technological access, a fast-growing economy. India aspires for
sourcing capital, gaining market access and permanent membership on the UN Security
securing natural resources. Council. And India now has an increasing
range of interests, which are anchored in
c) A gradual transition from ‘Look East’ to different parts of the world and which stem
‘Act East’ policy from a wide range of factors such as the need
South East Asia begins with North East to secure energy, vital natural resources, the
India. Myanmar is our land bridge to the imperative of maintaining open shipping
countries of the Association of the Southeast lanes, seeking investments and trade
Asian Nations (ASEAN). The purpose is to opportunities overseas and the need to secure
ensure a stable and multipolar balance of power trade access.
Difference between Domestic Policy and Foreign Policy
Domestic Policy Foreign Policy
Domestic policy is the nation’s plan for Foreign policy is the nation’s plan for
dealing issues within its own nation. dealing with other nations.
It includes laws focusing on domestic Trade, diplomacy, sanctions, defence,
affairs, social welfare, health care, intelligence and global environments are the
education, civil rights, economic issues types of foreign policy.
and social issues.

Conclusion its security and socio-economic advancement
Today India has formal diplomatic relations while at the same time working for peace,
with most of the nations, besides being the freedom, progress and justice to all nations and
world’s second most populous country, largest peoples. Thus India adheres to the foreign policy
democracy and one of the fastest growing principle that ‘in international relations there
country. Though India is not in any major is no permanent friend and no permanent
military alliance, our relations with the major foe, only the interests are permanent’. New
powers have acquired a strategic depth. Our challenges forced India to adjust to new realities.
common fight against terrorism is a particular Even then, basic framework of its foreign policy
element of strength. India has sought to achieve remained more or less the same.
SUMMARY
The foreign policy of the government concerns the policy initiatives made towards other States.
The Ministry of External Affairs is responsible for carrying out the foreign policy of India.
A goal – oriented foreign policy has the potential to achieve improved relations with other
nations.
After independence joined the Commonwealth Nations and strongly supported independence
movement in other countries.
During cold war adopted the policy of Non-Aligning itself with any major power blocs.
Foreign policy is currently focused on improving relations with neighbouring countries and
major global powers.
GLOSSARY
External affairs matters having with international relations வெளியுறவு
multilateral involving more than two countries பலதரப்பு

procurement process of buying க�ொள்முதல்
the practice of holding more than one benefice
pluralism பன்மைக்கோட்பாடு
at a time
pandamics an epidemic disease பெருங்கொள்ளை ந�ோய்
ethos the characteristic spirit of culture பண்பாடு

7. Which of the following country is not the
EXERCISE founder member of NAM?
a) Yugoslavia
I Choose the correct b) Indonesia
answer c) Egypt
1. Which Minister plays a d) Pakistan
vital role in molding foreign policy of our 8. Find the odd one
country? a) Social welfare
a) Defense Minister b) Health care
b) Prime Minister c) Diplomacy
c) External Affairs Minister d) Domestic affairs
d) Home Minister 9. Non-Alliance means
2. The Panchaseel treaty has been signed a) being neutral
between b) freedom to decide on issues
a) India and Nepal independently
b) India and Pakistan c) demilitarisation
c) India and China d) none of the above
d) India and Sri Lanka 10. Non – military issues are
a) Energy security
3. Which article of Indian constitution directs
b) Water security
to adopt foreign policy?
c) Pandemics
a) Article 50 d) All the above.
b) Article 51
c) Article 52
d) Article 53 1. India conducted its first nuclear test at
___________.
4. Apartheid is 2. At present our foreign policy acts as a means
a) An international association to generate ________ for domestic growth
b) Energy diplomacy and development.
c) A policy of racial discrimination 3. ____________is the instrument for
d) None of these implementing foreign policy of a state.
4. _____________ was India’s policy in the
5. The Agreement signed by India and China
face of the bipolar order of the cold war.
in 1954 related to
5. Our tradition and national ethos is to
a) Trade and Commerce practice____________.
b) Restoration of normal relations
c) Cultural exchange programmes III C
onsider the following statement and
tick the appropriate answer
d) The Five Principles of Co existence
1. Arrange the following in the correct
6. Which is not related to our foreign policy chronological order and choose the correct
a) World co operation answer from the code given below.
b) World peace (i) Panchsheel
c) Racial equality (ii) China's Nuclear test
d) Colonialism

(iii) Twenty-year Treaty 6. Avoidance of military blocs was necessity
(iv) First Nuclear test of India for India after political freedom. Because
a) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii) b) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) India had to redeemed from
c) (i), (ii), (iv), (iii) d) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv) a) acute poverty
b) illiteracy
2. Which of the following is not about NAM?
c) chaotic socio-economic conditions
(i) The term Non-Alignment was coined
d) all the above
by V. Krishna Menon
(ii) It aimed to maintain national IV Match the following
independence in foreign affairs by 1. Indian Ocean island - 1955
joining any military alliance
2. Land bridge to ASEAN - 1954
(iii) At present it has 120 member countries.
(iv) It has transformed to an economical 3. Panchsheel - Maldives
movement 4. Afro Asian Conference - Foreign Policy
a) (i) and (ii) b) (iii) and (iv) 5. World Peace - Myanmar
c) (ii) only d) (iv) only
V Give short answers
3. Write true or false against each of the
statement. 1. What is foreign policy?
a) During Cold War India tried to form a 2. Explain India’s nuclear policy.
third bloc of nations in the international 3. Differentiate: Domestic policy and Foreign
affairs. policy
b) The Ministry of Home Affairs is
4. List any four guiding principles of
responsible for the conduct of the
Panchsheel?
country’s foreign relations.
c) The nuclear test at Pokhran was done 5. What was the reason for India to choose the
underSubterranean Nuclear Explosions path of Non-Alignment?
Project. 6. List out the member countries of SAARC.
4. Assertion(A): India aligned with Soviet 7. Name the architects of the Non-Aligned
Union by the Indo-Soviet treaty on 1971.
movement.
Reason(B): This began with a disastrous
8. Mention the main tools of foreign policy.
Indo –China war of 1962
a) A is correct and R explains A VI Answer in detail
b) A is correct and R does not explain A 1. Write a detailed note on Non-alignment.
c) A is correct and R is Wrong 2. Discuss the core determinants of India’s
d) Both A and R are wrong.
foreign policy?
5. Assertion(A): India has formal diplomatic
3. Make any two basic concepts followed by
relations with most of the nations.
India to maintain friendly relations with its
Reason(R): India is the World’s second neighbours.
most populous country.
VII Project and activity
a) A is correct and R explains A
b) A is correct and R does not explain A 1.
Identify any two aspects of India’s foreign
c) A is wrong and R is correct policy that you would like to retain and to
d) Both are wrong change if you were the decision maker.

6. Khanna V.N., and Leslie K Kumar., Foreign
REFERENCE BOOKS
Policy of India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
1. Mahendra Kumar, Theoretical Aspects Ltd., (2018), Noida
of International Policies, Agra, Shivalal
Agarwala & company 1984 7. Muhkund Dubey., India’s Foreign Policy,
2. Prakash Chandra, Theories of International Orient Black Swan Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2015)
Relations: Aman publishing 8. Shah, S.k., India’s Foreign Policy (Past,
3. S. Ganguly, India’s Foreign Policy, Oxford Present and Ties with the world), Vij Books
University Press India Pvt. Ld., New Delhi (2017)
4. Dutt V.P., India’s Foreign Policy in a changing
world, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
INTERNET RESOURCES
Noida (2009)
5. Dixit J.N., India’s Foreign Policy and its 1. https://www.mea.gov.in/
Neighbours, Gyan Publishing House, Delhi 2. https://mnoal.org/
(2001) 3. http://www.saarc-sec.org/
ICT Corner
India’s Foreign Policy
Through this activity you will

know about details of Indian
embassy’s in the world.
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 Click on ‘Useful Links’ in menu and select ‘India Missions Abroad’
Step – 3 Click on respective country to view details on Indian Missions Abroad
Website URL:
https://mea.gov.in/index.htm

Unit - 5
India’s
International
Relations
Learning Objectives
After studying this lesson, students will be able to
become familiar with our policies with the neighbouring countries
understand the importance of India’s policy towards developed nations
gain knowledge about India’s relationships with international organisations
recognise the achievement of BRICS and OPEC
imbibe the value of India’s position among world countries
A bad neighbour is a misfortune, as much as a good one is a great blessing.

– Hesiod
Introduction Neighbouring Countries of India

N
Independent India has been consistently W E

S
fostering world peace and international co-
operation. India abjured military alliances, but
has been active in cooperating and co-ordinating
with other nations for peace and economic
development. As the first Prime Minister of
India Jawaharlal Nehru stated “We can neither
be absolutely dependent or independent, but we Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal
live in a world of interdependence.”

India would prefer a peaceful, wealthy
neighbourhood responsive to its own needs
and wishes. India has always been known as a
peace-loving country and has strived hard to Not to Scale
Indian Ocean
champion the cause of peace in the world. For

the country to progress in an adequate manner,
the maintenance of international relations has 5.1 India and Its Neighbours
been regarded as an important area. Being
a country with a huge population, India is India’s position is unique in its
surrounded by many neighbouring countries neighbourhood. India’s neighbours had been a
with whom she has tried to maintain friendly part of a homogenous culture prevailing in the
and good neighbourly relations. Indian subcontinent for last five thousand years.
278

India is a vast country with Pakistan companies has been selected to make one of
and Afghanistan to the north-west the biggest investments in the mining sector. To
China, Nepal, Bhutan to the north harness India’s sports potential, India has built
Bangladesh to the east Kandahar International Cricket Stadium. India’s
Self Employed Women’s Association imparts
Myanmar to the far east
training on sustainable livelihood and to be self-
Sri Lanka (from south-east) and reliant. Thus India is contributing proactively to
Maldives (from south-west) are two the development of Afghanistan in the form of
countries that lie close to India separated monetary aids and funds.
by the Indian Ocean. India has cordial
historical, religious, economic, ethnic India and Bangladesh
and linguistic relationship with all of
these countries. Let us know about India was the first nation to acknowledge
India’s relations with its neighbours. Bangladesh (the former East Pakistan) as an
independent country. India and Bangladesh
The countries that share the most number of share the longest land boundary of 4096.7
neighbours touching its borders are China kilometres. India has plans to implement
and Russia. the proposed rail connectivity between
Agartala (India) and Akhaura (Bangladesh).
India and Afghanistan Bangladesh has granted India road transit
Indo-Afghan relation was strengthened facility through its territories from Kolkata
by the Strategic Partnership Agreement (SPA). to Agartala via Dhaka under BBIN-MVA
SPA provides assistance to re-build Afghan’s (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal Motor
infrastructure, institutions, agriculture, water, Vehicle Agreement). The Farakka accord on
education, health and providing duty-free access sharing of Ganga waters signed in 1977 is a
to the Indian market. India helped Afghans in
historic agreement. India and Bangladesh
the construction of Salma Dam in the Herat
share 54 common rivers and a bilateral Joint
Province. India announced 500 scholarships
River Commission is working to maximise
for the children of the martyrs of Afghan
Security Forces in school and colleges both in benefits from common river systems. The
Afghanistan and in India. India is also supporting Government of India provides grant assistance
Afghanistan to improve its public health and for project under ‘Aid to Bangladesh’ for
small-scale industries. India is at the forefront the construction of buildings, laboratories,
of the promotion of investment in Afghanistan dispensaries and deep tube wells. In addition,
and a consortium of public and private Indian scholarships are granted by ICCR (Indian
Council for Cultural Relations) every year to
From the Indus Civilisation, India and students from Bangladesh and it has initiated
Afghanistan have a deep-rooted multi-faceted a Tagore Chair in University of Dhaka.
relationship. During the reign of Kanishka,
Both the countries jointly inaugurated the
a large number of Indian missionaries went
construction of 130-kilometre Bangladesh
to China, Central Asia and Afghanistan to
India Friendship Pipeline between Siliguri in
preach their religion.
West Bengal and Parbatipur (Bangladesh).
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan of Baluchistan
(a border province in today’s Pakistan) was a The Teen Bigha Corridor is a strip of land
prominent leader of the Indian Independence belonging to India on the West Bengal–
movement and active supporter of the Indian Bangladesh border, which was leased to
National Congress. Bangladesh in 2011.
279 India’s International Relations

N Gur Padmasambhava, a Buddhist saint
W E who went to Bhutan from India, played an
S influential role in spreading Buddhism and
cementing traditional ties between people of
both nations.
India and China

In terms of geographic and demographic
dimension, skilled manpower and
civilisational depth, China is the only country
in the region which qualifies for comparison
with India. China, being the manufacturing
hub of the world, is strategically very important
Not to Scale
to India. India and China share similarity
of view on many fronts like World Trade
Organisation, international climate change
India and Bhutan talks and reforms of the World Bank. Shanghai
Bhutan, a small Himalayan kingdom, Cooperation Organisation, which was China’s
popularly known as a land of thunderbolt, initiative, has granted the observer status to
is one of the poorest countries of the world. India, while SAARC had granted the observer
The diplomatic relations between India and status to China. Both sides have established
more dialogue mechanisms covering diverse
Bhutan were established in 1968 with the
sectors. Bilateral trade has registered
appointments of a resident representative of
enormous growth. India and China have
India in Thimphu. Bhutan is a landlocked
signed an educational exchange programme.
nation. So it is highly dependent on India
Under this agreement, scholarships are
for access to sea. India is the principal
awarded to 25 students, by both sides, in
contributor in the economic development
recognised institutions of higher learning in
of Bhutan. India declared the bilateral trade
each other’s country.
relation known as ‘Bharat to Bhutan’ (B2B).
India provides scholarship to Bhutanese McMahon Line: This is the boundary line
students to study in prestigious institutions between India and China, east of Bhutan.
of higher learning and offered help in setting It was determined 1914 at a conference of
up a digital library in Bhutan. The prestigious representatives of British India, Tibet and
Nehru-Wangchuk Scholarship is being China. The Secretary of State for India (in
awarded to deserving and talented Bhutanese British Cabinet), Arthur Henry McMahon,
nationals to undertake studies in selected represented British India at the Conference.
premier Indian educational institutions. The
hydel power sector represents one of the main India and Maldives
indicators of bilateral co-operation between Maldives is located south of Lakshadweep
India and Bhutan. So far, Government of Islands in the Indian Ocean. The relationship
India has constructed three hydroelectric with Maldives is important for India given
projects in Bhutan (Chukha, Kurichchu and its strategic location and geographical
Tala). India has helped Bhutan in developing proximity. India and Maldives share ethnic,
that country’s infrastructure by establishing linguistic, cultural, religious and commercial
telecommunication and in the construction links steeped in antiquity and enjoy cordial
of hospitals, roads and bridges. and multi-dimensional relations. Trade and
India’s International Relations 280

tourism are being developed between the India and Nepal
two countries. Both countries have agreed to
Nepal is a natural buffer between India
strengthen cooperation to enhance maritime
and China. Being a small landlocked country,
security in the Indian Ocean Region through
Nepal depends on India for economic support
coordinated patrolling and aerial surveillance
and transit facilities. India shares borders in
and exchange of information.
five indian states – – Sikkim, West Bengal,
India and Myanmar Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand – with
Nepal. People residing in the border districts on
India’s second largest border is shared
both sides share deeper cultural bonds. Indian
with Myanmar (known as Burma till
firms are the biggest investors in Nepal. India
1989). Four North-Eastern Indian states –
provides substantial financial and technical
Arunachala Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur
development assistance with the focus on
and Mizoram – also share their borders
infrastructure, irrigation, health, energy projects
with Myanmar. Myanmar is India’s gateway
to South East Asia. India is building the and community development. India built the
Kaladan Multi-Model Transit Transport, a 204-kilometre long Mahendra Raj Marg to
road-river-port cargo transport project to link Kathmandu and India. Nepal is endowed
link Kolkata to Sittwe in Myanmar. A project with fast-flowing rivers and its terrain is ideal
aiming to connect Kolkata with Ho Chi Minh for hydroelectric power generation. India has
City on the South Sea for the formation of an taken up the work of 5600 MW Pancheshwar
economic zone will have a road pass through project, which remained stalled for 18 years
Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam and work after agreement. Nepali and Indian people visit
on the first phase connecting Guwahati with each other’s country for religious pilgrimage.
Mandalay is currently underway. Myanmar is Pashupati and Janakpur are traditional centres
an important partner in our energy needs for in Nepal whereas Varanasi and the four Dhaams
petroleum and natural gas. Some of the Indian (Badrinath, Puri, Dwaraka and Rameshwaram)
companies such as Essar, GAIL and ONGC are important pilgrimage destinations in India.
Videsh Ltd. have invested in Myanmar’s The bond of friendship further increased when
energy sector. India included Nepalese language in the VIII

schedule of the Constitution. A joint hydropower between India and Pakistan, which has brought
project is being built on the Sharda River. This the two countries into an open clash many times.
power plant helps both India and Nepal with Cross-border terrorism is a major irritant.
respect to electricity production and irrigation India tried to bring a positive change in the
facilities. From the environmental perspective, relationship of the two countries through
there are a number of tiger reserves along Indo- bilateral agreements such as Shimla Agreement
Nepal border. The governments of India and and Lahore Declaration.
Nepal have signed three sister-city agreements India and Sri Lanka
for twinning of Kathmandu-Varanasi, Lumbini-
Bodhgaya and Janakpur-Ayodhya. India has cultural, historical and religious
N
ties with Sri Lanka. Separated by the narrow
W E
expanse of the Palk Strait, India and Sri
S
Lanka have shared excellent trade relations
committing to each other in both bilateral
free trade agreements as well as developing
interactions through SAARC. The relationship
between India and Sri Lanka can generally be
termed as friendly, except for the brief spell in
which the Tamil ethnic problem cast its shadow
on the relations between the two countries.
Not to Scale
India and Sri Lanka has conventionally close
to each other. India is among the top investors
in Sri Lanka and its investments are in diverse
areas including petroleum retail, IT, real
India and Pakistan estate, telecommunication and tourism. On
Since the bifurcation of territory, which the other hand, the Sri Lankan investments
demarcated India and Pakistan in 1947, the in India include Brandix (garment city in
two nations have had strained relations due Vishakhapatnam), MAS Holdings, John Keels,
to disagreements over a number of key issues. Hayleys, apart from the other investments in
Terrorism remains our core concern in the the freight servicing and logistic sector. India
relationship with Pakistan. Pakistan has been offers scholarship slots annually to deserving
antagonistic when maintaining relations with Sri Lankan students. Sri Lanka is also a partner
India. But India has made extreme efforts to in Nalanda University Project of India.
improve and stabilise relations with Pakistan.
The cross-border firing between India and Ashoka had sent his son Mahinda and
Pakistan and the terrorist attacks combined daughter Sangamitra to Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
have taken its toll on the Kashmiris, who have for the propagation of Buddhism. Chola
suffered poor living standards and an erosion of kings Rajaraja I and Rajendra I conquered
human rights. Kashmir is the bone of contention the northern part of Ceylon.
LoC (Line of Control) The Ceasefire line

determined in 1949 was called the LoC after
5.2 India’s Relationships
1972. This is the boundary that came to be with Developed
agreed between India and Pakistan under Countries
the Shimla Agreement of 1972. It was called
A developed country is a sovereign state
Radcliffe Line at the time of partition in1947,
that has a highly developed economy and
(Radcliffe was the chairman of the border
advanced technological infrastructure relative
commission.) This is now called LoC.
to other less industrialised nations.

W
N
E
speed railway system with safety and accuracy.
S Delhi Metro is one of the most successful
examples of Japanese co-operation. Mumbai–
Ahmedabad High Speed Railway (MAHSR) is
another area of co-operation. The Government
of Japan has offered 20 seats per year to Indian
nationals for a master’s degree course in the
Not to Scale
University of Japan for serving the Indian
developed countries Railways.
developing countries
least developed countries In the manufacturing sector Japan
India has been balancing the superpowers announced its co-operation of training 30,000
with great care and had been trying to reap the Indian people in the Japan India Institute
maximum benefit for its domestic development. of Manufacturing (JIM) providing Japanese
style manufacturing skills to enhance India’s
a. USA manufacturing industry base and contribute to
India and the United States of America ‘Make in India’ and ‘Skill India’ initiatives.
has signed a Communications Compatibility
In 2017, the first four JIMs were started in
and Security Agreement (COMCASA) that
the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan and
will lead to a new generation of bilateral
Tamil Nadu and JEC (two Japanese Endowed
military partnership. It is valid for a period
Courses in engineering colleges) was established
of 10 years. COMCASA gives India access to
in Andhra Pradesh.
advanced communication technology used in
U.S. defence equipment and allows real-time Recent initiatives include the establishment
information sharing between the militaries of of three India-Japan Joint Laboratories in
the two countries. the area of information and communication
technology (Internet of Things, Artificial
b. European countries
Intelligence and Big Data Analytics).
There has been a significant progress in
all areas particularly the growing cooperation
and exchanges include defence, counter-
5.3 India and West Asia
terrorism, nuclear energy and space. French West Asia includes Egypt, the Arabian
space launch pads are used by ISRO. India and Peninsula, Turkey and Iran. India and West
France are cooperating on developing smart Asia enjoy pre-historical ties. Trade relations
cities Chandigarh, Nagpur and Puducherry. were established between the civilisations of
India and France launched the International Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley.
Solar Alliance, which brings together countries
West Asia stands as a region of considerable
between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
significance for India, economically as well as
Capricorn for cooperation on solar energy.
strategically. West Asia is gateway to landlocked
c. Australia and energy-rich Central Asia. With the
India and Australia have built strategic advent of the new millennium, there has been
trust over the years slowly yet steadily. Australia extraordinary turnaround in the relationship
and India are committed to working together between the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
to enhance maritime co-operation with India’s countries and India.
bilateral naval exercise (AUSINDEX). A trilateral agreement called the Chabahar
d. Japan Agreement was signed between India,
India decided to introduce the Japan’s Afghanistan and Iran, which has led to the
Shinkansen system. It is a highest class of high- establishment of transit and transport corridor

among three countries using Chabahar port. India has been extending a helping
This port is seen as golden gateway for India to hand to the UNO, in all her efforts in ending
access landlocked markets of Afghanistan and military conflicts, and in promoting peace
Central Asia bypassing Pakistan. and progress among the nations.
One of the oldest maritime trading routes BRICS
ran from ancient Sumeria via Bahrain to the
Indus Civilisation called Meluha. Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa are leading emerging economies
In medieval times, comments a noted scholar and political powers at the regional and
M.S. Agwani, “the Indian expertise in medicine, international level. The BRICS organisation’s
mathematics and astronomy was highly valued headquarters is in Shanghai, China. BRICS
by Arab and Iranian scholars who eventually opened up a possibility for countries of
made it part of their own intellectual traditions.” the Global South to challenge the Global
North. India is an active member and this
5.4 India and International collaboration paves way for India to build
Organisations its global profile.
India is a potential superpower and has a
Reason for the formation of BRICS
growing international influence all around the
world. Being a newly industrialised country, To be an alternative to World Bank and
India has a great history of collaboration with IMF to challenge U.S. supremacy
several countries. It has acted as prominent
member of several international organisations To provide self-owned and self-
and has been a founding member of some. India managed organisations to carry out
is a member of formal groupings like UNO, developmental and economical plans in its
NAM, SAARC, G20 and the Commonwealth. member nations

India is actively engaged in general economic diplomacy, which is evident in the country
being part of several economic coalitions, as listed in the table below.
Name of the member

Name of the global groupings Objectives
countries
To focus on agriculture,
education, energy, trade,
IBSA India, Brazil, South Africa
culture and defence among
others
To respond to threats such as
Bangladesh, China, India, natural disasters and data
BCIM
Myanmar breaches and protect business
interests
To create necessary
MGC India, Cambodia, Laos PDR
infrastructural facilities in the
(Mekong Ganga cooperation) Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
Ganga-Mekong basin
To strengthen and improve the

BIMSTEC
Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, technological economic
(Bay of Bengal Initiative for
Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan cooperation, international
Multi-Sectoral Technical and
and Nepal trade and foreign direct
Economic Cooperation)
investment cooperation
To achieve modern high-
Australia, Brunei, Cambodia,
quality and mutually beneficial
China, India, Indonesia, Japan,
RCEP agreement that covers trade in
Korea, Laos, Malaysia,
(Regional Comprehensive goods, trade in service,
Myanmar, New Zealand,
Economic Partnership) investments, technical
Philippines, Singapore,
cooperation dispute settlement
Thailand, Vietnam
and other issues
10 ASEAN nations + 8
EAS
strategic partners including To promote peace and stability
(East Asia Summit)
US, China, India, Japan
To achieve unity based on their

Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,
GCC common objectives and their
Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Gulf Cooperation Council similar political and cultural
Emirates, India
identities
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,

BBIN For energy development
Nepal
For security-related concerns,

SCO India, Kazakhstan, China,
resolving border issues,
(Shanghai cooperation Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia,
intelligence sharing and
organization) Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
countering terrorism

N
W E
S
Not to Scale
Objectives of BRICS To enhance inclusive economic growth

To achieve regional development
that will lead to an increase in the
creation of jobs, fight against poverty and
It acts as a bridge between developed accelerate the economic transformation
and developing countries of members.
To contribute extensively to development The financial architecture of BRICS
of humanity The New Development Bank (NDB) is
To establish a more equitable and fair a multilateral development bank. Its primary
world focus is lending for infrastructure projects.
It aims to contribute to development plans
Boost intra BRICS trade in their local established nationally through projects that
currencies to increase trade cooperation are socially, environmentally and economically
and cope with the current international sustainable. It gives priority to projects aimed at
financial crisis developing renewable energy sources.

To promote the technological The Contingent Reserve Arrangement
information exchange among the (CRA) is a framework for providing protection
member states against global liquidity pressures, which
includes currency issues.
The acronym BRICS was coined by Jim
O’Neill, a famous British economist. He BRICS payment system
predicted that by year 2050 Brazil, Russia, At the 2015 BRICS Summit, ministers from
India and China would become bigger than the BRICS nations initiated consultations for a
the six most industrialised nations in dollar payment system that would be an alternative to
terms and would completely change the the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial
power dynamics of the last 300 years. Telecommunication (SWIFT) system.

The factors that bolster co-operation among The OPEC LOGO
members
It is the result of an
First, the common need among developing
international design
countries to construct an economic order that
competition held in 1969. An
reflects the current situation will drive the
Austrian designer Svoboda
BRICS efforts. In this matter, the idea of NDB
won the competition with
and CRA are defining changes and will have
her design, which combined
huge geo-economic and geopolitical impact.
the different letters of the organisation’s name
Second, the BRICS alternative idea in the in a rounded design.
landscape of global governance will attract
support from other countries. helps finance projects with low interest loans. It
Third, the expansion of BRICS interaction also provides grants to social and humanitarian
to other sector will make it more strong projects.
partnership.
OPEC has an Information Centre with
OPEC over 20,000 volumes including books, reports,
OPEC, the Organisation of the Petroleum maps and conference proceedings related to
Exporting Countries (a group of oil-producing petroleum, energy and the oil market. The
nations), is an intergovernmental organisation
Information Centre is open to the public and is
founded in Baghdad, Iraq, and headquartered
in Vienna, Austria. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi often used by researchers and students.
Arabia and Venezuela are the OPEC’s Founder
India’s relationship with OPEC
Members.
There are three categories of memberships: India is one of the biggest consumers of
Founder Members, Full Members and Associate crude oil. OPEC obviously has vested interest
Members. At present there are 15 member in India’s economic growth. We import 86% of
nations (two are located in South America, six crude oil, 70% natural gas, 95% of cooking gas
in the Middle East and seven in Africa). OPEC
from OPEC countries. India has been identified
membership is open to any country that exports
crude oil and which shares the ideals of the as a great partner for OPEC mainly because of
organisation. its high oil demand.
OPEC’s mission India doesn’t have enough oil reserves.

India can’t produce oil. Devoid of necessary
To coordinate oil policies in its member
countries oil reserves India strongly focuses on
Help stabilise oil markets agriculture, and industrial production.
To secure fair and stable income to Conclusion

petroleum producers
Apart from economic and trade
An efficient, economic and regular cooperation, India also aspires to have
supply of oil to consuming nations
a warm relationship with its neighbours
A fair return on capital to those investing and extended neighbours in the field of
in the petroleum industry
education, health, fighting terrorism, disaster
How does OPEC help other countries? management, employment for its citizens,
The OPEC Fund for International curbing organised crimes, technology
Development (OPID) is an institution that development and so on.

SUMMARY
India has always been known as a peace – loving country and has strived hard to
champion the cause of peace in the world.
India has cordial, historical, religious, economic, ethnic and linguistic relationship
with all its neighbouring countries.
India supports its neighbours to improve public health, small scale industries, tele
communication, education and in the construction of roads and bridges,
Government of India provides grant assistance for the construction of buildings,
laboratories, dispensaries and deep tube wells to its neighbours.
India is contributing proactively to the development of its neighbours in the form of
monetary aids and funds.
India has good relationship with the superpowers and tries to reap the maximum
benefit for its domestic development.
India extend it support to the UNO in all her efforts.
India is an active member of BRICS and it paves way for India to build its global profile.
GLOSSARY
homogenous of the same kind/alike ஒரினத்தைச் சேர்ந்த
bilateral trade trading between two countries இருதரப்பு வர்த்தகம்
hydroelectric producing electricity by using the

நீர் மின்சார திட்டம்
project power of fast moving water
infrastructure the basic organisational facilities உள்கட்டமைப்பு
antiquity the ancient past த�ொன்மை

bifurcation to divide into two parts இரண்டாகப் பிரித்தல்
surveillance Close observation கண்காணிப்பு
EXERCISE
2. India is not a member of which of the

I hoose the correct
C
answer following
1. Mc Mahon Line is a 1) G20
border between 2) ASEAN
a) Burma and India 3) SAARC
b) India and Nepal 4) BRICS
c) India and China a) 2 only b) 2 and 4
d) India and Bhutan c) 2, 4 and 1 d) 1, 2 and 3

3. OPEC is II Fill in the blanks
a) An international insurance Co. 1. ____________ is a small Himalayan
b) An international sports club kingdom.
c) An Organisation of Oil Exporting 2. India’s gateway to South East Asia is
Countries ____________.
d) An international company
3. ____________ is a buffer country between
4. With which country does India share its India and China.
longest land border?
4. A strip of land ____________, belongs
a) Bangladesh b) Myanmar to India on West Bengal and Bangladesh
c) Afghanistan d) China border.
5. Match the following and choose the correct 5. ____________ is known as the Land of
answer form the codes given below. thunderbolt.
i) Salma Dam - 1. Bangladesh
6. India and Sri Lanka are separated by
ii) Farakka accord - 2. Nepal
____________.
iii) Chukha hydroelectric
project - 3. Afghanistan III Consider the following statement and
tick the appropriate answer
iv) Sharda River project - 4. Bhutan
a) 3 1 4 2 b) 3 1 2 4 1. The Kaladan transport project by India and
c) 3 4 1 2 d) 4 3 2 1 Myanmar consists of which of the following
modes of transport?
6. How many countries share its border with
1. Roads 2. Railways
India?
a) 5 b) 6 c) 7 d) 8 3. Shipping 4. Inland water transport
7. Which two island countries are India’s Select the correct answer using the codes
neighbours? given below
a) Sri Lanka and Andaman island a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) Maldieves and Lakshadweep island b) 1, 3 and 4 only
c) Maldieves and Nicobar island c) 2, 3 and 4 only
d) Sri Lanka and Maldieves d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
8. Which Indian state is surrounded by three 2. Assertion (A): India and France launched
countries? International Solar Alliance.
a) Arunachal Pradesh Reason (R): It was done to bring together
b) Meghalaya countries between Tropic of Cancer and
c) Mizoram d) Sikkim Tropic of Capricorn for co-operation of
9. How many Indian states have their solar energy.
boundary with Nepal? a) A is correct and R is the correct
explanation of A
a) Five b) Four
c) Three d) Two b) A is correct and R is not the correct
explanation of A
10. Who drew up the borders for independent
c) A is wrong and R is correct
Pakistan?
a) Lord Mountbatten d) Both are wrong
b) Sir Cyril Radcliffe 3. Which of the following statements are true?
c) Clement Atlee Statement 1. ICCR has initiated a Tagore
d) None of the above. Chair in University of Dhaka.

Statement 2. Mayanmar is India’s gateway 2. Trace the reason for the formation of BRICS
to western countries. and write its objectives.
Statement 3. Nepal and Bhutan are land 3. Mention OPEC missions and how does it
locked nations. help other countries?
Statement 4. Sri Lanka is one of the partner
VII Project and activity
in Nalanda University Project of India.
1. Students can be asked to collect information
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2, 3 and 4
form newspapers about India’s relation with
c) 1, 3 and 4 d) 1, 2 and 4
world countries.
4. Assertion (A): OPEC has vested interest in
2. Group project involving students to prepare
India’s economic growth.
an album with pictures on India’s latest
Reason (R): Devoid of necessary oil
projects with its neighboring countries.
resources India strongly focuses on
agriculture and industrial production.
REFERENCE BOOKS
a) A is correct and R explains A
b) A is wrong and R is correct 1. V.K. Malhotra, International Relations,
c) Both are correct Calcutta: Anmol publication
d) Both are wrong 2. Prakash Chandra, International Relations
New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
IV Match the following
3. Prakash Chandra, Theories of International
1. Brandix - Vienna
Relations: Aman publishing
2. COMCASA - Japan
4. Baldev Raj Nayar and Thazha Varkey Paul,
3. Shinkansen system - Shanghai
India in the world order: Searching for
4. BRICS - USA major-power status, Cambridge University
5. OPEC - Garment city in Press (2003)
Vishakapatnam 5. Deep Datta Ray, The making of modern
V Give short answers Indian Diplomacy; A critique of
1. Name the neighbouring countries of India. Eurocentrism, Oxford University Press,
2. Write a short note on Strategic partnetship India (2015)
Agreement (SPA). 6. Jon C.W. Pevehouse, Joshna S. Goldstein,
3. Mention the member countries of BRICS. International Relations, Pearson Education,
4. What do you know about Kaladan Multi – Noida (2017)
Model Transit Transport?
5. How do you assess the importance of 7. Rajendra M. Abhyankar., Indian Diplomacy,
Chabahar agreement? Oxford University Press, India (2018)
6. List out any five global groupings in which
India is a member. INTERNET RESOURCES
7. What is the role of Japan India Institute of
Manufacturing (JIM)? 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_
VI Answer in detail relations_of_India#Europe
1. Highlight India and International 2. https://www.un.org/en/

organisation with special reference to any 3. https://mnoal.org/
three India’s global groupings. 4. https://brics.ibge.gov.br/

ECONOMICS
23_Economics_Unit_1_EM.indd 291 23-03-2020 19:50:36

Unit - 1
Gross Domestic
Product and
its Growth: an
Introduction
Learning Objectives
To know about the meaning of Gross Domestic Product
To Understand the basic various measures of National Income
To Understand the composition of GDP
To know the contribution of different sectors in GDP
To know the economic growth and development and its differences
To know about Development path based on GDP And Employment
To understand the growth of GDP and Economic Policies
Introduction crucial for you to enjoy the food. Economists

call such activity “services”.
To understand how the GDP tells us how
India is doing, you should understand what What happens everyday in a hotel at
nation wide: goods and services are produced
GDP is.
and paid for and this what the GDP measures.
Imagine what happens in a hotel. You
place an order for two Idlis and a cup of tea.
Server
Someone makes the idlis and tea and someone Consumer
else serves you.
Idlis and tea are produced . These are
tangible, physical things you can touch and
feel. Economists call such tangible items
“goods”. These goods are not free but have to
pay or to be paid. Goods
Though you don’t realise it in addition to

these tangible things called goods, something
else is being produced : the work done by
the cooks and the people who serve the
food. The activity of cooking and serving is
not something you can feel and touch. Such
activities are not tangible but are nevertheless
292

DEFINITION OF GDP 1.1 National Income
The GDP is the market value of all the final
‘National Income is a measure of the total
goods and services produced in the country
money value of goods and services produced
during a time period.
by an economy over a period of time, normally
GDP = C + I + G + (X − M ) a year’. Commonly National Income is called
C = Consumption I = Investment as Gross National Product(GNP) or National
G = Government Expenditure Dividend.
( X − M) = X = Exports − M = Imports Various terms associated with
Every part of the definition is important. measuring of National Income
Goods and services: As you know by now, 1. Gross National Product (GNP)
goods are tangible items while services are Gross National Product is the total value
activities which are intangible . of goods and services produced and income
Market value: This is the price at which received in a year by domestic residents of a
goods and services are sold in the market. country. It includes profits earned from capital
Final goods and services: Economists invested abroad.
Tyler Cowen and Alex Tabarrok say that “final GNP = C + I + G + (X–M) + NFIA)
goods and services” are the goods and services
C = Consumption
which will be used or consumed. The goods
and services which will be used for producing I = Investment
other goods and services and will form a part G = Government Expenditure
of the goods and services produced are called
X-M = Export – Import
“intermediate goods”.
NFIA = Net Factor Income from Abroad)
Only the final goods are included in the
GDP. Intermediate goods are not counted in 2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
calculating the GDP because their value is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the
included in the final goods. So if the intermediate total value of output of goods and services
goods are included in the GDP it will result in produced by the factors of production within
what is called “double counting”. the geographical boundaries of the country.
For example, a cup of tea bought in a hotel 3. Net National Product (NNP)
is a final good because it is consumed and does
not form a part of producing something else. Net National Product(NNP) is arrived
So the market value of the cup of tea, being a by making some adjustment with regard to
final good, is included in the GDP. Sugar which depreciation that is we arrive the Net National
is mixed in the tea is an intermediate good Product (NNP) by deducting the value of
because it is used in making tea and forms a depreciation from Gross National Product.
part of the tea served. Suppose the tea is priced (NNP = GNP − Depreciation)
` 10 a cup, of which the value of sugar used is 4. Net Domestic Product (NDP)
` 2. So the price of the cup of tea includes the
Net Domestic Product (NDP) is a part
` 2 price of the spoon of sugar. If this value of
of Gross Domestic Product, Net Domestic
sugar is included in the GDP , it will be counted
Product is obtained from the Gross Domestic
twice: as a spoon of sugar and again as a part
of the cup of tea. This is “double counting” and Product by deducting the Quantum of tear and
to avoid it the intermediate goods like sugar are wear expenses (depreciation)
excluded from GDP. NDP = GDP − Depreciation
293 Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an Introduction

5. Per Capita Income (PCI) In India the GDP is measured both
annually and quarterly. The annual GDP is for
Per capita Income or output per person
is an indicator to show the living standard of a financial year which is from April 1st of say
people in a country. It is obtained by dividing 2017 to March 31st 2018.
the National Income by the population of a
The modern concept of GDP was
country.
first developed by Simon Kuznets
Per capita Income = National Income / Population for a US Congress report in 1934.
In 1867-68 for the first

Methods of GDP Calculating
time Dadabhai Navroji had
ascertained the Per Capital 1. Expenditure Approach: In this method, the
Income in his book “Poverty GDP is measured by adding the expenditure
and Un-British Rule of India”. on all the final goods and services produced
in the country during a specified period.
6. Personal Income (PI) Y = C + I + G + (X − M)
Personal income is the total money income 2. The Income Approach: This method looks
received by individuals and households of a at GDP from the perspective of the earnings
country from all possible sources before direct of the men and women who are involved
taxes. in producing the goods and services. The
income approach to measuring GDP (Y) is
7. Disposable Income (DI) Y = wages + rent + interest + profit
Disposable income means actual 3. Value-Added Approach: A cup of tea
income which can be spent on consumption
served to you in a hotel is a “final good”.
by individuals and families, thus, it can be
The goods used to produce it , tea powder,
expressed as DPI = PI − Direct Taxes
milk, and sugar, are “intermediate goods”
(From consumption approach DI = since they form a part of the final good,
Consumption Expenditures + Savings ) the cup of tea. One way to measure the
market value of the cup of tea is to add
1.2 Gross Domestic the value produced by each intermediate
Product (GDP) good used to produce it. The sum of the
value added by all the intermediate goods
Produced in the country: GDP of India used in production gives us the total
includes only the market value of goods and value of the final goods produced in the
services produced in India. For example the economy.
market value of apples produced in Kashmir
are included in our GDP since Kashmir is in
India. The market value of apples produced
in California, even if they are sold in Indian
markets, are not included in our GDP because
California is in the U.S.
Produced during a time period
The GDP of a country measures the market
value of goods and services produced only
during the specified time period. The goods and
services produced in earlier periods are not
included.
Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an Introduction 294

Value added method 4 The GDP does not tell us about the kind
Tea powder + Milk + Sugar = Tea of life people are living: A high level of
per capita real GDP can go hand-in-hand
Value of intermediate goods = Value of final goods with very low health condition of people,
an undemocratic political system, high
Importance of GDP
pollution and suicide rate.
1. Study of Economic Growth.
2. Problems of inflation and deflation. Estimation of GDP
3. Comparison with developed countries of The Central Statistical
the world. Organisation (CSO), under the
Ministry of Statistical department
4. Estimate the purchasing power.
keeps the records. It’s processes involves
5. Study of Public Sector. conducting an annual survey of industries
6. Guide to economic planning. and compilation of various indexes like
the Index of Industrial Production (IIP)
Limitations of GDP Consumer Price Index (CPI) etc.
1 Several important goods and services are
left out of the GDP: The GDP includes only 1.3 Composition of Gross
the goods and services sold in the market. Domestic Product (GDP)
The services provided by parents to their
children is very important but it is not Indian economy is broadly divided into
included in the GDP because it is not sold in three sector
the market. Likewise clean air, which is vital 1) Primary Sector: (Agricultural Sector)
for a healthy life, has no market value and is
left out of the GDP. Agricultural sector is known as primary
sector, in which agricultural operations
are undertaken.
Agriculture based
allied activities,
production of raw
materials such as
cattle farm, fishing,
2 GDP measures only quantity but not mining, forestry,
quality: In the 1970s schools and banks did corn, coal etc. are Forestry
not permit the use of ballpoint pens. This also undertaken.
is because the ones available in India were
of very poor quality. Since then, not only 2) Secondary Sector: (Industrial Sector)
has there been a substantial increase in the Industrial sector is secondary sectors
quantity of ballpoint pens produced in India in which the goods and commodities are
but their quality has also improved a lot. produced by transforming the raw materials.
The improvement in quality of goods is very Important industries
important but it is not captured by the GDP. are Iron and Steel
3 GDP does not tell us about the way income industry, cotton
is distributed in the country: The GDP textile, Jute, Sugar,
of a country may be growing rapidly but Cement, Paper,
income may be distributed so unequally that Petrochemical,
only a small percentage of people may be automobile and Industry
benefitting from it. other small scale industries.

3) Tertiary: (Service Sector) In the 20th century, economists began to suggest
Tertiary sector that, traditional tertiary services could be
is known as service further distinguished from “quaternary” and
sector which includes “quinary” service sectors.
Government, scientific 1.4 Contribution of different
research, transport sectors in GDP of India
communication, trade,
postal and telegraph, Postal and Telegraph Services sector is the largest sector of India.
Banking, Education, Entertainment, Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices for
Healthcare and Information Technology etc.. Services sector is estimated at 92.26 lakh crore
in 2018-19.
Sector-wise Contribution in GDP of India
Year Agriculture(%) Industry(%) Service(%)
1950-51 51.81 14.16 33.25
1960-61 42.56 19.30 38.25
1970-71 41.95 20.48 37.22
1980-81 35.39 24.29 39.92
1990-91 29.02 26.49 44.18
2000-01 23.02 26.00 50.98
2010-11 18.21 27.16 54.64
2011-12 17.86 27.22 54.91
2012-13 17.52 26.21 56.27
2013-14 18.20 24.77 57.03
2015-16 17.07 29.08 52.05
2016-17 17.09 29.03 52.08
2017-18 17.01 29.01 53.09
Source: Central Statistical Organisation
Sector-wise contribuon of GDP (2018-19)

Percentage share (%) Agriculture Sector
Agriculture Forestry & Fishing
14.82 15.87 Industry sector
15.87 Mining & quarrying

20.96
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, water
supply& other utility services
18.62 29.73
Construction
Services Sector
Trade, hotels, transport,
2.7 communication and services
16.83 related to broad casting
54.4 Financial, real estate & Prof
Services
2.67
7.54 Public administrative,
defense and other services
Source: Statistics times.com.
Note: The Diagram shows that Sector-wise contribution in GDP of India for the year 2018 - 2019.

Sector - wise GDP Growth of India (1950-2018)
Agriculture (Green colour) Industry (Orange colour) Services (Blue colour)
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2018
Year
Source: Statistics times.com.
Note: The chart Diagram shows that Sector-wise contribution in GDP of India for the year 1950-2018
1.5 Economic Growth and

Development
As per the economist
Amartya Sen, economic
growth is one aspect of
economic development.
Also, United Nation see
it like this “Economic
India is 2nd largest producer of development focuses not
agricultural products. India accounts for 7.39 only on man’s materialistic
percent of total global agricultural output. need but it focuses on overall development or
rise in its living standards.
In Industrial sector, India's world rank Economic Growth
is 6 and in Service sector, India's world rank
is 8. Contribution of Agriculture sector in It is the quantitative measure which
Indian economy is much higher than world's considers the rise in the output produced in
average (6.4%). Contribution of Industry and an economy or nation in a particular period
Services sector is lower than world's average in its monetary value. The key parameters of
30% for Industry sector and 63% for Services economic growth in any economy are its Gross
sector. Domestic Product (GDP) and gross national
product which helps in measuring the actual
Gross value added (GVA) is the measure of size of an economy.
the value of goods and services produced in an Economic Development
area, industry or sector of an economy.
Economic development projects a broader
GVA = GDP + subsidies - (direct, sales) taxes.
picture of an economy which takes into account

an increase in production level or output of an remained limited. This
economy along with an improvement in the outlook continued till 1991
living standard of its citizens. It focuses more when India finally decided to
on socioeconomic factors rather than the just open its borders to free trade
quantitative increase in production. Economic and liberalized its economy by
development is a qualitative measure which
allowing foreign companies
measures improvement in technology, labour
to enter the Indian economy.
reforms, rising living standards, broader
institutional changes in an economy. A thrust was given to employment
Human development Index (HDI) is apt tool generation under the Five Year plans. This was
to measure the real development in an economy. to make up for a rising population and lacking
jobs to absorb the increased workforce size.
1.6 Developmental Path based
Rural development was also given importance
on GDP andEmployment
in India, for the important constituent it was of
In the development path of India, it first the Indian landscape.
undertook the policy of closed trade. This was to
give a thrust to domestic industries and reduce Poverty alleviation came as a corollary of
dependence on foreign products and companies. rural development and a part of the development
Trade and interaction with the outside world path of India. India inherited a poverty-stricken
Differences between Economic Growth and Economic Development
Comparison between
Economic Growth
Economic Growth Economic Development
and Economic
Development
It considers the rise in the output in an
It is the positive quantitative
economy along with the advancement of
Definition / change in the output of an
HDI index which considers a rise in living
Meaning economy in a particular time
standards, advancement in technology
period
and overall happiness index of a nation.
Economic growth is the Economic development is the “Broader”
Concept
“Narrower” concept concept
Nature of Approach Quantitative in nature Qualitative in nature
Rise in life expectancy rate, infant,
Rise in parameters like GDP,
Scope improvement in literacy rate, infant
GNP, FDI,FII etc.
mortality rate and poverty rate etc.
Term / Tenure Short term in nature Long-term in nature
Applicability Developed nation Developing economies
Measurement Increase in real national income i.e. per
Increase in national income
Techniques capita income
Frequency of
In a certain period of time Continuous process
Occurrence
Highly dependent on government
It is an automatic process so
intervention as it includes widespread
Government Aid may not require government
policies changes so without government
support/aid or intervention
intervention it is not possible

economy from the British rule, which had Human Development Index
destroyed its resource base completely. In 1990 Mahbub ul Haq, a
The public sector was given significant Pakistani Economist at the
importance, Private companies and industries United Nations, introduced the
were subject to strict regulations and standards. Human Development Index
It was believed that the government was the sole (HDI). The HDI is a composite
protector of the people and would work towards index of life expectancy at birth,
social welfare. adult literacy rate and standard of living measured
as a logarithmic function of GDP, adjusted to
India has sustained rapid growth of GDP
purchasing power parity.
for most of the last two decades leading to rising
per capita incomes and a reduction in absolute India climbed one spot to 130 out of 189 countries
poverty. Per capita incomes have doubled in 12 in the latest human development rankings released
years. In Per capita income, placing India comes today by the United Nations Development
just inside the Middle Income Country category. Programme (UNDP). Between 1990 and 2017,
India’s HDI value incased from 0.427 to 0.640, an
Life expectancy at birth is 65 years and increase of nearly 50 percent – and an indicator
44% of children under 5 are malnourished. The of the country’s remarkable achievement in lifting
literacy rate for the population aged 15 years and millions of people out of poverty.
above is only 63% compared to a 71% figure for
lower middle income countries. 1.7 Growth of GDP and
India has followed a different path of Economic Policies
development from many other countries. Many Economic Policies have been framed
Factors supporting Indian by the Government of India since independence
development for increasing rate of economic growth and
economic development. The important
A fast-growing population of working age
economic policies are
is an important factor. There are 700 million
Indians under the age of 35 and the demographics 1. Agriculture policy
look good for Indian growth in the next twenty Agricultural policy is the set of government
years at least. India is experiencing demographic decisions and actions relating to domestic
transition that has increased the share of the agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural
working-age population from 58 percent to 64 products. Some over arching themes include
percent over the last two decades.
risk management and adjustment, economic
India has a strong legal system and many stability , natural resources and environmental
English-language speakers. This has been a key sustainability research and development, and
to attracting inward investment from companies market access for domestic commodities.
such as those specialising in Information
Some Agricultural policies are Price policy,
Technology.
land reform policy, Green Revolution, Irrigation
India's economy has successfully developed policy, Food policy, Agricultural Labour Policy
in highly advanced and attractive clusters of and Co-operative policy.
businesses in the technology space. For example
2. Industrial Policy
witness the rapid emergence of Bangalore
as a hub for global software businesses. Industrial development is a very important
External economies of scale have deepened aspect of any economy. It creates employment,
their competitive advantages in many related promotes research and development, leads
industries. to modernization and ultimately makes the

Gross National Happiness (GNH)
The term Gross National Happiness was coined in 1972 during an interview by a British
journalist for the Financial Times at Bombay airport when the then king of Bhutan, Jigme Singye
Wangchuck, said "Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product.
In 2011, The UN General Assembly passed Resolution "Happiness: towards a holistic approach
to development" urging member nations to follow the example of Bhutan and measure happiness
and well-being and calling happiness a "fundamental human goal."
The four pillars of GNH's are
1. sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
2. environmental conservation
3. preservation and promotion of culture
4. good governance.
The nine domains of GNH are psychological well-being, health, time use, education, cultural
diversity and resilience, good governance, community vitality, ecological diversity and resilience,
and living standards.
economy self-sufficient. In fact, industrial growth, Small scale industrial policy and
development even boosts other sectors of the Industrial Labour policy.
economy like the agricultural sector (new 3. New Economic Policy
farming technology) and the service sector. It is The economy of India had undergone policy
also closely related to the development of trade. in the beginning of the 1990s. This new model
Several industrial policies have been of economic reforms is commonly known as
the LPG known as Liberalisation, Privatisation
enacted. Since 1948, Industrial policy on large
and Globalisation. These economic reforms had
scale industries Eg. Textile Industry policy, influenced the overall economic growth of the
Sugar Industry policy, Price policy of industrial country in a significant manner.
SUMMARY
GDP is the value of all goods and services produced within an economy in a financial
�
year.
Indian economy is classified in three sectors Agriculture and allied Industry and Service
�
Depreciation: The Monetary value of an asset decreases over time due to use, wear and
�
tear or obsolescence
Income: The amount of monetary or other returns, either earned or unearned, accruing
�
over a period of time.
Gross Value Added (GVA): The measure of the value of goods and services produced in
�
an area, industry or sector of an economy.
GLOSSARY
Depreciation The process of lossing value தேய்மானம்

Intermediate Being between two other related things இடைநிலை
Market Price A price that is likely to be paid for something சந்தை விலை

A consumer good or final good is any commodity
Final Goods that is produced or consumed by the consumer to இறுதி ப�ொருட்கள்
satisfy current wants or needs
the nature of something's ingredients or
Composition constituents; the way in which a whole or mixture கலவை
is made up
a gift or payment to a common fund or
Contribution பங்களிப்பு
collection.
continue in existence or operation uncertainly or
Staggering தடுமாற்றத்தினை
precariously.
EVALUATION

answer c) Service sector
d) None of the above.
1. GNP equals
a) NNP adjusted for inflation 6. Gross value added at current prices for
services sector is estimated at ______ lakh
b) GDP adjusted for inflation
crore in 2018-19.
c) GDP plus net property income from
abroad a) 91.06 b) 92.26 c) 80.07 d) 98.29
d) NNP plus net property income or 7. India is ______ larger producer in
abroad agricultural product.
2. National Income is a measure of a) 1st b) 3rd c) 4th d) 2nd
a) Total value of money 8. India’s life expectancy at birth is ______
b) Total value of producer goods years.
c) Total value of consumption goods a) 65 b) 60 c) 70 d) 55
d) Total value of goods and services 9. Which one is a trade policy?.
3. Primary sector consist of a) irrigation policy
a) Agriculture b) Automobiles b) import and export policy
c) Trade d) Banking c) land-reform policy
4. ______ approach is the value added by each d) wage policy
intermediate good is summed to estimate 10. Indian economy is
the value of the final good.
a) Developing Economy
a) Expenditure approach
b) Emerging Economy
b) Value added approach
c) Dual Economy
c) income approach
d) All the above
d) National Income
5. Which one sector is highest employment in II Fill in the blanks
the GDP. 1. _____ is the primary sector in India.
a) Agricultural sector 2. GDP is the indicator of _____ economy.
b) Industrial sector 3. Secondary sector otherwise called as _____.

III Match the following 4. Write any five differences between the
1. Electricity/ – National Income / growth and development.
Gas and Water Population 5. Explain the following the economic policies
2. Price policy – Gross Domestic 1.Agricultural Policy
Product 2.Industrial policy
3. GST – Industry Sector 3.New ecnomic policy
4. Per capita income – Agriculture
5. C + I + G + (X-M) – Tax on goods and VI Activity and Project
service 1. Students are collect the Gross Domestic
Product datas of Tamilnadu and compare
IV Give short answer
the other state of Karnataka and Kerala’s
1. Define National income. GDP.
2. What is meant by Gross domestic product? 2. Students are collect the details of
3. Write the importance of Gross domestic Employment growth of Tamilnadu.
product.
4. What is per capita income?. REFERENCE BOOKS
5. Define the value added approach with
example. 1. Sankaran Indian Economy(problems,
6. Write the name of ecnomic policies in India. policies,and development).
7. Write a short note 2. Ramesh singh Indian economy (10th Edition).
1) Gross National Happiness(GNH) 3. Ministry of statistics and implementation
2) Human Development Index(HDI) planning commission. Government of india.
V Write in detail answer

1. Briefly explain various terms associated INTERNET RESOURCES
with measuring of national income.
2. What are the methods of calculating Gross 1. http://en.wikipedia.org
Domestic Product? and explain its. 2. http://www.statisticstimes.com
3. Write about the composition of GDP in
India.
ICT CORNER
Gross Domestic Product and
its Growth: an Introduction
Steps
• Click on ‘Real GDP Growth’ and select ‘India’ in Right side menu
• Drag the timeline button to see the GDP Growth of India
Website URL:
https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/datasets/WEO/1

Unit - 2
Globalization
and Trade
Learning Objectives
� To know the meaning and history of globalization

� To know the trade and traders in South India historical perspective
� To know the evolution of growth of MNC
� To know the fair trade practices and WTO
� To understand the impact and challenges of globalization
Introduction backround of globalization can be discussed on

three stages.
Liberalization, Privatization and Stage - 1
Globalization (LPG) have become a much talked Archaic Globalization
of subjects among politicians, economists and
History of Stage - 2
businessmen in modern days. Globalization Proto Globalization
2.1 Globalization Stage - 3

Modern Globalization
Globalization is the integration of a country
with the world economy. Basically, globalization Archaic Globalization
signifies a process of internationalization plus Andre Gunder Frank argued that a form of
liberalization. globalization has been in existence since the rise
of trade links between Sumer and Indus valley
civilization in the third millennium BC (BCE).
An early form of globalized economics and
culture, known as Archaic globalization existed
during the Hellenistic Age. An early form of
globalization in the trade link between the
Roman Empire, Parthian Empire and the Han
Dynasty made the commercial links between
Globalization these powers inspired the development of the
Silk Road.
2.2 History of Globalization
The Islamic Age was also an important early
The term of ‘Globalization’ was introduced stage of globalization. The advent of the Mongol
by Pro. Theodore Levitt. The historical Empire, though destabilizing to the commercial
303

SILK AND SPICE ROUTE W
N
E
S
A S I A
EUROPE
DITER
ME AN
R
EAN SEA
PERSIA CHINA
EGYPT
ARABIA INDIA
AFRICA
SOMALIA
INDIAN OCEAN
JAVA
LEGEND
LAND ROUTE AUSTRALIA
Not to Scale
SEA ROUTE
Silk Route and Spice Route
centers of the Middle East and China, greatly 20th century there are significant differences.
facilitated travel along the Silk Road. These Pre- There are two main points one is the global
modern phase of global exchange are sometimes trade in his centuries as well as the capital,
known as archaic globalization. investment and the economy and another one
is the global trade in the 20th century shows a
Proto Globalization
higher share of trade in merchant production,
The next phase is known as proto - a growth of the trade in services and the rise of
globalization. It was charterized by the rise of production and trade by multinational firms.
maritime European empires, in the 16th and
2.3 Trade and Traders in South
17th centuries, first the Portugues and Spanish
Empires, and Dutch and British empires. In India historical perspective
the 17th century, globalization became private Southern Indian trade guilds were formed
business phenomenon like British East India by merchants in order to organize and expand
Company[founded in 1600] described as the their trading activities. Trade guilds become
first multinational company, and the first Dutch channels through which Indian culture was
East India Company [found in 1602] were exported to other lands.
established.
Early Traders
Modern Globalization
In the year 1053 AD (CE) the Kalinga
The 19 century witnessed the advent of
th
traders (Modern Odisha) brought red colored
globalization approaching its modern form. stone decorative objects for trade and also
Between the globalization in the 19th and in he cotton textile to Southeast Asia at an early date.
Globalization and Trade 304

European Traders settlements were established at Tranguebar ( in
This was due to the trading activities of the Tamil nadu) in 1620 which was the headquarters
various European companies which came to of Danes in India. They failed to strengthen
India during this period. The discovery of a new themselves, in India and in 1845 were forced to
all-sea route from Europe to India Via cape of sell all their India settlements to the British.
Good Hope by Vasco do Gama had for reaching The French
repercussions on the civilized world.
The first French factory in India was
The Portuguese established in 1668 by obtaining permission
The Portuguese under the leadership of from the Sultan of Golconda. In 1693, the
Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on May, 1498. Dutch captured Pondicherry but was handed
Profits of goods brought by Vasco do Gama back to the French. In 1701, Pondicherry was
to Portugal were to 60 times cost of the entire the headquarters of the French.
expedition to India. The second trip of Vasco da
2.4 Globalization in India
Gama in 1502 led to the establishment of trading
station at Calicut Cochin and Cannanore. In India the period after 1980-81 was
Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese marked by severe balance of payment difficulties
in India. mainly due to hike in oil price and Gulf war in
The Dutch 1990-91 and hostilities in West Asia.
Dutch undertook several voyages from When the new government took over in
1596 and formed the Dutch East India company June 1991. India had unprecedented balance of
(VOC) I 1602. In 1605, Admiral van der Hagen payment crisis.
established Dutch Factory at Masulipatnam and With the downgrading of India’s credit
Pettapoli (Nizamapatanam), Devanampatinam. rating by some international agencies, there was
In 1610, upon negotiating with the king of heavy flight of capital out of India.
Chandragiri, found another facatory at Pulicut.
Other commodities exported by the Dutch were Since India lost its credit worthiness in
indigo, and Bengal raw silk. Pulicut was the the international market, the government
headquarters of the Dutch in India. mortgaged 40 tons of gold to the Bank of
England. Under these circumstances, the
The British government for 1991-92 presented its budget
On 31st December, 1600, Queen Elizabeth in July 1991 with a series of policy changes
granted charter to The East India Company. which underlined globalization, liberalization
On the south-eastern coast, the English and privatization. This has come to be called as
established at Masulipatnam in 1611 and India’s new economic policy. This policies were
near Pulical in 1626. The Sultan of Golconda strengthened when India signed the Dunkel
granted the English the “Golden Fireman” Draft in 1994.
in 1632 by which they were allowed to trade
Reforms made to adopt Globalization:-
freely in their “Kingdom Ports”. In 1639, built a
(New Economic policy in India)
fortified factory in Madras which known as Fort
St.George, which soon displaced Masulipatnam 1. Abolition of Industrial licensing, except for a
as headquarters of the English settlement on the few industries.
coromandel coast. 2.
Reduction in the number of industries
The Danes reserved for public sector.
The Danes formed an East India company 3. Fixation of a realistic exchange rate of rupee
and arrive in India in 1616. The Danish to exchange exports of Indian goods.
305 Globalization and Trade

4.
Foreign private sector by making rupee of liberalization in the 1980s gave a substantial
convertible on trade, on current account and spurt to foreign collaborations. This would be
by reducing import duties. clear from the fact that of the total 12,760 foreign
5. Foreign exchanges regulations were suitably collaboration agreements signed between 1948-
amended 1988. As a result of liberalized foreign investment
policy (FIP) announced in July-Aug 1991 there
6.
The Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) was has a further spurt of foreign collaborations and
reduced to increase lending by RBI. increase flow of foreign direct investment.
2.5 Multi National Reasons for the growth MNC
Corporation (MNC) 1. Expansion of Market territory.
Multi National As the operations of large sized firm
Corporation is a Corporate expand, it seeks more and more extension of its
organization which owns or activates beyond the physical boundaries of the
controls production of goods country in which it is in corporate.
or services in at least one
2. Marketing superiorities:
country other than its home
country. A multinational firm enjoys a number
of marketing superiorities over the national
Evolution of MNC
firms. It enjoys market reputation and faces
Like, the East India Company, which came less difficulty in selling its products and it adopt
to India as a trading company and then its net more effective advertising and sales promotion
throughout the country to become politically techniques.
dominant, these multinationals first start their
3. Financial Superiorities
activities in extractive industries or control raw
materials in the host countries during 1920s and It has financial resources and high level of
then slowly entered. In to the manufacturing funds utilization. It has easier access of external
and service sectors after 1950s. Most of the capital markets. Because of its international
MNC’s at present belong to the four major reputation it is able to raise more international
exporting countries viz., USA, UK, France, resources.
Germany. However, the largest is American. 11
of the 15 largest multinationals are Americans. Top 10 Largest Multinational Companies
in India 2018
Growth of MNCs in India
Sony Corporation Nettle
A common form of MNC Participation Hew left Packard
in Indian industry is through entering into Procter & Gamble
(HP)
cooperation with Indian industrialist. Trends Tata Group City Group
Microsoft
Pepsi Company
Corporation
The Coca-Cola
IBM
Company
4. Technological superiorities:
The main reason why MNCs have been
encouraged by the underdeveloped countries to
participate in their industrial development is on
MNC Company account of the technological superiorities which

Indian Multi National Companies
Company Headquarter Type of Industry Countries of operating
Columbia, Bangladesh,
Hero Motocorp New Delhi Automobile
Africa
United Arab Emirates(UAE),
Bajaj Pune Automobile
Bangladesh
Brazil,Chile,Colombia,
TVS Chennai Automobile
Mexico,Peru
Australia,Bangaladesh,
State Bank of India Mumbai Banking
Belgium
Bharti Airtel New Delhi Communication South Asia, Africa
these firms posses as compared to national 2.6 Fair Trade Practices and
companies. World Trade Organization
5. Product innovations: Fair Trade is a way of doing business that
MNCs have research and development ultimately aims to keep small farmers an active
engaged in the task of developing new products part of the world market place, and aims to
and superior designs of existing products. empower consumer to make purchases that
support their values.
Advantages of MNC
Raising and stabilizing the incomes of small-
1. Producing the same quality of goods at Scale farmers, farm workers and artisans.
lower cost and without transaction cost
More equitably distributing the economic
2. MNC reduce prices and increase the gains, opportunities and risks associated
Purchasing power of consumers world wide with the production and sale of these goods.
3. A MNC is able to take advantage of tax Increasing the organizational and
variation. commercial capacities of producer groups.
4. Spurring job growth in the local economies Promoting labor rights and the right
Disadvantages of MNC workers to organize.
1. They are a way for the corporations to Promoting safe and sustainable farming
develop a monopoly (for certain products) methods and working conditions.
2. They are also a detrimental effect on the Fair trade is about better prices, decent
environment. working conditions and fair terms of trade for
3. The introduction of MNC in to a host farmers and workers.
country’s economy may also lead to the Principles of Fair trade Organization
downfall of smaller, local business.
Creating Opportunities for Economically
4. MNC breach ethical standards, accusing
Disadvantaged producers.
them of evading ethical laws and leveraging
their business agenda with capital. Transparency and Accountability .
FERA (Foreign Exchange Regulation Act 1974)

This Act referred directly to the operations of MNCs in India
FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act 1999)
Under FEMA the emphasis is on ‘Management’ rather than ‘regulation’

Fair Trading Practices and Payment of a Fair
Price.
Ensuring no child Labour and Forced
Labour.
Commitment to Non Discrimination,
Gender Equity and freedom of association.
Providing Capacity Building and Promoting
Fair Building.
Respect for the Environment. World Trade Organization(WTO)
GATT: (General Agreement onTrade and Tariffs) Objectives of W.T.O
GATT was signed by 23 countries in 1947. To set and enforce rules for international
India was one of the founder members of GATT. trade.
The Director General of GATT, Arthur Dunkel,
To provide a forum for negotiating and
came up with a Drafft Final Act, known as
monitoring further trade liberalization.
Dunke Draft was approved and signed. GATT’s
primary purpose was to increase International To resolve trade disputes.
Trade by reducing various tariffs, quotas Introduction at the sustainable development
and subsidies while maintaining meaningful and environment can go together.
regulations. To ensure that developing countries, secure
a better share of growth in world Trade.
Rounds of GATT
To resolve trade disputes.
• First in Geneva (Switzerland) (1947)
To increase the transparency of decision
• Second in Annecy (France) in 1949 making processes.
• Third in Torquay (UK) in 1950 – 51 Introduction sustainable development
• Fourth, fifth, and Sixth in Geneva the development and environment can go
(Switzerland) in 1956, 1960-61, 1964 -67. together.
• Seventh in Tokyo (Japan) in 1973 – 79 To ensure full employment and broad
• Eighth and final round at Punta del Este increase in effective demand.
(Uruguay) in 1986 – 1994, known as Trade Related aspects of Intellectual
‘Uruguay Round’. Property Rights (TRIPs)
World Trade Organization (WTO) Intellectual Property Rights may be

defined as “Information with a commercial
The signing of the Final Act of the Uruguay Value” Under TRIPs Patent shall be available
Round by member nations of GATT in April for any invention whether product or process
1994 paved the way for setting up of the WTO. in all fields of industrial technologies. TRIPS
An agreement to this effect was signed by 104 agreement covers seven areas of intellectual’s
members. The WTO Agreement came into property rights.
force from January 1, 1995.
2.7 Impact and Challenges
World Trade Organization(WTO):
of Globalization
Head Quarter: Geneva, Switzerland
Purpose: Regulation, International trade Positive Impact
Members of WTO: Director General, Four A better economy introduces rapid
Deputy Director General, and other 600 Official development of the capital market.
Staff from around 80 member countries. Standard of living has increased.

Globalization rapidly increase better trade Rapidly increases in exploitation of natural
so that more people are employed. resources to earn foreign exchange.
Introduced new technologies and new Environmental standards and regulations
scientific research patterns. have been relaxed.
Globalization increasing the GDP of a Challenges of Globalization
country. The benefits of globalization extend to all
It helps to increase in free flow of goods and countries that will not happen automatically.
also to increase Foreign Direct Investment. The fear that globalization leads to instability
Negative Impact in the developing world.
The industrial world that increased global
Too much flow of capital amongst competition will lead in race to the bottom
countries, introduces unfair and immoral in wages, labour right, and employment
distributors of Income. practice.
Another fear is losing national integrity. It leads to global inbalance.
Because of too much exchange of trade, Globalization has led to an increase in
independent domestic policies are lost. activities such as child labor and slavery.
People started consuming more junk food.
Rapid growth of the economy has required This caused, the degradation of health and
a major infrastructure and resource spread of diseases.
extraction. This increases negative Globalization has led to environmental
ecological and Social costs. degradation.
SUMMARY
Globalization is the integration of country with the world economy.
The three stages of Globalization : • Archiac Globalization • Proto Globalization
• Modern Globalization.
LPG – Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization
Multi National Company is a corporate organization which owns or control production of goods
and services in at least one country to other than its home country.
MNC otherwise called Transnational Company(TNC) and Multinational Enterprises(MNE).
GATT was signed by 23 countries in 1947. India was one of the founder members of GATT.
G L O S S A R Y
the process by which businesses or other
globalization organizations develop international influence or உலகமயமாக்கல்
start operating on an international scale.
of an early period of art or culture, especially the
archaic தொன்மையான
7th–6th centuries BC in Greece.
evolution the gradual development of something பரிணாம வளர்ச்சி
expose to future risk or constraint for the sake of அடமானம்
mortgaged
immediate advantage. வைக்கப்பட்ட
spurt cause to gush out suddenly. திடீர்
detrimental tending to cause harm சீரழிவான
thriving prosperous and growing; flourishing. வெற்றிகரமான

III Match the following
EVALUATION 1. Multination
corporation in India - 1947
I Choose the correct 2. MNC - enforce
answer international
trade
1. Who is the head of the 3. GATT - Minimize cost of
World Trade Organisation (WTO) production
a) Ministerial conference 4. 8th Uruguay Round - Infosis
b) Director General 5. WTO - 1986
c) Deputy Director General IV Give Short Answers
d) None of these 1. What is globalization?
2. Colonial advent in India 2. Write the types of globalization.
a)
Portuguese, Dutch, English, Danish, 3. Write short note on Multinational
French corporation.
b) Dutch, English, Danish , French 4. What are the reforms made to adopt
c)
Portuguese , Danish, Dutch, French, globalization?
English 5. What is Fair trade ?
d) Danish, Portuguese, French, English, 6. Write any two principles of Fair Trade
Dutch Practices.
3. GATT’s first round held in 7. Write short note on TRIPs and TRIMs.
a) Tokyo b) Uruguay 8. Write any two positive impact of
c) Torquay d) Geneva Globalization.
4. India signed the Dunket proposal in V Brief Answer
a) 1984 b) 1976 c) 1950 d) 1994 1. Briefly explain the advantages and
5. who granted the English “golden Fireman” disadvantages of MNC.
in 1632 2. Write about the World Trade Organisation.
a) Jahangir b) Sultan of Golconda 3. Write the challenges of Globalization.
c) Akbar d) Aurangzeb VI Activity and Projects
6. Foreign Investment policy (FIP) announced 1. Teacher and students are discuss about the
in globalization.
a) June 1991 b) July 1991 2. Students are collect the images regarded
c) July- Aug-1991 d) Aug 1991 to the globalization and make the album.
7. Indian government was introduced (south Indian trade and traders images,
___________ in 1991 and silk route map, spice route map, and
a) Globalization kalinga trade map, etc)
b) World Trade Organisation 3. Students are collect the picture of various
Multinational corporation companies in
c) New Economic Policy
India and its products pictures.
d) none
II Fill in the Blanks REFERENCE BOOKS
1. A better economy introduce rapid
development of the ___________. 1. Dr. S. Shankaran [2007], “Indian Economy”
2. WTO agreement came into force from [Problem, Policies and Development]
___________. 2. Dutt “Indian Economy”
3. The term globalization invented by 3. History of Tamil Nadu [Social and Culture]
___________. 4. S.K. Misra and V.K. Puri “Indian Economy”

Unit - 3
Food Security and

Nutrition
Learning Objectives
To study about the meaning, definition of food security

To know about the availability and access to food grains
To understand about the purchasing power and agricultural
policy
To gain knowledge about the multi-dimensional nature of poverty
To study about nutrition and health status and policies in Tamil Nadu
Introduction “physical, economic and social access

to a balanced diet, safe drinking water,
Food is defined as any substance that environmental hygiene, primary health care
people eat and drink to maintain life and and primary education”.
growth. Food security would denote a person’s
ability to eat enough, stay active and lead a asic components of food and
B
healthy life. nutrition security
The three basic components of food and
3.1 Food Security nutrition security. They are availability, access
and absorption:
The United Nation’s Food and Agriculture
Organisation defines food security as follows: 1. Availability of food is physical availability
of food stocks in desired quantities, which
“Food security exists when all people, at
is a function of domestic production,
all times, have physical, social and economic
changes in stocks and imports;
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
which meets their dietary needs and food 2. A
ccess to food is primarily a matter
preferences for an active and healthy life.” of purchasing power and is therefore
(FAO, 2009) closely linked with the capabilities and
While this comprehensive definition employment opportunities to earn.
highlights the need for food to be nutritious, in Capabilities and opportunities in turn
addition to that there are certain other aspects are related to one’s access to assets and
that are required to achieve nutrition security. education.
According to eminent agricultural scientist 3. Absorption of food is the ability to
Dr.M.S.Swaminathan, nutrition security is: biologically utilise the food consumed.
311

3.2 A
vailability and Access grain production. Increased food grain
production was made possible by an increase
to Food Grains
area cultivated with HYV of rice and wheat as
Thus food security for people in a country also an increase in the yield of these major cereal
is not only dependent on the quantum of crops. Area under food grains was a little more
food available but also on the ability of than 98 million hectares during early 1950s. The
people to purchase/access food and to stay in country was producing just 54 million tonnes of
appropriate healthy environment. Just as other food grains then with an average yield of food
developmental issues, food security of people is grains of 547 kg per hectare. The food situation
also related to a country’s overall development has steadily improved over a period of 65 years.
process. After Independence, India chose to Area under foodgrain cultivation has grown to
adopt a planned developmental model. 122 million hectares, with an increase of five-
fold increase in food grain production. Yield of
food grains has increased four-fold between the
time of independence and at present.
This growth in food grain production was
made possible by the HYV programme, which
was implemented as a package. Apart from
introducing fertiliser-responsive high-yielding
varieties of rice and wheat, it ensured the
availability of subsidised chemical fertilisers for
Food Grains the farmers. Cheaper farm credit was disbursed to
After an initial focus on agriculture, farmers through co-
industrialisation was given priority. The operative banks and
recurrent droughts experienced by India pushed societies. Minimum
her to be dependent on imports of food grains. support price (MSP)
However, the available foreign exchange reserve for the crops were
could not permit open market purchases and announced at the beginning of the season and
import of grains. India had to plead for food the state procured the harvested grains through
grains from richer countries at concessional the Food Corporation of India (FCI). The FCI
rates. United States of America extended had built huge storage godowns and built buffer
assistance through its Public Law 480 (PL 480) stocks of food grain during the harvest season to
scheme to India during early 1960s. be distributed all through the year.
A growing country with a massive
population was perceived to be a potential Minimum Support Price
candidate for revolution. The American Minimum Support Price is a price fixed
administration and philanthropic organisations by an expert group for a particular crop by
like Ford Foundation formulated a plan to considering various costs involved in the
increase food production in the country by cultivation of that crop. After announcing
introducing High Yielding Varieties (HYV) the MSP, the State will open procurement
of wheat and rice. This programme was centres in places where these crops are widely
implemented in select districts where irrigation grown. However, the farmers are free to sell
was assured. The results were promising and in the open market if they get a better price
the programme was extended to cover a larger for their crop produce. On the other hand, if
number of districts. the open market price is lower than the MSP,
the farmers would get an assured price (the
Thus, Green Revolution was born in the
MSP) by selling their produce to the FCI.
country paving way for self-sufficiency in food
Food Security and Nutrition 312

The rapid increase in food grain continues to have the universal system of PDS
production was accompanied by appropriate and supplies rice at free of cost to all card holders.
technological interventions in the dairy,
National Food Security Act in Tamil Nadu
poultry and fisheries sectors. As a result, the
milk production in the country witnessed On 1 November 2016, National Food Security
an eight-fold increase, egg production grew Act was implemented in Tamil Nadu after
40-fold and fish production by 13-fold between holding out for three years.
the time of Independence and mid-2000s.
ole of Consumer Cooperatives
R
However, India could not succeed in attaining
in Food Security
self-sufficiency in the production of pulses and
Consumer cooperatives play an important
oil seeds. Therefore, India depends on imports role in the supply of quality goods at responsible
to meet the requirements of people. rates to common people. There is a three-tier
Public Distribution System structure of consumer cooperative societies in
India. They are primary consumer cooperative
Tamil Nadu has adopted an ‘Universal’ PDS,
societies. Central consumer cooperative stores
the rest of the states in India had a ‘Targeted’
and state level consumer federations. More
PDS. Under universal PDS all the family ration
than 50,000 village level societies are engaged
card holders are entitled to the supplies from
in the distribution of consumer goods in rural
PDS. In the targeted PDS, the beneficiaries are
areas. This scheme is playing an important role
identified based on certain criteria and given
in food security in India. For example out of all
their entitlements, leaving out the rest. Both the
fair price shops running in Tamil Nadu, around
Union and the State governments subsidised the
94% are being run by cooperatives.
supplies distributed through PDS. The level and
quantum of subsidy also varied across states. Buffer Stock
Buffer stock is the
stock of food grains,
namely wheat and
rice, procured by the
government through the
Buffer Stock
Food Corporation of
India (FCI). The FCI purchases wheat and
rice from the farmers in states where there is
surplus production. The farmers are paid a
pre-announced price for their crops. This price
is called Minimum Support Price (MSP). The
Public Distribution System MSP is declared by the government every year
before the sowing season to provide incentives
Subsequently, the National Food Security
to farmers for raising the production of these
Act (NFSA) was passed by the Indian parliament
crops. The purchased foodgrains are stored in
in 2013. The NFSA covers 50% of urban
granaries.
households and 75% of the rural households.
These households are known as priority Buffer stock is done to distribute
households identified based on a set of criteria. foodgrains in the deficit areas and among the
Priority households of this country now have the poorer strata of the society at a price lower than
right to food supply through PDS. The Union the market price also known as the Issue Price.
government supplies rice at the rate of ` 3 per This also helps resolve the problem of shortage
kg, wheat at the rate of ` 2 per kg, and millets at of food during adverse weather conditions or
the rate of ` 1 per kg under NFSA. Tamil Nadu during the periods of calamity.
313 Food Security and Nutrition

3.3 Purchasing Power Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Purchasing power is the value of a currency
A concept related to purchasing power
expressed in terms of the amount of goods or is purchasing price parity (PPP). PPP is an
services that one unit of money can buy. Price economic theory that estimates the amount
increases purchasing power declines and vice that needs to be adjusted to the price of an
versa. item.
Factors affecting Purchasing PPP can be used to compare countries
Power income levels and other relevant economic
1. Over population data concerning the cost of living, or
The population growth rate in India is possible rates of inflation and deflation.
high as 1.7 per 1000. Large population leads to Recently, India became the third largest
economy in terms of PPP. China became
increasing demand, but supply was not equal
the largest economy, pushing the US to the
to the demand. So, the normal price level will
second position.
be going an higher. So it affect purchasing
power, especially in rural population. Largest economies by PPP - GDP in 2019
27.4 (Int $ Tn)
2. Increasing prices of essential goods 27
Even though there has been a constant 24 21.4
growth in the GDP and growth opportunities 21
in the Indian economy, there have been steady 18
increase in the prices of essential goods. 15 11.4
The continuous rise in the prices erodes the 12
purchasing power and adversely affect the poor 9
people. 6 5.8
4.5 4.3
3
3. Demand for goods
0
When demand for goods increases, the China US India Japan Germany Russia
price of goods increases then the purchasing
power is affected.
3.4 Agricultural Policy in India
4. Price of goods affect the value of currency
The new agricultural policy based on
When the price increases the purchasing
power decreases and finally the value of export of agricultural goods was announced by
currency decreases. the Central Government in 2018. This policy
states that the government has decided to
5. Production and supply of goods remove export restrictions on most organic and
The production and supply of goods processed agricultural products.
decline, the price of goods increases, then the
Agricultural policy of a country is mostly
purchasing power is affected.
designed by the Government for raising
6. Poverty and inequality agricultural production and productivity and
There exists a huge economic disparity also for raising the level of income and standard
in the Indian economy. The proportion of of living of farmers within a definite time frame.
income and assets owned by top 10% of Indian This policy is formulated for allround and
goes on increasing. This has led to an increase comprehensive development of the agricultural
in the poverty level in the society. Generally sector.
purchasing power is affected by poverty and The following are some of the important
unequal distribution of wealth also. objectives of india’s agricultural policy

1. Raising the productivity of inputs 6. Removing bureaucratic obstacles
One of the important objectives of India’s The policy has set another objective to
agricultural policy is to improve the productivity remove bureaucratic obstacles on the farmers’
of inputs so purchased like, HYV seeds, co-operative societies and self-help institutions
fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation projects etc. so that they can work independently.
2. Raising value-added per hectare 3.5 M

ulti-dimensional
Agricultural policy is to increase per Nature of Poverty
hectare value-added by raising the productivity
The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index
of agriculture in general and productivity of
(MPI) was launched by the United Nations
small and marginal holding in particular.
Development Programme (UNDP) and the
3. Protecting the interests of poor farmers Oxford Poverty Human Development Initiative
Agricultural policy is proposed to protect (OPHI) in 2010. The basic philosophy and
the interests of poor and marginal farmers significance of MPI is that it is based on the idea
by abolishing intermediaries through land that poverty is not unidimensional, and that it is
reforms, expanding institutional credit support rather multi-dimensional.
to poor farmers etc. Multi-dimensional poverty is made up of
several factors that constitute poor people’s expe-
4. Modernising agricultural sector rience of deprivation such as health, education,
Here the policy support includes the living standards, income, disempowerment,
introduction of modern technology in quality of work and threat from violence.
agricultural operations and application of
Multi-dimensional Poverty Index
improved agricultural inputs like HYV seeds,
2018 Report in Tamil Nadu
fertilizers etc.
Over the last decades, Tamil Nadu has made
5. Environmental degradation a significant progress in poverty reduction. The
Agricultural policy of India has set another districts in Tamil Nadu are classified into three
objective to check environmental degradation categories, namely high-poverty districts (more
of natural base of Indian agriculture. than 40% of the population living below poverty
Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index

line), moderately poor districts (30% to 40%) More than half of the women in the
and low level poverty districts (below 30%). reproductive age group (15–49 years) in both
After 1994, poverty has declined steadily rural and urban India were anaemic in 2015–
in both rural and urban areas of Tamil Nadu 16. As regards children, about 60% of the rural
and the state has a smaller share of India’s and 56% of the urban children (in the age group
poor relative to its population. After 2005, the of 6–59 months) are counted to be anaemic,
poverty reduction in this state has been faster in 2015–16. About 41% of the rural and 31%
than in many other states in India. Tamil Nadu of urban children are stunted, that is, they are
leads in the poverty alleviation programmes not of the required height in correspondence
during 2014–2017. Government of India is to their age. Another indicator of nutrition
implementing many policies and programmes deficiency among children is “underweight”,
to eradicate poverty. which is weight in relation to age. In India,
These policies and programmes, if in 2015–16, about 20% of children(in the age
continued, will completely eradicate the poverty group of 6–59 months) in rural and urban India
in the state. In future, Tamil Nadu can become a are estimated to be underweight.
model of development in india.
Nutrition and Health Status in
Top and Bottom MPI districts in Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu
Nutrition plays a crucial role in human
Top 5 Districts Bottom 5 Districts
health and well-being. At the national level,
Kancheepuram Dharmapuri despite higher economic growth, improvements
Chennai Perambalur in human development indicators like nutrition
levels of the population have been unacceptably
Cuddalore Ramanathapuram
slow. A large number of Indian children are
Coimbatore Virudhunagar
stunted. A substantial number of Indian
Nagapattinam Ariyalur children and women are underweight, anaemic
and suffer from micronutrient deficiencies.
3.6 N
utrition and Health To address these concerns, the Central and
Status state governments have been channellising
substantial resources into various health
Status of Nutrition
and nutrition schemes and programmes like
We noted earlier that food Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS),
security includes nutrition mid-day meals, Reproductive and Child Health
security too. Though our Programmes (RCH) and National Rural Health
country has reached self- Mission (NRHM). However, an effective scaling
sufficiency in food production, up of these efforts is required to mitigate the
the nutrition status of the incidence of under-nutrition in the country.
population has not seen corresponding levels of
Tamil Nadu has played a pioneering role in
improvement. In
bringing about significant changes in the health
2015–16, 27% of
and nutrition status of children under six years
the rural women
of age, pregnant women, lactating mothers and
and 16% of the
adolescent girls. The Government of Tamil
urban women
Nadu’s successive budget outlays for nutrition
(in the age group
and health are the highest in the country.
of 15–49 years) Underweight Child The performance of the ICDS scheme and
were counted as
the Puratchi Thalaivar MGR Nutritious Meal
undernourished or chronically energy deficient
Programme (PTMGRNMP) in Tamil Nadu are
by the National Family Health Survey.
considered one of the best in the country.

The Government of Tamil Nadu’s policy children, increasing primary school enrolment
for “A Malnutrition Free Tamil Nadu” guides and reducing dropout rates. Other states in
the state’s long-term multi-sectoral strategy for the country have modelled their noon meal
eliminating malnutrition. The goal is “reducing programmes along the lines of Tamil Nadu’s
human malnutrition of all types to the levels pioneering efforts.
of best performing countries”.In Tamil Nadu,
ICDS is being implemented through 54,439
Child Centres (comprising 49,499 Anganwadi
Centres and 4,940 Mini Anganwadi Centres) in
434 Child Development Blocks (385 rural, 47
urban and 2 tribal).
With steady expansion into unreached
areas, increasing coverage of marginalised
groups, enhanced allocations and enlarged
scope of services, ICDS is now considered to
be one of the world’s largest programmes of its
kind.
The PTMGRNMP is considered to be
the largest noon meal programme in the
country for combating malnutrition among ICDS Scheme
Important ongoing Schemes in Tamil Nadu

1. Under Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy Maternity Benefit Scheme, financial assistance to the tune
of ` 12,000 is being disbursed to poor pregnant women.
2. The Chief Minister’s Comprehensive Health Insurance Scheme was launched in the state in
2011-12 with the aim to provide Universal Healthcare to all by providing free medical and
surgical treatment.
3. Tamil Nadu Health Systems Projects (TNHSP) has
launched ambulance services free of cost (The 108
Emergency Ambulance Service).
4. The School Health Programme emphasises on providing
comprehensive healthcare services to all students studying in
Government and Government-aided schools.
5. The National Leprosy Eradication programme is being
implemented in the state with the aim to detect and to
provide sustained regular treatment to all leprosy patients. School Health Programme
Some Nutrition Programmes in Tamil Nadu

1. Puratchi Thalaivar M.G.R. Nutrition Meal Programme:
2. National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education
3. General ICDS Projects and World Bank Assisted Integrated Child
Development Services:
4. Pradhan Manthri Gramodaya Yojana Scheme (PMGYS):
5. Tamil Nadu Integrated Nutrition Programme:
6. Mid-Day Meal Programme: Mid-Day Meal Programme

SUMMARY
The term was broadened to include the three basic components of food and nutrition security.
They are availability, access and absorption.
The Green Revolution paved the way for self-sufficiency in food grain production.
The National Food Security Act (NFSA) was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2013.
The new agricultural policy based on export agricultural goods was announced by the Central
government in 2018.
Health has an important role in human resources development.
GLOSSARY
Availability that which can be used, attainable அடையத்தகுந்த

Accessibility right to enter அணுகுமுறை
Affordability ability to be afforded தாங்கும் திறன்
Sufficient enough ப�ோதுமான
Purchasing power the financial ability to buy produce ப�ொருள்கள் வாங்கும் திறன்
Productivity power of producing உற்பத்தி செய்யும் ஆற்றல்
Degradation to reduce to a lower rank மதிப்புக்கு குறைவு
Unidimensional having one direction ஒரு பரிமாணம்
Malnourished lack of proper nutrition ஊட்டச்சத்தின்மை
EXERCISE
I Choose the 3. Which is correct?

correct answer i) HYV–High Yielding Varieties
1. of food is physical availability ii) MSP–Minimum Support Price
of food stocks in desired quantities, which iii) PDS–Public Distribution System
is a function of domestic production,
changes in stocks and imports. iv) FCI–Food Corporation of India
a) Availability of food a) i and ii are correct
b) Access to food b) iii and iv are correct
c) Absorption of food c) ii and iii are correct
d) none
d) all are correct
2. Buffer stock is the stock of food grains, 4. extended assistance through its
namely wheat and rice, procured by the
Public Law 480.
government through the .
a) United States of America
a) FCI
b) India
b) Consumer Cooperatives
c) ICICI c) Singapore
d) IFCI d) UK

5. revolution was born in India IV Assertion and Reason
paving way for self sufficiency in food
grain production. Assertion
1. (A): Purchasing power
increases, price decreases and vice versa.
a) Blue Revolution
b) White Revolution Reason (R): The production of goods

decline, the price of goods increases and
c) Green Revolution
then the purchasing power is affected.
d) Grey Revolution
a) A is correct, R is false
6. is the only state in India to
adopt universal PDS. b) Both A and R are false statements
a) Kerala c) A is correct but R is not a correct
b) Andhra Pradesh explanation
c) Tamil Nadu d) A is correct, R is the correct explanation
d) Karnataka of A
7. is the process of providing or
obtaining the food necessary for health V Answer in short
and growth. 1. Define food security according to FAO.
a) Health
2. What are the basic three components of
b) Nutrition
c) Sanitation of food and nutrition security?
d) Security 3. What is the role of FCI in Green
II Fill in the blanks Revolution?
1. is an important indicator of 4. What are the effects of Green Revolution?

nutrition deficiency. 5. Write some name of the nutrition
2. In the year National Food programmes in Tamil Nadu.
Security Act was passed by the Indian
VI Answer in detail
Parliament.
1. Elucidate why the Green Revolution was
3. play an important role in the
born.
supply of quality goods at responsible
rates to common people. 2. Explain Minimum Support Price.
III Match the following 3. Elaborate the Public Distribution System.
1. Consumer 4. What are the factors affecting the

cooperatives – subsidized rates purchasing power and explain them.
2. Public Distribution 5. What are the main objectivies of the new
System – 2013 Agricultural Policy?
3. UNDP – least poor region
VII Activity and Project
4. National
Food Security Act – supply of quality 1. Visit nearby “Uzhavar Sandhai” and collect
goods the information about the functions of
market.
5. Kerala – United Nations
Development 2. Collect information about health centre
Programme functioning nearby your location.

REFERENCE BOOKS INTERNET RESOURCES
1. Dr. S. Sankaran, Indian Economy, India.
1. www.agricoop.nic.in
2. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers
2. www.fci.gov.in
Welfare. Annual report 2016–17.
3. www.statistics.com
3. Nutrition & Food Security. UN India.
4. Pratiyogita Darpan–Indian Economy.
5. Economic Survey 2017–18.
6. The Gazette of India–“The National Food
Security Act 2013”.
ICT CORNER
Food Security and Nutrition
Steps
• Open the browser and type the URL given below.
• Click on the left side menu to view the policies on food security, procurement data for
current marketing season, minimum support price of food grains.
• For example, click on the minimum support price of paddy. You can see
the yearwise minimum support price of paddy, wheat and coarsegrain.
• Likewise, you can view regionwise procurement also.
Website URL:
http://fci.gov.in/procurements.php?view=51

Unit - 4
Government and
Taxes
Learning Objectives
To understand the role of the government and development policies
To gain knowledge about tax and its types
To study how is tax levied
To gain insight into black money and tax evasion
To know the difference between the tax and other payments
To understand the taxes and its development
Introduction
3. Conduct of periodic elections: India
Tax is levied by government for the is a democratic country. We elect our
development of the state’s economy. The revenue representatives to Parliament and state
of the government depends upon direct and assemblies. Similarly the state governments
indirect taxes. Direct taxes are levied on income conduct elections to local bodies within the
of the persons and the indirect taxes are levied
state.
on goods and services by which the government
mobilises its “financial resources”. 4. Law and order: Both the Union and state
governments enact numerous laws to
4.1
Role of Government in protect our rights, properties and to regulate
Development Policies our economy and society. To settle disputes,
the Union government has a vibrant
1. Defence: This is an essential security
judicial system. State governments take the
function to protect our nation from
responsibility for administering the police
our enemies. The Union government is
force in respective states.
responsible for creating and maintaining
defence forces. 5. Public administration and provision of
2. Foreign policy: In today’s world, we need to public goods: The government generally
maintain friendly relationships with all the administers the economy and society
other countries in the world. We should also through various departments, for example,
maintain cordial economic relationships revenue department, schools, hospitals,
through exports and imports, sending rural development and urban development.
and receiving investments and labour. The local governments provide public goods
This service is also provided by the Union like local roads, drainage, drinking water
government. and waste collection and disposal.
321

6. Redistribution of income and poverty important goods and services at affordable
alleviation: Governments collect various rates to the people.
taxes to finance the various activities
mentioned earlier. The taxes are collected 4.2 Tax
in a way that the high-income people can The origin of the
bring in more tax revenue to the government word "tax" is from
than the poor. The governments also spend "taxation," which
money such that the poor are given some means an estimate.
basic necessities of life like food, shelter,
Taxation is a
clothing education, health care and
means by which
monthly income to the very poor persons. governments finance
Thus collecting taxes and spending for the their expenditure by imposing charges on
poor to reduce poverty. citizens and corporate entities. The main
7. Regulate the economy: The Union purpose of taxation is to accumulate funds for
government, through the Reserve Bank of the functioning of the government machinery.
India, controls money supply and controls Tax has come into forefront on account of the
the interest rate, inflation and foreign new concept of “welfare state”.
exchange rate. The main objective is to Taxes are compulsory payments to
remove too much of fluctuation in these government without expectation of direct
rates. The Union Government also controls return (or) benefit to the tax payer. Prof.
the economy through various other Seligman also defined a tax as “a compulsory
agencies such as Securities Exchange Board contribution from a person to the government
of India and Competition Commission to defray the expenses incurred in the
of India. All the governments in India common interest of all, without reference to
run public sector enterprises to provide special benefits conferred.”
Tax system
Every type of tax has some advantages and some disadvantages. So we have a tax system, that
is, a collection of variety of taxes. From Adam Smith, many economists have given lists of canons of
taxation. It is important to recall those common among them for discussion here.
1. Canon of equity
Since tax is a compulsory payment, all economists agree that equity is the cardinal principle in
designing the tax system. The rich should pay more tax revenue to government than the poor, because
rich has more ability than the poor to pay the tax.
2. Canon of Certainty
Government should announce in advance the tax system so that every tax payer will be able to
calculate how much tax amount one may have to pay during a year to the government.
3. Canons of Economy and Convenience
If the tax is simple, then the cost of collecting taxes (tax payer cost + tax collector cost) will be
very low. Further, tax should be collected from a person at the time he gets enough money to pay the
tax. This is called canon of convenience. A convenient tax reduces the cost of collecting tax.
4. Canons of Productivity and Elasticity
Government should choose the taxes that can get enough tax revenue to it. It should choose a
few taxes that can fetch more tax revenue, instead of lots of taxes. This is canon of productivity. Tax is
paid by the people out their incomes. Therefore the tax system should be designed in such a way that
the people automatically pay more tax revenue if their incomes grow. This is called canon of elasticity.
Government and Taxes 322

Why Taxes? Income tax
States and their functional equivalents Income tax is the most common and most
throughout history have used money provided important tax levied on an individual in India.
by taxation to carry out many functions. Some It is charged directly based on the income of a
of these include expenditures on economic person. The rate at which it is charged varies,
infrastructure (transportation, sanitation, depending on the level of income.
public safety, education, healthcare systems,
to name a few), military, scientific research, Students are asked to search a Income Tax
culture and the arts, public works and public website and know the Income Tax slab for
insurance and the operation of government current year.
itself. A government's ability to raise taxes is
Corporate tax
called its fiscal capacity.
This tax is levied on companies that exist
When expenditures exceed tax revenue, a
as separate entities from their shareholders. It
government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes
may be used to service past debts. Governments is charged on royalties, interest gains from sale
also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. of capital assets located in India and fees for a
These services can include education systems, technical services and dividends.
pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits Foreign companies are taxed on income
and public transportation. Energy, water and that it arises in India.
waste management systems are also common
public utilities. For Indian For Foreign
Income
Companies Companies
Taxation in India has its roots Less than ` 50
25% 40%
from the period of Manu Smriti crore
and Arthasastra. The present More than ` 50
30% 40%
Indian tax system is based on crore
this ancient tax system.
Wealth tax
Wealth tax is charged on the benefits
4.3 Types of Taxes derived from property ownership. The same
Direct Taxes property will be taxed every year on its
current market value. The tax is levied on the
A tax imposed on an individual or
individuals and companies alike.
organisation, which is paid directly, is a direct
tax. The burden of a direct tax cannot be shifted In India taxes are collected by all the three
to others. J.S. Mill defines a direct tax as “one tiers of government. There are taxes that can
which is demanded from the very persons who be easily collected by the Union government.
it is intended or desired should pay it.” Some In India almost all the direct taxes are
direct taxes are income tax, wealth tax and collected by the Union governments. Taxes
corporation tax. on goods and services are collected by both
Union and State governments. The taxes on
India, Income Tax was
In
properties are collected by local governments.
introduced for the first time
in 1860 by Sir James Wilson In India we collect more tax revenue
in order to meet the losses through indirect taxes than through direct
sustained by the Government taxes. The major indirect taxes in India are
on account of the Mutiny of 1857. customs duty and GST.
323 Government and Taxes

Indirect Taxes
If the burden of the tax can be shifted to France was the first country to
others, it is an indirect tax. The impact is on one implement GST in 1954.
person while the incidence is on the another
person. Therefore, in the case of indirect taxes,
the tax payer is not the tax bearer. 4.4 How Are Taxes Levied?
Some indirect taxes are stamp duty, Tax is levied by the government progressively,
entertainment tax, excise duty and goods and proportionately as well as regressively.
service tax (GST). Progressive tax
Stamp duty Progressive tax rate is one in which the
Stamp duty is a tax that is paid on official rate of taxation increases (multiplier) as the tax
documents like marriage registration or base increases (multiplicand). In the case of a
documents related to a property and in some progressive tax, When income increases, the tax
contractual agreements. rate also increases.
Example:
Entertainment tax
Entertainment tax is a duty that is Amount of
Tax Base Tax Rate
charged by the government on any source Tax
of entertainment provided. This tax can be `10,000 10% `1000
charged on movie tickets, tickets to amusement `20,000 15% `3000
parks, exhibitions and even sports events. `30,000 25% `7500
Excise duty
Proportionate taxes
An excise tax is any duty on manufactured
goods levied at the movement of manufacture, Tax levied on goods and service in a fixed
rather than at sale. Excise is typically imposed portion is known as proportionate taxes. All
in addition to an indirect tax such as a sales tax payers contribute the same proportion of
tax. their incomes.
Example:
Goods and service tax (GST)
Tax Base Tax Rate Amount of Tax
The goods and service tax (GST) is one
of the indirect taxes. The GST was passed in `10,000 10% `1000
Parliament on 29 March 2017. The act came `20,000 10% `2000
into effect on 1 July 2017. The motto is one
`30,000 10% `3000
nation, one market, one tax.
Structure of Goods and Service Tax (GST)

State Goods and Service Tax (SGST): Intra state (within the state)
VAT/sales tax, purchase tax, entertainment tax, luxury tax, lottery tax and state surcharge and
cesses
Central Goods and Service Tax (CGST): Intra state (within the state)
Central Excise Duty , service tax, countervailing duty, additional duty of customs, surcharge,
education and secondary/higher secondary cess
Integrated Goods and Service Tax (IGST): Inter state (integrated GST)
There are four major GST rates: (5%, 12%, 18% and 28%) Almost all the necessities of life
like vegetables and food grains are excempted from this tax.

Regressive Taxes evasion penalties include imprisonment of
It implies that higher the rate of tax up to five years and high amount as fines.
lower the income groups than in the case of 2 The defendant may also be ordered to pay
higher income groups. It is a very opposite of for the costs of prosecution.
progressive taxation.
3 Tax evasion penalties can be harsh,
depending on the severity of the crime.
Progressive Proportional Regressive
Tax Tax Tax
4.7 Taxes and Development
Income increase Income Increase Income change
Tax also Tax Same The role of taxation in developing
Increase Decrease Tax always economies is as follows.
E.g. E.g. E.g. 1. Resource mobilisation: Taxation enables
Income Tax Corporate Tax Sales Tax
the government to mobilise a substantial
amount of revenue. The tax revenue is
4.5
Black Money generated by imposing direct taxes such as
personal income tax and corporate tax and
Black Money indirect taxes such as customs duty, excise
duty, etc.
Black money is funds earned on the black
market on which income and other taxes have 2.
Reduction inequalities of income:
not been paid. The unaccounted money that Taxation follows the principle of equity.
is concealed from the tax administrator is The direct taxes are progressive in nature.
called black money. Also certain indirect taxes, such as taxes
on luxury goods, is also progressive in
Causes of Black Money nature.
Several sources of black money are
3. Social welfare: Taxation generates social
identified as causes.
welfare. Social welfare is generated due to
1. Shortage of goods higher taxes on certain undesirable products
2. Licensing proceeding like alcoholic products.
3. Contribution of the
4. Foreign exchange: Taxation encourages
industrial sector
exports and restricts imports, Generally
4. Smuggling developing countries and even the
5. Tax structure developed countries do not impose taxes
on export items.
4.6
Tax Evasion
Tax evasion is the illegal evasion of taxes by 5. Regional development: Taxation plays an
individuals, corporations and trusts. Tax evasion important role in regional development,
activities included Tax incentives such as tax holidays for
setting up industries in backward regions,
Underreporting income
which induces business firms to set up
Inflating deductions or expenses industries in such regions.
Hiding money
6. Control of inflation: Taxation can be used
Hiding interest in offshore accounts
as an instrument for controlling inflation.
Tax evasion penalties Through taxation the government can
1 If a person wilfully commits the act of tax control inflation by reducing the tax on
evasion, he may face felony charges. Tax the commodities.

Difference between Tax and other Payments
Tax Payments
Tax is compulsory to the government without getting Fee is the payment for getting any service
any direct benefits
If the element of revenue for general purpose of the While a fee is a payment for a specific benefit
state predominates, the levy becomes a tax privilege although the special to the primary purpose
of regulation in public interest.
Tax is a compulsory payment Fee is a voluntary payment.
If tax is imposed on a person, he has to pay it; On the other hand fee is not paid if the person do not
otherwise he has to be penalised want to get the service
In this case, tax payer does not expect any direct Fee payer can get direct benefit for paying fee.
benefit. Examples: stamp fee, driving license fee, government
Example: Income tax, gift box, wealth tax, VAT etc. registration fee
SUMMARY
Direct Tax is a tax paid directly to the Union government or to state or local governments, such
as income tax and property tax.
Income Tax is a tax paid by individuals and businesses based on earned and unearned income.
Local Tax is a tax charged by a local government, such as a city or country.
GLOSSARY
Levied To impose taxes வரி (விதிக்கப்பட்ட)
Fluctuation To change ஏற்ற இறக்கம்
Defray Meet the expenses ெசலவை ஈடுகட்ட
Proponents Person who advocates theory ெகாள்கை ெமாழிேவார்
Progressive Tax Happening or developing gradually or in stages வளர்வீத வரி
Taking a proportionally greater amount from those
Regressive Tax குறைவுவீத வரி
on lower incomes.
(of a variable quantity) having a constant ratio to
Proportionate Tax ஒரேவீத வரி
another quantity.
Evasion The action of evading something ஏய்ப்பு
2. In India, taxes are including

EXERCISE a) Direct taxes
b) Indirect taxes.
I Choose the correct c) Both (a) and (b)
answer d) None of these
1. The three levels of 3. Which is the role of government and
governments in India are development policies?
a) Union, state and local a) Defence
b) Central, state and village b) Foreign policy
c) Union, municipality and panchayat c) Regulate the economy
d) None of the above d) all of above

4. The most common and important tax (iv) It will unified the tax structure in India.
levied on an individual in India is a) (i) and (ii) are correct
a) Service tax b) Excise duty. b) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are correct
c) Income tax d) Central sales tax c) (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct
5. Under which tax one nation, one uniform d) All are correct
tax is ensured
a) Value added tax (VAT) IV Match the following
b) Income tax 1. Income Tax - Value added tax
c) Goods and service tax 2. Excise duty - 1 July 2017
d) Sales tax 3. VAT - Smuggling
4. GST - Direct tax
6. Income tax was introduced in india for 5. Black money - Indirect tax
the first time in the year __________ .
V Give Short Answers
a) 1860 b) 1870 c) 1880 d) 1850
1. Define tax.
7. __________ tax is charged on the benefits
2. Why we pay tax to the government?
derived from property ownership.
3. What are the types of tax? Give examples.
a) Income tax b) Wealth tax 4. Write short note on Goods and Service Tax.
c) Corporate tax d) Excise duty 5. What is progressive tax?
8. What are identified as causes of black 6. What is meant by black money?
money? 7. What is tax evasion?
a) Shortage of goods b) High tax rate 8. write any two difference between tax and
payments?
c) Smuggling d) All of above
VI Brief Answer
II Fill in the blanks 1. Explain some direct and indirect taxes.
1. __________ is levied by government for the 2. Write the structure of GST.
development of the state’s economy. 3. What is black money? Write the causes of
2. The origin of the word ‘tax’ is from the word black money.
__________. VII Activity and Projects
3. The burden of the __________ tax cannot 1. Collect information about the local taxes
be shifted to others. (water, electricity and house tax etc).
4. The Goods and Service Tax act came into 2. Students purchase some goods on the shop.
effect on __________. The teacher and students discuss those
5. The unaccounted money that is concealed goods, maximum retail price, purchasing
from the tax administrator is called price or GST.
__________.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Gaurav Aklani, Role of Taxation in
1. Which of the following statement is Developing Country in India.
correct about GST? 2. Sankaran, Fiscal Economics.
(i) GST is the ‘one point tax’. 3. Dr.U.K. Sudha Nayak, B.P. Tygai, and Dr.H.
(ii) This aims to replace all direct taxes Girija, Public Finance.
levied on goods and services by the
Central and State governments. INTERNET RESOURCES
(iii) It will be implemented from 1 July 2017
1. World Bank Report in 2018
throughout the country.
2. www.GST.in

Unit - 5
Industrial Clusters
in Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To know the historical development of Industrial Clusters in Tamil Nadu
To know the Tamil Nadu government policies and Industrial development
Agencies
To understand the impact of Government policies
To know the role of the Entrepreneur
Introduction Second, even the food that is consumed is

subject to more transformation. Food products
Generally, “any human activity which is are taken over longer distances, processed and
engaged in the conversion of raw materials into branded. This also requires that food products
readily usable materials is called an industry”. have to be preserved. As a result, the prices that
Industrialisation refers to the process of using farmers get tend to be much less compared to
modern techniques of production to produce the prices at which consumers buy.
goods that are required by both consumers and
other producers on a large scale. In this chapter Third, there are limits to the ability
we will learn the nature of industrialisation of of agriculture to absorb labour due to the
Tamil Nadu, importance of industrial clusters, declining marginal productivity of land. Wages
how industrial clusters have developed in Tamil too cannot therefore increase and as a result
Nadu and the role of government initiatives in poverty levels may remain high, especially
promoting industries. when more and more people continue to rely
on agriculture for their livelihood.
5.1 Importance of Due to all these factors, there is a need
Industrialisation for an economy’s production and employment
base to diversify away from agriculture.
To understand importance of industries,
we need to understand why the share of What benefits does
agriculture in an economy's income and industrialisation bring to an
employment decreases with development. economy?
First, demand for food remains constant with As stated earlier, it is essential to produce
regard to income. Therefore, as an economy inputs to other producers in an economy. Even
grows and incomes increase, consumers tend agriculture requires inputs from industry
to spend a lesser share of their income on such as fertilisers and tractors to increase
products from the agricultural sector. productivity.
328

Second, a market exists for both producers (d) Size: Firms may be large, small or
and consumer goods. Even services like medium based on their volume of output, sales
banking, transport and trade are dependent on or employment or on the basis of the amount
production of industrial goods. of investments made. There are also micro or
Third, by using modern methods of tiny enterprises that are smaller than even small
production, industries contribute to better firms.
productivity and hence lower cost of production The small sector is seen as important for
of all goods produced. It therefore helps people two reasons. One, it is believed to generate
to buy goods at a cheaper rate and help create more employment than the large-scale sector,
demand for more products. which is likely to use more advanced and
Fourth, through such expansion of automated technologies and therefore may
production, industrialisation helps to absorb not generate enough employment. Second, the
the labour force coming out of agriculture. small scale sector allows for a larger number of
Employment generation is therefore an entrepreneurs to emerge from less privileged
important objective of industrialisation. backgrounds.
Based on experiences of industrialisation
Fifth, a related advantage of
in different parts of the world, it is believed
industrialisation is therefore technological
that when small firms specialising in one sector
change. Through use of modern techniques,
are geographically concentrated in specific
industrialisation contributes to learning of such
locations, and linked to one another through
methods and their improvement. As a result
production and learning, they tend to be equally
labour productivity, ie, output per unit of labour
if not more efficient than large scale enterprises.
input increases, which can help workers earn
Such agglomerations of small firms are called
higher wages.
industrial clusters.
Sixth, expanding incomes lead to more
demand for goods and services. 5.3 Industrial Clusters
5.2 Types of Industries Industrial clusters are groups of firms in

a defined geographic area that share common
Industries can be classified on the basis of markets, technologies and skill requirements.
(a) Users: If the output is consumed by The advantages of industrial clusters or districts
the final consumer, it is called a consumer was first observed by the famous economist
goods sector. If the output is consumed by Alfred Marshall in the 1920s when he tried
another producer, it is called a capital goods to understand the working of clusters of small
sector. There are industries that produce raw firms in the metal-working and textile regions
materials for other industries such as cement in England. While the notion of an ‘industrial
and steel. Such industries are called basic district’ was developed by Marshall, it was only
goods industries. after the success of small firms in Italy in the
1980s that it became popular. Policy-makers
(b) Type of Inputs Used: Industries are
in developing countries like India began to
also classified based on the kind of raw material
promote them actively as they realized that there
used such as agro-processing, textiles sector,
several such small firm clusters in the country.
rubber products, leather goods, etc.
(c) Ownership: Firms may be privately The following are the chief characteristics
owned, publicly owned (by the government, of a successful cluster.
central or state), jointly owned by the private geographical proximity of small and
and public sector, joint sector or cooperatively medium enterprises (SMEs)
owned (cooperatives).
329 Industrial Clusters in Tamilnadu

sectoral specialisation ndustrialisation in the Colonial
I
close inter-firm collaboration Period
inter-firm competition based on There are two sets of factors that have
innovation contributed to the process. The introduction
of cotton cultivation in western and southern
a socio-cultural identity, which facilitates
Tamil Nadu by the colonial government led to
trust
the emergence of a large-scale textile sector in
multi-skilled workforce these parts.
active self-help organisations, and Second, increase in trade during this
supportive regional and municipal period led to industrial development around
governments. two of the most active ports in the region,
Firms are therefore expected to Chennai and Tuticorin. Match factories too
collaborate and compete with one another emerged during the colonial period in the
at the same time. By collaborating, they can Sivakasi region, which later on became a major
expand their capacity and also learn from one centre for fireworks production and printing.
another. Through competition, they are forced Port-related activity too contributed to the
to become more efficient. growth of the region. Leather production was
also taking place in Dindigul, Vellore and
How Do Clusters Originate?
Ambur areas.
Clusters may arise due to many factors.
In Western Tamil Nadu, the emergence
Certain clusters evolve over a long time in
of textiles industries also led to demand and
history when artisans settle in one locality
starting of textile machinery industry in the
and evolve over centuries. Handloom weaving
region. This textile machinery industry in turn
clusters are one examples of this development.
led to the rise of a number of small workshops
Or else, in some sectors, when a large firm is
for repair and producers of machinery
established, a cluster of firms may emerge to
components. Another major development
take care of its input and service requirements. in the western region is the introduction of
At times, governments may decide to encourage electricity from hydro-electric power in 1930s.
manufacturing using raw materials from a Availability of electricity allowed for use of
region, which may also lead to emergence of oil engines for drawing ground water. This
clusters. led to both expansion of agriculture as well as
increase in demand for oil engines. In turn, it
5.4 Historical Development led to emergence of workshops for servicing
of Industrialisation in engines and also for addressing the demand for
Tamil Nadu spare parts. Foundries began to be set up and
agricultural machinery began to be produced.
There is lot of evidence for presence of
industrial activities such as textiles, ship- Post-Independence to early 1990s
building, iron and steel making and pottery Soon after independence, several large
in precolonial Tamil Nadu. Given the vast enterprises were set up by both the central and
coastline, the region has been involved in trade state governments in different segments such
with both South-East and West Asia for several as the Integral Coach Factory in Chennai to
centuries. Colonial policies also contributed to make railway coaches and the Bharat Heavy
the decline of the handloom weaving industry Electricals Limited (BHEL) in Tiruchirapalli
due to competition from machine-made manufacture to boilers and turbines. BHEL
imports from England. But some industries in turn led to the emergence of an industrial
also developed during the colonial period. cluster of several small firms catering to its
Industrial Clusters in Tamilnadu 330

input requirements. Heavy Vehicles Factory Because of all these factors, Tamil Nadu
was set up to manufacture tanks in Avadi on at present has the largest number of factories
the outskirts of Chennai. Standard Motors too among all states in India and also has the
started manufacturing cars in Chennai. Ashok largest share of workforce employed in
Motors (later Ashok Leyland) and Standard manufacturing. Importantly, it is more labour
Motors together helped form an automobile intensive compared to other industrially
cluster in the Chennai region. The Avadi advanced states like Maharashtra and Gujarat.
industrial estate was established in the 1950s The major industries are automobiles, auto-
to support the small and medium companies components, light and heavy engineering,
supplying to the large firms in the region. machinery, cotton, textiles, rubber, food
More hydro-electric power projects in the state products, transport equipment, chemicals, and
were also initiated to increase the spread of leather and leather goods. Unlike other states,
electrification. The government played a major the industries are spread across all regions of
role in all these processes. The Salem Steel Plant the state (there are 27 clusters in 13 districts)
was set up in 1973 to produce stainless steel. with many of them being export oriented as
The 1970s and 1980s saw the setting up of well. The state has a well-developed network of
emergence of powerloom weaving clusters in roads, rail, air and major ports.
the Coimbatore region as well as expansion of
cotton knitwear cluster in Tiruppur and home 5.5 Major Industrial Clusters
furnishings cluster in Karur. This period also saw and Their Specialisation
more encouragement of the small and medium in Tamil Nadu
sector with setting up of industrial estates by the
state government in different parts. The Hosur Automotive Clusters
industrial cluster is a successful case of how Chennai is nicknamed as "The Detroit of
such policy efforts to promote industrial estates Asia" because of its large auto industry base.
helped to develop industries in a backward Chennai is home to large number of auto
region. assembly and component making firms. While
there were a few domestic firms like TVS, TI
Industrialisation in
Cycles, Ashok Leyland and Standard Motors
Tamil Nadu – Liberalization
Phase earlier, in the post-reform period, several MNC
firms like Hyundai, Ford, Daimler-Benz and
The final phase of industrialisation is the Renault-Nissan have opened factories in the
post-reforms period since the early 1990s. The region. This in turn has attracted a number of
reforms made the state governments more component suppliers from foreign countries.
responsible for resource mobilisation and they Many local firms too cater to component
were forced to compete with each other to production for all these firms.
attract private investments for industrialisation.
Incentives such as cheap land, tax concessions Hosur is another auto cluster with firms like
and subsidised but quality power were all TVS and Ashok Leyland having their factories
offered to woo investors. Trade liberalisation there. Coimbatore region is also developing into
and currency devaluation also helped open an auto component cluster.
up export markets. This led to two major Truck and Bus Body Building
developments. Industry Clusters
The important industries in the state that The Namakkal-Tiruchengode belt in
evolved over a much longer period include sugar, western Tamil Nadu is known for its truck body
fertilizers, cement, agricultural implements, iron building industry. Karur is another major hub
and steel, chemicals, transformers and paper. with more than 50 units. Many entrepreuners

were previous employees in
a big firm involved in body
building who came out to set
up their own units.
Textile Clusters
Tamil Nadu is home to the largest
textiles sector in the country. Because of the Textile Industry
development of cotton textile industry since It accounts for nearly 80% of the country's
the colonial period, Coimbatore often referred cotton knitwear exports and generates
as the "Manchester of South India". At present, employment in the range of over three lakh
most of the spinning mills have moved around people since the late 1980s. It is also a major
the Coimbatore city. Tamil Nadu is the biggest producer for the domestic market. Because of
producer of cotton yarn in the country. its success in the global market, it is seen as
Powerloom is however more widespread one of the most dynamic clusters in the Global
with Erode and Salem region too having a South. While initially most firms were run by
large number of power loom units. local entrepreneurs, at present, some of the
Tiruppur is famous for clustering of a large leading garment exporters in India have set up
number of firms producing cotton knitwear. factories here.1
Industrial Clusters in Tamil Nadu Automotive

Thiruvallur
Automotive, Electronics & IT
Chennai
Vellore Leather
N Kanchipuram
gir )
alai Silk Sarees

na ur
i
nam
ish os
n
Kr (H
W E a Automotive & Electronics

ruv
Thi
S Dharmapuri
Villupuram
Salem Steel & Powerloom
cuddalore
Powerloom & Turmeric

The Nilgiris Erode r Transportation & Poultry
balu in
am
Namakkal am tt Cement
Pe
r r pa
alu aga Knitwear & Readymade Garments
Coimbato
Thruchirappalli Ar iy N
nam
Tiruppur Karur Boilers & Turbines

Thi
Tha
Coach-building, Powerlooms
atti
ruv
nja
gap
Dindugul
re
aru
Pu
vur
Na
Textile & IT
du
r
kok
ga
tta
ra
i Leather
an
i
Theni u g
ad a
M Siv
Virudunagar
(Sivakasi) Ramanathapuram
Fireworks, Matches & Printing
di
Thoothuku
Tirunelveli
Kanyakumari Not to Scale

Countries in the southern hemisphere are
called Global South countries
Apart from body building, Karur is a major

centre of exports of home furnishings like table
cloth, curtains, bed covers and towels. Bhavani
and Kumarapalayam are again major centres
of production of carpets, both for the domestic
and the global markets. Fireworks Industry
Apart from such modern clusters, there Electronics and Information

are also traditional artisanal clusters such as Technology (IT) Clusters
Madurai and Kanchipuram that are famous for After the economic reforms started in
silk and cotton handloom sarees. the early 1990s, the state has seen the entry
of hardware and electronics manufacturers
Leather and Leather Goods
like Nokia, Foxconn, Motorola, Sony-
Clusters
Ericsson, Samsung and Dell making cellular
Tamil Nadu accounts for 60 per cent handset devices, circuit boards and consumer
of leather tanning capacity in India and 38 electronics. They have all been set up in the
per cent of all leather footwear, garments Chennai region.
and components. Hundreds of leather and
tannery facilities are located around Vellore Information Technology Specific Special
and its nearby towns, such as Ranipet, Ambur Economic Zones :
and Vaniyambadi. The Vellore district is the In order to make development more
top exporter of finished leather goods in the inclusive, Tier II cities such as Coimbatore,
country. Chennai also has a large number Madurai, Trichy, Tirunelveli, Hosur and
of leather product making units involved in Salem have been promoted as IT investment
exports. There is another clustering of leather destinations apart from the Chennai region.
processing in Dindigul and Erode. The leather To facilitate this, ELCOT has established
products sector too is a major employment ELCOSEZs (IT Specific Special Economic
generator. Zones) in the following eight locations:
• Chennai – Sholinganallur
Fireworks, Matches and Printing • Coimbatore – Vilankurichi
Cluster
• Madurai – Ilandhaikulam
Sivakasi region, once famous for its • Madurai – Vadapalanji-Kinnimangalam
match industry has now become a major • Trichy – Navalpattu
centre for printing and fireworks in the Companies desiring to set up units in
country. It is believed to contribute to 90% the state can avail themselves of the facilities
of India’s fireworks production, 80% of safety provided in ELCOSEZs. The possibility of
matches and 60% of offset printing solutions. setting up ELCOSEZs in new locations will
The offset printing industry has a high degree be explored based on demand and viability.
of specialisation among firms with several (Map Information Communication
of them undertaking just one operation Technology Policy - 2018–19)
required for printing. All these industries • Tirunelveli – Gangaikondan
have their origin in the colonial period and at • Salem – Jagirammapalayam
present offer employment to a large number
• Hosur – Viswanathapuram
of workers.

5.6 The Policy Factors that rural to urban connectivity and therefore
Helped the Industrialisation connect small producers to markets better.
Process in Tamil Nadu Industrial Promotion
Policy factors can be divided into three Apart from investments in education and
aspects: transport and energy infrastructure, active
policy efforts were made to promote specific
Education sectors and also industrialisation in specific
Industries require skilled human resources. regions. Policies to promote specific sectors like
Apart from a lot of attention to primary automobile, auto components, bio technology
education to promote literacy and basic and Information and communication
arithmetic skills, the state is known for its vast Technology sectors have been formulated in
supply of technical human resources. It is home the post reform period. In addition, the state
to one of the largest number of engineering has put in place several industrial promotion
colleges, polytechnics and Industrial Training agencies for both large enterprises and the small
Centres in the country. and medium segments, as well as to provide
Infrastructure supporting infrastructure.
The widespread diffusion of electrification The following are some agencies
has contributed to the spread of industrialisation that have played a key role in
to smaller towns and villages in the state. Along industrialization in the state
with electrification, Tamil Nadu is known for SIPCOT (State Industries Promotion
its excellent transport infrastructure, especially Corporation of Tamil Nadu) - was formed in
minor roads that connect rural parts of the state the year 1971 to promote industrial growth in
to nearby towns and cities. A combination of the state by setting up industrial estates.
public and private transport has also facilitated
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

A policy was introduced in April 2000 for the settling up of special Economic Zones in the
country with a view to a hassle-free environment for exports.
Accordingly, the government has converted Export Processing Zones located at following places.
Nanguneri SEZ – A multi product SEZ, Thirunelveli
Ennore SEZ – Thermal power project, Vayalur
Coimbatore SEZ – IT Parks
Hosur SEZ – Auto Engineering, Electronics, Defence and Aerospace
Perambalur SEZ – Multi product SEZ
Autocity SEZ – Automobile/Auto Components, Tiruvallur
India-Singapore SEZ – IT & ITES, Electronic Hardware, Logistics and Warehousing –
Thiruvallur District
Bio-Pharmaceuticals SEZ – Clinical Research Organisation, Poison Control Centre, Centre
for Regenerative Medicine, Medicine Research
Madras Export Processing Zone (MEPZ)
MEPZ is a Special Economic Zone in Chennai. It is one of the seven export processing zones
in the country set up the central government. It was established in 1984 to promote foreign direct
investment, enhance foreign exchange earnings and create greater employment opportunities in
the region. The MEPZ headquarters is located on GST Road in Tambaram, Chennai.

Startup India Scheme (Launched 16-Jan-
2016):
Startup India Scheme is an initiative
of the Indian government, the primary
objective of which is the promotion of
startups, generation of employment and
wealth creation.
SIPCOT Standup India Scheme (Launched
TANSIDCO (Tamil Nadu Small Industries 5-April-2016):
Development Corporation) - is a state-agen- Standup India Scheme is to facilitate
cy of the state of Tamil Nadu established in the bank loans between `10 lakh and `1 crore
year 1970 to promote small-scale industries in to at least one Scheduled Caste (SC) or
Scheduled Tribe (ST) borrower and one
the state. It gives subsidies and provide techni-
woman borrower per bank branch for setting
cal assistance for new firms in the small scale
up a greenfield enterprise.
sector.
TIDCO (Tamil Nadu Industrial 5.7 Entrepreneur
Development Corporation), 1965 - is another Entrepreneur is an innovator of new
government agency to promote industries in ideas and business processes. He possesses
the state and to establish industrial estates. management skills, strong team building
TIIC (Tamil Nadu Industrial Investment abilities and essential leadership qualities to
Corporation Ltd.), 1949- is intended to provide manage a business.
low-cost financial support for both setting up Entrepreneurship
new units and also for expansion of existing Entrepreneurship is a process of a action
units. of an entrepreneur who undertakes to establish
his enterprise. It is the ability to create and
TANSI (Tamil Nadu Small Industries build something.
Corporation Ltd.), 1965 - It is supposed to be Role of an Entrepreneur
the first industrial corporation operating in the Entrepreneurs play a most important role
domain for small enterprises. in the economic growth and development of a
country’s economy.
Issues with Industrialisation
1. They promote development of industries
Though Tamil Nadu has emerged as a and help to remove regional disparities by
relatively highly industrialised state in the industrialising rural and backward areas.
country, the state faces a few issues in sustaining 2. They help the country to increase the
the process. To begin with, some clusters, GDP and Per Capita Income.
especially chemicals, textiles and leather 3. They promote capital formation by
clusters, tend to generate a lot of polluting mobilising the idle savings of the citizens
effluents that affect health. The effluents also and country’s export trade.
pollute water bodies into which effluents are 4. Entrepreneurs provide large-scale
employment to artisans, technically
let into and also adjoining agricultural lands.
qualified persons and professionals and
Second, employment generation potential has try to maximise profits by innovations.
declined because of use of frontier technologies 5. They enable the people to avail better
because of the need to compete globally. Quality quality goods at lower prices, which
of employment also has suffered in recent years results in the improvement of their
as most workers are employed only temporarily. standard of living.

SUMMARY
Industrial clusters are groups of firms in a defined geographic area that share common
markets, technologies and skill requirements.
Clusters may arise due to many factors. Certain clusters evolve over a long time in history
when artisans settle in one locality and evolve over centuries.
The Coimbatore region also witnessed diversification from textiles to textile machinery as well
as agricultural machinery like electric motors and pumpsets for drawing ground water.
Chennai is nicknamed as "The Detroit of Asia" because of its large auto industry base.
GLOSSARY
agglomerations a mass or collection of things திரட்சிகள்

த�ொழில் உற்பத்தி
Industrial Clusters Relating to or characterised by industry.
ெதாகுப்புகள்
Emergence the process of coming into existence த�ோற்றம்
diffusion the spreading of something more widely பரவல்
Artisanal relating to or characteristic of an artisan கைவினை சார்ந்த
5. A successful industrial cluster entirely

EXERCISE created by the Tamil Nadu is
a) Hosur b) Dindigul
I Choose the correct c) Kovilpatti d) Tirunelveli
answer
1. ‘The Detroit of Asia’ is
1. Hundred of leather and tannery facilities
___________.
are located around ___________ District
a) Tuticorin b) Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu.
c) Chennai d) Madurai
2. Special Economic Zones policy was
2. Pumpsets and motors are produced introduced on in ___________.
mostly in 3. ___________ is an innovator of new ideas
a) Salem b) Coimbatore and business processes.
c) Chennai d) Dharampuri
III Pick out odd one
3. ___________ are an essential aspect of a
1. Which one of the following is not having
nation’s development.
leather factories?
a) agriculture b) industry
a) Ranipet b) Dharmapuri
c) railway d) none of these
c) Ambur d) Vaniyambadi
4. Tiruppur is known for
a) Leather tanning 2. Which one of the following is not a industrial
b) Lock making developing agency?
c) Knitwear a) TIDCO b) SIDCO
d) Agro-processing c) MEPZ d) SIPCOT

IV Match the following VII Case studies
1. Entrepreneur - Export Processing Zone 1. Choose a cluster in Tamil Nadu based on
2. MEPZ - Coimbatore online research and write a note on it.
3. Indian Ordance Factory - Organizer VIII Activity and Project
4. TNPL - Aravankadu 1. Write a note on a cluster or a firm
5. Machester of south India - Karur near your school/home based on your
V Write Short Answer observations.
1. Why are wages low in the agricultural IX Life Skills
sector? 1. Teacher and Students discuss about the
2. What is meant by an industrial cluster? entrepreneurs and their activities and
3. What are the routes for cluster formation? Write an a essay in the topic of “If you are
like a Entrepreneur”.
4. Mention any three industrial development
agencies in Tamil Nadu and their role
REFERENCE BOOKS
5. What are the problems of industrialization
currently in Tamil Nadu? 1. Role of Entrepreneurship in economic
6. What is Meant by Entrepreneur? development, D.K.Sinha
7. What is Entrepreneurship? 2. The Productivity Analysis of Industrial
Clusters in India - Department of
VI Write Brief Answer Industries & Commerce (Government
1. What are the important characteristics of of Tamil Nadu)
successful industrial clusters? 3. State Industrial Profile - Tamil Nadu
2. Write about the Textile industry cluster in 4. Indian Industrial Clusters - Keshab Das
Tamil Nadu?.
3. Write in detail about the types of policies INTERNET RESOURCES
adopted by the Tamil Nadu government to
1. www.tn.gov.in
industrialise.
2. www.msmedi-chennai.gov.in
4. Explain the role of Entreprenuer?
3. www.data.gov.in
ICT CORNER
Industrial Clusters in Tamil Nadu
Steps
• You can see the list of SIPCOT in Tamil Nadu. When you click anyone in the list, you will
get the details of SIPCOT in new tab.
• For example, click on the minimum support price of paddy. You can see
the yearwise minimum support price of paddy, wheat and coarsegrain.
• Likewise, you can view regionwise procurement also.
Website URL:
https://www.sipcot.com/guide_tour

Social Science – Class X
List of Authors and Reviewers
Academic Adviser & Expert
History Dr. A. Thennarasu Civics
Dr. P. Kumar
Chairperson Associate Professor & Head Joint Director (Syllabus)
Govt. Arts College, Salem Domain Expert SCERT, Chennai
Dr. K.A.Manikumar, Dr. M. Kaliyaperumal
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History Dr. K. Jayakumar
M S University, Thirunelveli Periyar E.V.R. College, Tiruchi
Professor & Head (Retd), Academic Co-ordinators
Presidency College, Chennai
Co-chairperson Dr. J. Murugan T. Srinivasan
Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College Reviewer Principal, DIET, Krishnagiri
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy A. Karunanandam
Attur, Salem P. Suresh
Professor, Dept. of History, HOD (Retd), Dept. of History, P. G.Assistant (History),
Madras Institute of Development Vivekananda College, Chennai GGHSS, Attur, Salem
Studies, Chennai
Authors
Authors Geography
Dr. S. Ananathakrishnan S. Gomathi Manickam
Associate Professor, Domain Expert GHSS, Old Perungalathur ICT
A.M. Jain College, Chennai V. Tamilarasan Kanchipuram D. Naga Raj
Associate Professor & Head GHSS, Rappusal, Pudukkotai
Dr. K.A.Manikumar, D. Suganthi
Govt. Arts College Karur
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History B.T. Assistant, R. Venkatesan
M S University, Thirunelveli Reviewer Govt. Kallar HS Annanji, Theni PUPS, Velliyanai, Karur
Prof. Kanakalatha Mukund Dr. P. Arul V. Velmurugan, BT. Assistant,
Former Professor, Associate Professor GHSS, Vellalakundam, Salem
Govt. Arts College Salem
QR Code Team
Centre for Economic and Social
P. Balamurugan R. Jaganathan,
Studies, Hyderabad Authors PG Assistant, GBHSS, PUMS, Ganesapuram,
M. Amudha Dr. K. Rutharvel Murthy Thammampatti, Salem Tiruvannamalai
Lecturer, DIET, Kothagiri, Guest Lecturer, A. Jafar Ali, P.G. Assistant, S. Albert Valavan Babu
The Nilgiris Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, GHSS, Keeripatty, Salem
Dr. Maavendar Singh Namakkal M. Murugesan
K. Velu J.F. Paul Edwin Roy,
Assistant Professor, Dr. S. Senthil Kumar B.T. Assistant, PUMS Rakkipatti, Salem
S.R.M. University, Amaravathi Guest Lecturer, GGHSS, Thalaivasal, Salem
Andhrapradesh Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, M. Saravanan,
Dr. Venkat Ramanujam Namakkal GGHSS, Vazhapadi, Salem
Dept. of History, T. Shrijanani
Madras Christian College, P.G. Assistant, GBHS School, Economics A. Devi Jesintha, B.T. Asst.
GH School, N.M. Kovil Vellore.
Tambaram Pappireddipatti, Dharmapuri Domain Expert
Dr. Jeevanantham C. Selvam V. Padmavathi, B.T. Asst.
Dr. R. Subramanian
Asst. Professor, B.T. Assistant, GH School, Vetriyur, Ariyalur.
Professor (Retd)
Central University, Sikkim Subramaniya Sastriyar HSS, Soudeshwari Arts and Science
Dr. K. Suresh, B.T.Assistant, Arani, Thiruvannamalai College, Salem
Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS K.G. Jothi Art and Design Team
Chennai B.T. Assistant, GHSS, Reviewer
Vrinchipuram, Vellore Dr. J. Jeyarajan Illustration
Content Readers
D. Jaisan Director, Institute of development R. Muthukumar
Dr. T.S. Saravanan alternatives, Chennai. V. Vinoth Kumar
Deputy Director TGT, MVMHSS
TNTBESC, Chennai Metturdam, Salem Authors B. Ravi Kumar
V. Jayachandran L. Gowsalyadevi
S. Gomathi Manickam P.G. Assistant, GHSS, Thoppur, Layout
GHSS, Old Perungalathur, B.T. Assistant, GBHSS
Kanchipuram Thammampatti, Salem Dharmapuri S. Ashok Kumar
S. Shankar K. Suresh A. Adison Raj
P. Balamurugan P.G. Assistant, GBHSS,
PG Assistant GBHSS, B.T.Assistant, GHSS, C. Prasanth
Kattukottai, Salem Pennagaram, Dharmapuri
Thammampatti Salem Dist. Petchimuthu Kailasam
S. Sudaroli Dr. M. Kumar R. Balasubramani
V. Velmurugan, BT. Assistant, P.G. Assistant, GHSS
GHSS, Vellalakundam, Salem B.T. Assistant,
Chinmaya vidyalaya PAC Madhanackainpatti, Salem S. Adaikala Stephen
A. Jafar Ali, P.G. Assistant, Ramasamy Raja MHSS, S. Srinivasan
GHSS, Keeripatty, Salem Rajapalayam, Virudhunagar Wrapper Design
P.G. Assistant, GHSS
K. Velu, B.T. Assistant, B.Thurinjipatti, Dharmapuri Kathir Arumugam
GGHSS, Thalaivasal, Salem
M. Rajeswari In-House QC
K. Selvakumar, B.T. Assistant, P.G. Assistant, GHSS, Rajesh Thangappan
GHS, Kunnathur, Kumbinipettai, Vellore
Thiruvannamalai Jerald Wilson
D.Vani,
K. Ramakumari, BT. Assistant, PG.Assistant, Malco.Vidyalaya. Co-ordinator
HolyAngles Matric. HSS MHSS, Mettur Dam, Salem Ramesh Munisamy
Alagapuram, Salem
B. Latha, BT. Assistant, This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Holy Angles Matric. HSS Elegant Maplitho paper.
Alagapuram, Salem
Printed by offset at:
P. Vedapureesan, P.G. Assistant,
GHSS, Azhiyur, Nagapattinam
338
28_Author_List.indd 338 11-04-2020 12:49:20

10th Standard Social Science EM 2020 Edition

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

10th Standard Social Science EM 2020 Edition

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

00_Front_Page_EM.indd 1 11-04-2020 12:16:11

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

00_Front_Page_EM.indd 2 11-04-2020 12:16:11

Fun with History

00_Front_Page_EM.indd 3 11-04-2020 12:16:12

2 The World between two World Wars 16 July

3 World war II 27 July

4 The World after World War II 40 August

Social and Religious Reform Movements in the August &

6 Early Revolts against British Rule in Tamil Nadu 63 October

Anti-Colonial Movements and the Birth of

9 Freedom Struggle in Tamil Nadu 105 November

2 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 144 June

3 India - Agriculture 154 July

4 India - Resources and Industries 170 August

India - Population, Transport, Communication

7 Human Geography of Tamil Nadu 219 November

00_Front_Page_EM.indd 4 11-04-2020 12:16:12

2 Central Government 248 July

3 State Government 259 August

4 India’s Foreign Policy 269 October

5 India’s International Relations 278 November

3 Food Security and Nutrition 311 August

4 Government and Taxes 321 October

5 Industrial Clusters in Tamil Nadu 328 November

Let's use the QR code in the text books!

00_Front_Page_EM.indd 5 11-04-2020 12:16:12

00_Front_Page_EM.indd 6 11-04-2020 12:16:12

Introduction international peace organisation, namely the

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 1 11-04-2020 12:19:35

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 2 11-04-2020 12:19:35

TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA

OTHERS Not to Scale

Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 4 11-04-2020 12:19:35

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 5 11-04-2020 12:19:35

Battles of Tannenberg and Marne War in Eastern or Russian front

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 6 11-04-2020 12:19:36

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 7 11-04-2020 12:19:36

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 8 11-04-2020 12:19:36

1.4 Russian Revolution Autocracy of the Tsar

9 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 9 11-04-2020 12:19:36

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 10 11-04-2020 12:19:36

In October Lenin persuaded the The revolution fired people’s imagination

11 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 11 11-04-2020 12:19:36

Objectives of the League One of the major problems confronting

01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 12 11-04-2020 12:19:36

monopoly exclusive possession or control முற்றுரிமை

devastating highly destructive or damage பேரழிவு

blind patriotism, especially in the கண்மூடித்தனமான

chauvinism extreme patriotism அதிதீவிரப்பற்று

thinking highly of German civilization ஜெர்மானியக் கலாச்சாரத்தை

repulse drive back எதிரியை விரட்டிஅடித்தல்

torpedo attack or sink (a ship) with a torpedo மூழ்கடி

characteristic of the middle class,

13 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

1.4 Russian Revolution Autocracy of the Tsar

2.2 Rise of Fascism and Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian

I Choose the correct II Fill in the blanks

EXERCISE 2. Who initiated the formation of League of