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.:t 6ft, c < t.:~(,'0

.ttl ,t~\\
[19lJ~ 1 ]
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2 \ 1 < 3 th6 4 ;t:;<
itl 'f:'\'
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*
-:> -:>
-....--
0

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ttl 't!1 \
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* 3 t::;S

ttl ,t:', , -tt-?,r,I'

•
t-i L.:nt ...,.-j

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x -f;ft7)'G
 Grammar in the sentence 1 (Deciding.on the right grammatical fonn)

You are asked to consider the intended meaning of the text and select the correct corresponding

grammatical form.

;t6A.C: < t.:~l, \0

Example 1

:::fLl;I: ~1tl: =M'-?l ) ~&f ..~\t: ;<" :f: T-t 0

~\6 2 ~\ < 3 <t6 4 };<

Example 2

A I <t L t: 1;1: 1PJ*:::"'; *M ~{

B l;t L t: T-t 1;'0 !fi~ 1"J.' G, 1'1* ( )

t 2 Tt 3 4

In Example 1, the reader is asked to choose the following word that best fits the context of the sentence,
. L
inserting it after the word Hi' -? T. Here, the correct answer is 2 \ \ <, because it refers to what you take
with you when you go travelling.

Example 2 is a conversational question. The student is asked to consider what kind of answer should be
~..(. t
given. Combining the term with the interrogative fPJ*, you need to indicate that any time in the afternoon is
okay. The correct answer is 2 T' t.

With this type of question, it is important to know the semantic function of the grammatical form and the
conjunctive form used with it.

IT)-- Question examples

 Grammar in the sentence '2 (~entericecomposition) ~

This question set requires you to arrange phrases, select the correct grammar forms and compose
meaningful sentences. You must choose the one of four options that fits the * position.

* ,;: j\.Q =50)';1: c·;h:z::g-7'.»o 1 . 2·3· 47'.»6 (,\~'1h.. (,\(,\ :to)"/i

---:J .:t6h..-r <t.:~(,\o
Example 3

~BJl L t:
*
Example 4

AI*M7)' 1J.'\IJ:o s t: tll7)'lti:,;hJJ.'\'?J

8 I~ ----- -----
*
----- ----- 1J.'J..J:_'o t -) ~ J: -J t f~ -J -roJ
\\6 2 ,~\'T' 3 t:;; 4 LrpA.,UL-r

-tt...,,n\.
In Example 3, 1 -mBJl L t: is a verb, and so can only be followed by 4 ::: t ~.Combining it with the
• -tt...,~\,
choices that remain, you get the statement ~ -J ~ -mBJl L t: :::t "f -h-t ;ft 1"J.' \ I -C.>(' ;ft If, {f""? t: \ L ""?
I

If\ \ L 1 -\:t lv, So the starred blank should be taken by 2 -h-t;ft 1"J.' \ IT,
In Example 4, a conversation is quoted. From what A says, you understand that time is short and B
must hurry. B wants to wait. Combining the options, if you use the sentence pattern '"
\ 'j""f
-c \ 16 t := ;;, ,
you
can indicate action in progress now. The complete resulting sentence is ~,~ \ \ -CO" l" r!> Iv U" L -c \ \ ~ t :::
;; 1"J.' Iv f::, and the starred blank should be taken by 1 \ I ~ ,

In this kind of question, it is important to know not only the meaning of the expression, but also
. The part of speech that goes with the grammatical form, and
. The phrases to be combined,

IT Gra~mar in the sentence 2 (Sentence composition) --(IJ

 Grammar in longer text

In this exercise, you choose the terms in the order required by the context, within a sequence of sentences
comprising a piece of prose or letter, etc. Questions include:
· Those in which the student decides what terms are needed from the context, and selects appropriately.
· Those in which the student selects words needed to form a grammatically correct sentence, and
· Those in which the student selects the words needed to ensure textual cohesion.
,;:,('lJ.;

Example 5 c::::o fj)S O=H: fPJ:a; An*g-fj)o )(~O) ~~:a; ~;{:.-C

1 ·2·3·4fj)S (,'~'~':;I"("(,, :fJ(J):a; -"':) .;tSA"C' <t.:~(,'o

~L-.' 7"77'/

7t ~ I.t ~'-tf f U \ IT ~ ~xf {*,(, T L i \ I i L t: 0 f,fu ~'" C::::O,

~'~f ·tJ-tnT 6".:lnT Li...,t:O)T-to ;t-L-.A-r1f LT \\6 ~O)
•
J?tV~ ,(,1:, ~,-tf"(7) (::~ Ii J?l,'S I: A G 1"d.'\ I 117 ~{ \ 1\ 1(:: § hni L t:o
h t: L Ii ir-. < I) L i L t: 0 h t. L 0) o::::J, J? •. 'S I: A ...,t: 117 ~'"
\1\1(:: §\\i-to r"7 LT ~Jt~{ -tf",(,-tf,(, f:,~{7(7)T'LJ: 7~'0
8*T11 t_;~'L J?.i,'Sli ~O) 7'~I: ;hI) i Lt:o CD, J?j,'SI:
A ..., t: 1& , 1* ~" (:: T t --:J (/) t: < 1"d.'I) -'\" -t ~, ...,t: 0) T -t 0 ~, -tf~{ t..., (::
o c: D:=J O)T, J?.i,'SI: AG1"d.·\\ tl7~{ \1\1(:: §hn6J:71:
1"d.'..., t: -t 7 T-t 0

:X:1to) f:,~{\ Iii D=:J 0

OJ .j,..., t:~,G 2 ,.i,6J:-)I: 3 ,j,..., ("~, G 4 ,j,..., t: 0) I:

W 001:Ii 2 ooTli 3 llill:t 4 llilTt

m -tn~'G 2 Tli 3 -t nl: 4 -tnT
rn t:~ fJ' t L n 1j_"\ I 2 1"d."..., (" t \ \\ I
3 1",t,'..., (" \ \6 4 1"d.'G 1"d."\ \

[]]1 J?t L'S\' -t7T-t 2 }ltL'S-t7T-t

3 J?t L'S\\(:: ,~\ Ii L t: 4 J?t L'S\\(:: §...,(" \'iLt:

0::=>- Question examples

 In CCJ of Example 5, you are required to insert the correct grammatical form with due consideration
s.",
to the foregoing context. The two phrases i$] ~{')' ~ and ~,~ ~;b -t n ~ are contrarily related, so the cor-
rect answer is 4.;, -:> t: (j) I::.
In [IJ, you must think about the particles. You combine the --C, which expresses place (relating to the
acf of speaking
\,

-g \ ' 1 -t) with the l;t, which contrasts ;b t: L (j) 00 with B

(I:

*.
I: 11'('

The correct answer is 2 T' l;t.

In ~, YOLI must consider the foregoing .context, and choose a conjunctive term. The second state-
ment arises from the preceding statement, so 4 -t n T' is the answer.
In u=J, you must choose the correct term from the context. Here, because the cold may worsen, the
right choice is 1 fJ.· ~ 1)' t L n fJ.·\ '.
!;t
In [TI, the right answer is 3 j:; t L ,; \ t: ,~\ 1 L t::., because the writer is expressing his or her
I I

own thoughts based on what was learned above.

In this kind of question, you must have the ability to:

· Judge correctly whether the sentence is internally cohesive from beginning to end
l.H-, "If) ur L,'L.(. .;. C !.(. J,

El1l!* Ii ~ L iJ' -:> t::. T -t 0 *7] 5/) -r~ A T I;J:1J.' \ \ 1;± J; f [ JL i L t::. 0

• J,
X JLt::. T L J:

· Pick the grammatical form that best suits the context

hI' 1}t'l hI: I: 11,(, 111"

Elt::>t::.Lli3LiJ{-A\li-to { ~Ii} B*T~\I-r\\i-to

X 3LiJ{

· And correctly connect sentences and phrases

L ItA.. ~.t ; "',{..~.ti

El <h L t::. ~1VJi:iJ{ <h 60 { f:' iJ' l? } ~ B Ii I: < ~ '(Jf!~J~-t6 --? t I) f: 0

X -tkliJ'l?

'.

III Grammar in longer text --cD

 Practising grammatical forms

"
 0) /j') (1--7 Verb groups,

There are three groups of verbs, You work out which one a verb belongs to based on the sound
before the i -t or of the ending of the dictionary form, The rules are different in either case for the T
form and potential form, etc,
t'; L it. t.,!:: t Llltl' j.; 1';1::
Jj; ~iiJI: l;t -=- --:J (7) J' J~ - 7°7)<';h I) i -t 0 I i -t J CT) AA' (7) if 7)', ~t"H~CT) ~~ hi) (7) l§-7)'G, -t
I::''} l HJ li\\ tJ' 0).; ~.!.; 4<
CT)Jj;~iiJ 7){t" (7) J" J~ _7° 7)'~ ~ It i -t 0 -t it -f' it, T H3.
-\"ti)' ~~ (7)i]}ti t" ~ {'F 6 t ~(7) J~ - /~ 7)<'
: z
~1'iIJi-to
It\ • C l' It\' t\.\ '

~tJ[.,-7 *9"% (*9' form) ~1i% (Dictionary form) {?U (Example)

r -\ \ i-t - -7 .'~ "'.'

J§t-7 1~-7
\,

- ~ i -t . - ~'.i -t - < . - <- " Bfl< rt< ;I? J: ('

11:.,..... t:
-Li-t --t ~~-t tB-t
t: t
-t;i-t ---:J
"
iL--:> t~ --:J
L
-I: i -t -(/;), ft.(/;),
11 :
-Ui-t - ,~, iI,;: <h-t ,;:
~ (f)

-l,.i-t • - L' git t; $xt;

"'<
-a 6 . 6 . -u 6 <h6 t6 {'F 6

{
-0
L IiI'
, III \'

- I) i-t -j 6 9;06 A6 -tJJ6 ;t6 *6

.';t
-e 6 ~*6 -t"'6
;, "

II -j i-t -j 6 Jt6 \ \6 ~6
r;

<hU6 -t~ 6 ~~6

t: J,

-e i-t -e 6 t:l6 ~;"';:6 Mlt6 7)'lt 6

.'
~lt6
~
Bfl::lt6
~'d(

~lt6
....
:,.{,~.t'i
ill -t6 5YM~-t 6 -t-7L-t6
< t

*6 t~-")T<6
( ;hA., (.; 19> -3 I L

< fcc! I.,

1::--) 0'

-::J :e;' (J)

;h
tIJ~jjj(J) ?'Jt,,-7 I, II- m~ H: WI., \T \0
ft' '
17U rtf' < ( I )
.'
~-t ( ) 2 s"(.JJ.·~\-t~
,.
( )

3 :.h-t ( ) 4 :':E~~ ( )
J, IH
5 Jt-tt~ ) 6 :/{Eli~ ( )
L T
7 ~P~ ) 8 tBT <~ ( )
q i? i}< i ( ) 10 .h-t;fL~ ( )
U\'
11 })i?~ ) 12 A~ )
<1l

13 *~ ) 14 ')'~
\'.-f

15 t ,;: ( 16 ~ <" ( )
; T
17 :':Ei;fL~ 18 ::bHt~ )
i
1q Slt'~ ( ) '20 1~-:> ( )
 It\ \ It\ \

"t' ff~ • tc ff~

TJf~ ~ ~ 1 g~6 ~-IIl, 9 ~-~, 16 22 ~-IIl' ~ . ~, 23 ~'-IIl' ~-rn, ~ . ~,

~2gB7~-A"-'E, 9~- 1 . 2, 10~-A"-'D
tc% ~ ~ 1 g~2 ~-~, 5 ~-IIl, 8 ~-~, 11 ~-~, 13 ~,-~, 15 ~-1Il
lip t L.I: It\'

-7)1,,-7 a:;"9%/t$il%:

I
(*~form / Dictionary form) i

.tt\ '~'\'

191m-
(Exception)
n'~i l'/
0'

.~i1'/
\\
.<
ff
0'

\\
-+

< -.
e-
.I,,'-cl
1tb-c1
0'

.I"'tel
1tbtel
~~i1'/ ci".;)('-. ci".;)1"'col ci".;)1"'ttl
: .t .t .t
-hi1'/-t ~?'t¢j.i l'/ ~?'tt -. ~?'tllv
col
-O'i l'/ -,3, -IvCO to'i1' / t,3'-' t IIv col
L l l

-'l:i1'/-6fd ; *JI: i 1"/ 9E6fd-+ 9Ellvcol

\\ \'

-"'i1'/-? §"'i1'/ §? -.
t t
-~i1'/-? -?-c #~i1' / #? -.
.-,( ...,<
-l?i1'/-~ ~ ill? i l'/ 11~ -.

II -j ~/ -j =9: --c \\:i1'/ \\6-. \ \: T

;;
\ \ : t:
,
$.;

~~:i1'/~~6
,
I $;

-. ~~ :T
1:i I

,
~~: ,
t::.
: ;P;U': i1' /;hU'6 -. ;hU': T ;h r/: t::.
~ 1'" 1'- T T
-e ~/ -e =9: --c ::I:::i1'/
I
::1::6-.
f·
::I:::T
,
::I:::t::.
t: t: f· ,

*'" :t::.
I

~"':i l' /~'"6 -. I

-t", ,: T
Slf: i1' /Slt'6 -. Slf: T
ill ,L i1' /1'6 L t::.
~
*-i1' /*-6
\

it::.
I nA., ~ ~? I t'-; L It I '
1.
iu' .
":>~"O) JJJ~P]:a: r--C~J (;: L:t
~
< t.:~t, \0

11~ -t}J~ -+ t}]-::>""[

(f) HI'
1 .,
~t' -+ 2 ~;t~
TI.. h
-+

3 ~-t -+ 4 1t~*-t~ -+
<
5 *~ -+ ,6 ,;, < -+

7
~';(_

9$~ -+ 8 .'
11r I) ~ -+

q .'
fit-'j -+ 10
IH
R~
J.
-t

12 YL;t~

.
11 .h'o'~ -+ -+

13 '0'-') -+ 14 J: ,;: -+
•
15 ~ .h (' -+ 16 ~ -+

~,~, n L It\ .

2. ( )0) *0) JJJ~:a: r--C~J (;: (",--C <1':~t,\0

;I,

-f:(7) i t"f < f:' ~ \ '0 crtn It~)

2 t"-'j -f' :(7) 'o'~ f'
-,.'
< f:' ~ \ '0 (1~-))
L<,LI.. J.
3 -f:(7) ~.f 1;l.-?t < f:' ~ \ '0 (YL-1± ~)
f: '".'1)' Lti t' l'
4 EB"f ~ "(_'Ii *~I: \'i-to (1:£ t')
"i 1,,,,

5 A
'7 , If.J7;{ \'i-to (,;. ~)

t:', L
< t.:~t,
It\ '

3. ":>~'O) JJJ~:a: rt.:~J (;: Vt \0

it" • ~
11~ -t}J~ -+ tJ] -::> t:
'('1' I,~

1*t; -+ 2 :Jfo< -+

3 ~ -f: ,;: -+ 4' h-t -+

5 -rd.: ~ -+ 6 h J: <" -+

7 ~~ -+ 8 tG-'j -+
i
q h<n6 -+ 10 M'~
t
-+

11 t~ -+ 12 #-?1' < ~ -+

2, T%' tdf~-(]I)
 It I \ 1\

'Z'.\" \ ~ \"\ ~ C ,3,?? ~ Polite form and Plain form

T\,\:!'d.\,\% ~ m 1 :gB9~-rn
,3\ -::J -5lf~ ~ rg HfB 7 ~-(2), 9 ~-rn . (2), 11 ~~-rn, 12~-rn . (2) .~, 14~-rn . ~,
15~-(2), 16~-~, 17~-rn·~, 19~-rn·~·~,m2:gB15~-4
It\ ' It ~,
-r \,\tl, \,\lf~ (Polite form) ,3\ -::> -5 % (Plain form)
t:-1 L
iJJ~i5j
0'
'jl{\ 1 i-t .'
'jl{ 'i
(Verb)
.,.'
'jl{\'i-\i,(, .'
'jl{
",
h1',': \ 1

'jl{\'iLf::. 'jl{'")t::.
0' 0'
'jl{\'i-\i'('-tLt::. ~ h 7'.1.'7)' -::> t::.
It\ '.I: i l too' too'
1lf~~~i5j ~\I-t-t ~\\
too' too'
(-1 adjective) ~ < 7'.1.'\ 1 T-t ~<1'J.'\1
«:
too' too'
~7)' -::> t: T-t ~7)'-::> t::.
f:tl' t, o·
~ < 1'.1.'7)' -::> t::.T'-t ~ < 1'.1.'7)' -::> t::.
--_.
It\ '.I: i L
j-7f~~~i5j <t: I) -C-t "',(, I) t:'
(-j- adjective) <s: I) 1" Ii ;h I) i -\i ,(, <s. I) Tli 1'.1.'\ \

'" A- I) -t L t::. <): I) t:' -::> t::.

<s: I) 'l" Ii ;h I) i -\i ,(, T L t::. "',(, I) Tli 1'.1.'7)' -::> t::.
¥)\, L ;,.., ;,..,
;g~1iJ if;] -t-t if;] t:'
;';0 ;,..,
(Noun) if;] T Ii ;h I) i -\i ,(, if;] T'Ii 7'.1.'\ 1
;,.., ;,'"
if;] T L t::. if;] t:' -::> t::.
;,'" ;';0
if;] T Ii ;h I) i -\i ,(, T L t::. if;] -C- Ii 1'.1.'7)' -::> t::.

;h.\ '1}(\'

*ljUn: ;h I) i -\i,(, -+ 7'.1.'\ 1 ;f> I) '1 -\i ,(, T' L t::. -+ 7'.1.'7)' -::> t::.
(Exception)
\ 1\ 1 (T-t)-J: < 7'.1.'\ 1 (T-t)-J: 7)'-::> t::. (T-t)-J: < 7'.1.'7)'-::> t::. (T-t)

C"" The plain form is used in talking with intimates, and also in literary styles used when writing reports, essays and diaries. etc.
(= plain style)
It'· If: :i·.~~lh· U~ Il'~' 7,J...i:,c. 1:.., ~ 1,' ,;:.(.1:" I:,'

.i- -::> -) % I.i. tt L \ \ 001~a: A Ut l' t ~'\'> t,...;t; - ,., g~ Y: , B ~G1'.. ' t' f .. < t ~t1l)C 1* ( = ,;,-:> H4-')
I: t Tih~H l' 0

.tt\, t:
ljU: . r f" I::: n, ~"'1'J.'\ I? };\ \ L\ IJ: oj
t,
+)-717,(" ~<~o ;f> I) 7)<'t 7 oj
.J:'; ~ 0'1.. 0' to)
·:::7:/t'..::.Tli ~ };.2(-\\ IFfM-c-t ~\\~frJ~ -t~ :::t7){ T~~o
 "'
/1.1'

1J~ .~i-t .<"' "'

.1),1'J_'\ \ .'
.\ It: .'
.1),1'J_' 1)' -:Jt:
I' I'

1T~ i-t .jT1), 1'J_'

\\

}) J: ~" i-t }) J: 1;{1'J_'

1;' -:Jt:
Ill,c UIJ.'
~~Li-t ~~ L t:
L L
7t1: i-t 7t~
1'J_'G IIi-t 1'J_'G If'1'J_'\ \
J: J:
giG.,2,. i -t giG Iv f:'
if, if,

4(\ \ i-t 4(-5

- -
t t
=t~ 1; i-t =t~1::1'..'\ \
___

b'A.
·__ 8_". _____ ~___
--_---- ---_ ....__ ._------ __
..
-I).;t
-------

i)-ij'r I) i-t
• I)W-:Jt:
J. J.

YLi-t YL6
T~i-t T ~ 1'J_'
\\

tli-t tl 1'..' 1)' -:J t:::,

t: t:

~"'i-t ~'" t:

L i-t L 1'J_'
\\
• <
*i-t
j-;j-;
*6 j-;j-;

*- ~ \ \T'-t *-~<1'J_'\\

\\\\T-t \ \ \ \

.;-

IIL\\T-t 11 L1)'-:Jt:

~;fL\ \ T-t ~;fL\\Tli 1'J_'

\\
l' l'

~f~ T'-t -H ~ f:' -:J I':

~l j ~ . ~.ti ~
~~Tli 1';.'1;' -:Jt:
~~T-t
'('1' \'1'
{*.,2,. T-t 1*.,2,. f:'
 The potential form

It' ' .' q)'; !'I:~

~ LJ: It" 0' q) -; !,g

*9% ~ i5J~~0)% ~l§7f~ ~ i5J~~0) %

(;:1:'9 form) (Potential form) (Dictionary form) (Potential form)
~----~-------------------------+----------
I -ea;9'" -u --+ -e~
" "
§\"i1" --+ ~~i-f §? --+ ~~6
"' ..
#<~i1" --+
"'#<[ff]i
..
1"
"'#<[ff]6
..

;l?l~'i1" --+ ;l?llJtJ i 1" --+ ;l?l1m6

li1',j: Ii+;: !;ttJ,.'

&~ L i 1" --+ &*~ i 1" &*~6

t:

.ftm i 1" Jim6

L
L

7'E~i 1" 1E~6

i:::Ui1" --+ i:::~i1" i:::~6
l .t
~ft:~ i 1" ~ft:~6
i:::~i1" i:::~6

IT

t· , ~ I ~ I

~'" : G tL i 1" ~'" : 6 --+ ~"':~) tL6

: I: : - f· ' :~: -~'
~i.:i1" --+ ~i.:GtLi1" 1fi.:6 --+ ~i.:GtL6
III Li1" --+
,
*J1" --+

C'" In tbe potential form, verbs change form in the same way as Group II verbs.
q' Q); N:~ I:'"i L 1:", L f.;~. tf:l. $'

"I~~(1)1tj I: -t,j.' -:> t~fbf<iJ Ii ;7' JJ_, - f II (1)fb~6J z ~ L: J: -) I: ~1){;I!:h I) 1-90

"
§;t-c

"
I t1,1v (...I9>? I r'j L ~, q)-J ;,g

1. ,?~"(J) 1iJ~PJ~ rPJIi~(J)~ J ,;: vr < t.:~t,'0

it\ • ~ •
17U tJJ6 -+ tjJn~
..-
1 1iL' -+

"
2 )dt6 -+

3 iJ' ;;ti" -+

4 U< -+

5 n,-CLt1J7i"6 -+

6 011'6 -+
t
7 #-?( <6 -+
71,
8 ~7 -+

q };If;;t6 -+
IH
10 *6 -+
\,

11 ~~6 -+
t
12 #-') -+
•

13 ;h -f .~: -+
•
14 ~6 -+

15 ~&')6 -+

t:- l ~,if).j ~·t:;

< t.:~t, '0
1"..:~' oj

2. ) (J) t:j:l(J) 1iJ~PJ~ rPJIi~(J)~J ,;: L- T

t l J: 1)'/... Cl t IJ !1'{' 0'

:0 [§J .. nTll -A. 10~-')iT *iJ<' _____ ii"o (1{tI) 6)

};~Itll -1:±"'-c-tf,-C '"
i 1±'-co (j}zL')
2
~,Uj rJ .t .. t: :j/: ~

3 i:-Bl811 ~ 8*iT ii"iJ'o (1fh <)

(.1 i'(_T'(_

4 Jli iJ{ i +s-, (if~i" 6)

-:>f.t,
T',(_ j,

5 :: Til It\ \ 1-:. \ \i[~i5!1 i 1±'-co (it 7)

"
 ,5. .

~'i L
[!iJ~iij Verb]
C L" It,·
! !llnf~-u -+ -e'cf
(Dictionary form)

-t'3 -+ -t~lf -th1'J,'\\ -+ -t h 1'J.'tt tLl f

;1,-1> ;1,-1> ,,-1> ,,-1>

~< -+ ~[ff]I;r
,·t
~n'1'J.'\ \
,·t
-+ ~n'1'J.·ltnl;r
,·t
"t
,~~ -+ ~l!fIlf ,~n{1'J.·\ \ -+ ,~n{1'J.·ltnlf'
0' 0' 0' 0'

~9 -+ ~~If ~~1'J.'\\ -+ ~~ 1'J.'ltnlf'

;t ;t :1' i

1~? -+ 1~mlf 1~ t: 1'J.'\ \ -+ 1~ t: 1'J.'It n Il'

L l L L
9t,~ -+ 9t,~If' 9t,1'J,'1'J.'\\ -+ 9t,1'J.'1'J,'ltnlf'
t ,3, -+ t I3J If' tlf'1'J.'\\ -+ t 1f'1'J.,ttnlf'
i' 'r i' i'

1:it -+ 1:i~lf' iii 1'..J,'\\ -+ It n If'

1:i i 1'..J,'
C-,( ...,( -,( -;(

1'F~ -+ 1'Ff1] If' 1'F G 1'..J,'

\\ -+ It n If'
1'F G 1'..J,'
;h~ -+ ;h f1] If' 1'..J,'
\\ -+ 1'..J,'ltnlf'
._ --_._------
•
II
;.

Jt: ,
6 -+
;.

Jt: nlf'
,
Jt: , f..J,'\\
;.
-+ Jt:
;.

,
1'iltnlf'
\ \: 6 -+ \ \ : nlf' \ \ : 1'..J,·\\ -+ It n If'
\ \ : 1'..J,'

tJ.:6, -+ tJ. :, nlf' tJ.:1'..J,'\\ -+ tJ. : 1'..J,'ltnl1'

, ,
L&f):6 -+ L &I): nlf' L&I):1'..J,'\\ -+ L &f): f..J,'ltnlf'

ill -t6 -+ -t nil' L f..J,'\\ -+ L f..J,'ltnll'

( (

*6 -+ *nil' *1'..J,'\ \ -+ *f..J,' Itni1'

It"~ i L
[ -{ ff~~~iij -1 adjective]

~', t,o' t,o' f' 0'

~: \ \ -+ ~ :, Itnil' ~<f..J,'\\ -+ ~ < 1'..J,'ltnil'

.ttl \~'\' : tll'IF\'
i~J:7j.. \ \ : \ \ -+ J: : It ni1' i~J:7j.. J: < 1'..J,'
\\ -+ J: < 1'..J,'ltnil'
(Exception) (Exception)

It\ 'l i l ....,p L

[Tff~~~iij Tadjective/:g~iij Noun]

L-f'n' -+ L-f'n':1'..J,'G
;,n iln I ,,~ "n
m -+ m : 1'..J,'
G mTli1'..J,'\ \ -+ m-C1'J.'ltnl1'
I nlv~~? I : t II H:t,

1 . -:> '!5"(J) ~~~

, ';I> '" fcJ: 6 J 0) M':
I'" ~-r < t':~L \0
ft., ' ~
11U -l:JJ6 -+ tJJf1(cf
If-t ~ If -t ~

7t~ -+ 7C~tJ:G
;1,

1 4;-7 -+ 2 "'")lt6 -+

3 It-t -+ 4 1::. (j) L' -+

<
5 T'~6 -+ 6 *-6 -+
£ ;1,
"
7 1t< -+ 8 Pe91:%7 -+
q) ~
q iki f.f\ \ -+ 10 fifln'fJ.·\ \ -+

~'1" ,
11 .hn'GfJ.·\\ -+ 12 ~\ \ -+

13 L'-('n' L\\ -+ 14 ~;fL\\ -+

~t;

15 i!<fJ.·\\ -+ 16 Vi -+
!;t lid ~
17 n'lv t:. Iv -+ 18 ~\ \ ~~ -+

1q \ \ -t f.J{L < tc \ \ -+
>('1"

20 1*h. -tli fJ.'\ \ -+

q)

, fJ.·j:.) I) i -l± Ivo (iki fJ.·\ \)

-----,.-, ------::->(>1"

2 ~\ \ i -l± Ivo (~< fJ.·\ \)

3 7 ;fLL \ \1"'-t 0 (\ \ \ \ T Iv t:)

-tt'""J;)\\ , '

4 gH,Bjj f .J: < ------- , .hf.J' I) i -t 0 (ril <)

5 "J(' f.J{ , .J: < tlt;;fLi-to (L-f'n't:·)
---------
 6 .. _

11\' C llI1\' It\'

*9~ / ~lfi~ -7 -3. d:: -37f;
(;3;: "9 form) (Dictionary form) (?/ J: ? form)
~----4------------------------~------~
I -i*9/ -U -+ -05
n' n·· n'
1(l,\i-t/ 1(5 -+ 1(~-7
h.n{~ i -t / h.n{< -+ h.~{~-7
;j:).l:~'i-t/;j:).l: c -+ :t?.l:~ -7
" .
::BlJi-t/
t,
::B9 -+
r:
tBOO-7
r. t: ,-
.fttii-t/ .ft? -+ .ft~-7
t, l t,

ft.£t: i -t / ft.~ -+ ft.@] -7

.l: U i -t / .l:I~:; -+ .l: [00 -7
q) q) q)

~hi -t / fkt -+ ~~-7

n';( n'it n';(

~~IJi -t / ~~~ -+ ~~~-5

J, J, J,

IT Jt:i-t/ Jt:6 -+ Jt!.l:-5

1; I f.) I t; I

~~!i-t/~~!6 -+ ~~!.l:-7
h:i-t/
,
h:6
,
-+ h:.l:-7
,
;hIt': i-t /;h(t': 6 -+ ;h(f:.l:-5
III

... Thisform is also used as the ~;l; L J: ') plain form,

f'f:~ It~' ...,11'
:::(l)%!H ~ i L J: ") J (l),;,-:l") % 1::: Ll' t~b:li.i -to
ttt.'- ~,,;t

-wa: . r L>. It -5 lJW~ -7n'oJ

-If -7 I -7lv, <f) L t: i l: *.l: '50J
I ttlt-GI9>? I n L It\'

1 . "?'f!5'0) jjJ~i5J~ I? . ~?~J ,;: l/r < t.:~{, \0

fL' ' • ~
~J t}J~ -+ t)]3'5
<
1 *~ -+ 2 ~d?)~ -+

3 ~ £I£-t ~ -+ 4 };< -+
Ii f.·

5 ~rl~ -+ 6 ~~-t -+
.t "-t
7 ~It:t' -+ 8 ,~ <" -+
r1\' T
q A~ -+ 10 tB~ -+
i
11 tG7 -+ 12 #-) -+
I-;L

13 ~;;t~ -+ 14 }; 'J ~ -+
11:
15 i{.;: -+

t'i L It"
2. "?fiO) jjJ~i5J~
L ::t
I?' ~?~J';: vr <t.:~(,\o
I-; t '('-(
~ L t: -f±:f: f t l
,~.., ~\ i -t 0 ({* t;)
~t ~~
2 ':;-:-7.f t l
,~.., ~\ i -t 0 (1& 7)
ti -o,"'-n-'·--- I-;t 0'

3 'ff...t:'1;I: };~f til ,~~\i-t±£o ({*'J~)

4 A Ii to', Ld?)-tJ.·~\?J
B 17 s.. --~---oJ(Ld?)~) ,
1,.,
"
5 A If,fu~{ _____ ~'oJ (11' <)
_____ oJ (-t~)
 It' \ i It J, !'I:~ t L ,It" i It J, I'I:~

?'j[,,-7 *"9% ----> ~~O)% m~% ----> ~~O)%

(*"9 form) (Passive form) (Dictionary form) (Passive form)
,
_. -u _. -atL~
I -i*"9 -atL*"9
\'

§l,\i-t "
§? _. ~~it6
-+ ~~iti-t
fJ.'i!! i -t -+ fJ.,~it i-t fJ.'< -+ -1l~it6
~ t:>~' i-t -+ ~ t:>~iti-t ~ t:>c -+ ~ t:>~it6
!J:t.' !it.- IJ:t.' iii.'

~~G i-t -+ ~~~iti -t ~~"9 -+ ~~~it6

f: r. f: f-

SL"bi-t _. Ji[tfjit i-t R? _. Ji[tfjn6

L L L L

YE';:i -t -+ YE~ni "1" YE~ -+ YE~n6

J:Ui-t _. J: ~ni-t J: /3, _. J:~n6
,;,J;. i -t _. ,H~]ni-t ,j,t _. ,H~]n6
Ln' IJ i-t -+ Ln'~ni-t Ln'~ -+ Ln'~n6
Jt: , i-t
J. J.

II • _. Jt: , GtLi-t
J. J.

Jt: , 6 _. Jt: , Gn6

\ \ : i-t -+ \\: Gni-t \ \: 6 -+ \\; Gn6
tl;i-t
,
-+ h:Gni-t
,
h;6
,
-+ h; , Gn6
11&');i-t -+ 11&');Gni-t 11&0:6 _. 11&,):Gn6
ill L
,
i-t -+ ~ni-t -t6 -+ ~n6
< -
*-i-t -+ *Gni-t *6 -+ *Gn6

(~ With Group [] verbs and < -!>. the passive and potential forms are the same,
~i L. ( itt h ",,~ ni
.,,- tH ~~'
;;7"!,,-7°rr (7)tiJ~llJz r*6J Ii, r~.!t(7)%J t_r;;Y~~(7)%J ~{JiiJ L: T1" 0
 ~
t;]6
of,

MlIt6
-- •
-lPJsn~
2 t6
--
3 t:. tJ) t;
- 4 t?-t
5 h1?7. - 6 -t t:'"""(6
--
7
9
%6
;

-th6
-- 8
10
t:
iL---;
t:
~"'6 -
11
13
-t"""(6
t
tt'"? """( < 6
-- 12
14
t: t:. <
~rt1 \,
5i:t-t 6
-
-
15
J,

Jt6 - -,
to? L 11t ~ iJ'/:~
r~~(J)mJ';: t.r <t.:~~\o
f.I.'1~'

2. ( )(J) c:p(J) JjJ~liJ:a:

I:~t
ht:.Lli **~;{_,tJ) 71;1: i It:.o (ll 7t:.\\1-6)
2 t"'; If 7 I: ::\\,_;,f' i L t: 0 (ct.J-tt;)
s;.(~. 1}~ J,~
----------- ,
3 y:tJ) AI: itf -----
i l t., (r~ <)
l,tH

4 ~I: IJ < tJ) t?t1;~f

-----
i l t., (: h-t)
t,
t,r tQ) 1>,(,1"-

5 :tJ) ~~0{i 100Jt. ilfT I: ilt:.o (~"""(6)

-----------
 L ;t ~ N:~
1l~o)ff~ The causative form'

It" L .. ~ N:~ t.: L.t tt\ \ L :;t~ "/:;

~ ~~~O)% !~:;:% ~ ~~~O)%
7',I,,-/' *9"%
(3':9 form) (Causative form) (Dictionary form) (Causative form)

I -i'*9" --+ -a it '*'9 -u --+ -ait~

,.
" §?
§\'\i-t --+ ~~-I±i-t --+ ~ ~-I±6
fJ.'~i-t --+ fJ.'~-I±i-t fJ.'( --+ fJ.'~-I±6
j:; J: ~'i-t --+ j:; J: ~-I± i -t j:; J: <' --+ j:; J: ~-I± 6
IifJ.' !if,f Liti Ii 1',j.'

~i L i-t --+ ~i~-I± i-t ~i'9 --+ ~i~-I±6

t, t- t: t-
ics i-t --+ :ri: [tg -I±i -t :ft? --+ :ri: [tg -I±6
L L L L
fUC: i-t --+ ?E~-I± i-t ?E~ -+ ?E~-I±6
;})-'(-Ui-t --+ ;})-'(-~ -I±i -t ;f, -'(-I~\ --+ ;f, -'(-~-I±6
~ ~ ~ ~
ikdj.i-t --+ $x~-I± i-t ikt; --+ ik~-I±6
-thlJi-t --+ -th~-I± i-t -th~ --+ -th~-I±6
J, J, J, J,

II J'L: , i-t 10-+

J'L: , ~-I±i-t J'L:6
,
--+ J'L: , ~-I±6
\ \ : i-t -+ \\:~-I±i-t \ \: ~ -+ \\:~-I±6

1J'tt: , i-t --+ 1J'tt : ~ -I±'1-t 1J'tt: , 6 --+ 1J'tt ,: ~ -I±6

, "
-'(> <i0 : i-t -+ -'(> ¥> : ~ -I±i -t -'(> <i0 : 6 --+ \" <i0 : ~ -I±6

ill L i-t -+ ~-I±i-t -t6 --+ ~-I±6

<
ii-t -+ *~-I±i-t *6 -+ *~-I±6
I nA- ~ 19>? I ~.
i L
1. --::>~. (j) E'J~PJ~
;ft\ \ .., t.
~U ~-5

3
1 .< -
-
~,

" 4
: t,
i};t-5
--
5 -
--.
6
r:
t8-t -
--.
_'-t t,
q ,~<" - 10 ~-"'-5 -
11
13
::::i-5
LG-"'-5
-
--.
12
14
.
;fi.£Lt1>-5-t-5
~-5
-
-

-I.'f.!' t:"7 L L *.~ H:t,

2. )(j) 'i=J(j) E'J~PJ~ r~~~(j)mJ';: t.r <t.:~C\o
h t: L!;t 4- t" t I: " -\-'f i -t 0 ( ~ , t: -51t -5)
L1";"
2 H-&(;t J: < HAJif i-to (hG-5)
" 1.1\'

3 -r-t"t f ;h,),~I: i-to (A-5)

I.,I.·~< t.: f)'1v

4 -r-t" t I: -&i \ *M fj'_L-. T

------
i-l±£o
<
(ch-t,n
5 ------ i L t:o (*6)
?'J!,-"7
m.~
l: L, It"

(Dictionary form)
-l>
L :U ilt
15e~~~~0)~
"

(Causative passive form 1)

j.g
1
L :<. ~
15e~~~~0)7f~ 2
oj It

(Causative passive form 2)

J, !'I:;

I -u -+ -a a-tt-l> * 1 -a 1t 6tt-l>
(.1 G? -+ (;tG~~;I1..6 (.1 G ~-t± G;I1..6
• • •
<
ril -+ ril~ ~;11..6
,.+
ril ~ -t± G ;11..6
"-r
,~<.
\'i
-+ ,~Itil ~ ;11..6 ,~Itil-t± G ;11..6
It fJ." fitJ.·
*2
~;-9 -+ --- ~;-~-t± G tL6
r. t: f:
:ft? -+ ii [t9 ~ ;11..6 si. [t9 -t± G ;11..6
11 : 11: • 11 :
iI,3, -+ iI~ ~;11..6 iI~-t± G tL6
~ ~ IT>

~kt -+ ~~~tL6 ~k~-t± G tL6

-ttJ-l> -9tJ~~n6 -ttJ~-t± Gn·~
.
-+
---- t---------
•
IT ~:6 I
-+ --- ~; , ~-ttGn6
I

~\:6·-+ --- \\;~-t±Gn6

tl;6 -+ --- tl :~-tt G;I1..6

b'J..~! I b'Uj I

;;If;{_ ; 6 -+ --- ;;If;{_ : ~ -t± G ;11..6

III -t6 -+ --- ~-t±G;I1..6

( -
-+ --- *~-ttGn6
*6

(~ *1 Group I verbs are often used in the causative passive form I (-a ~ ;ft ~).
*2 However, verbs with a dictionary form that ends in l' «(1 f..' l',t::.1', t.; 1', etc.) and Groups II and III verbs do not have
-a~;ft~ form.
*1 t'; l l i.!;lt.t.
7·'i---7'IO)Jj;~(;J:li1:.R~~0)%1
HI, (11 ..,,,.
(f-a~kl~J)O);?,j<J: <f:il:.nkli-to
*2 L: L.t 11\'
t:f!. L. #-.jf;,j<f-t J T~n~Jj;~
t'")l
,., t:"i

~,I;t,
l jj"...'1£
(~-t . lli-t . j?-t~a-) 1:::. 7-'i---7'n
......
1::"1 L
O)Jj;~iiJ, 7-'i---7'm
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.ttl' ";f: , t: , f:

(7U ~~ --+ ~b~n~ (~bit6n~)

f,J.' < --+
t
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J:
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r:
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5 >\'c\")6 --+
: t:
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i)'A.

7
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8 ~~ --+

q 1? J: ( --+

10 -t.h6 -+

1
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12 ")lt6 -+

13 -t6 --+

t'-jl L;('~iltJ.,. 6'1;;

< ti~('
1'.... 1').

2. ) f)) ~f)) JJJ~~ rf5e~§t~-!Jf))mJ ,;: V'l \0

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f±-&r: BSiB t ~;f±I:: i-to (*6)
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2 JL I:: .: ~ f i L t: 0 ( 1'F6 )
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4 -T t"" to): )), ~ t:, \ \ f.;: >\' "~ \ \ f i L t: 0 (~'" 6)

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Skills Development Part 1 : Grammar forms by semantic function
 1.;
CD:O) 7/\-rli 1tJ0) 7/ \ - I, J: I) <s: I) 1"i" 0

IIJ'; LA., In' j.;

@:ht:Lli \\-")t f.lij~J:I) .!f-< ~~ti"o

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~~ +J:f)
(~ Used to express the extent of something forming a topic, by comparison with something else. The superlative is expressed
through the format interrogative +.l: I) @. With negative comparisons, you use the form ~ (1 t',,· ;t 1± Ie- (~.
r" !!.'t.n.,i
h t~\'

rJ fl',;:";"
fl't'

~EM I::: L l'Jf5< I) _tlft~ t (J)(J)~Jt: f. IH'(J) t (J)ttl::." {, '§\ \:7 r~r,,'~iiJ+ 1: I) j (J)%T._t~
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(®)o ~:ltXT(j:r~Ill::" ..·;t-tLCj 1:::\ \ '3%T1.t'3 (@)o

1il
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~L ~
@:ht: L! i :"~ J: () / \ '/ 0) ---.:._
11 7 f J: < ~ ~ t i" 0

~ ~ + J: f) +[fu] + O)ia:-5
(~ A way of expressing a preference, or comparison of extent of two things (noun 2 > noun 1). It is not usually used in negative
statements.

: 1 t, ,..
CD:J -
(}6 Li.
I
t- t
~
*J.~t ~LLr ~~
@A I~lR. t "'C' / \' A t ~J!!-t t"I;G~{ ~\\1"i"~'oJ
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;.
Bit" I; G t if> t I) Jt t 1± ,{,~{.'··"oJ
~ ~ + C: +[fu] + C: c''5 E>
,
(~ A way of asking somebody to express a preference, or comparison of extent of two things. The answer will usually take the
~(1)(17 or 'Ct, '" t forms (C2l@),
<., ~
=- -:J(J)t (J)(J)~¥.Jt: HI::."
.}·t: (p t"
l'1lll <
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(---::>(J) a~~ 2§]9'? (fl,\*9o)

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Lr ~-r
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~i " r; L .. ~ t,., I: L .. ~ t,.,
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t.i.,A. 'd' ~A.~; If ~£~; If j;j;

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T£ h .,.,
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t··t; G f
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\\\'h)oJ
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CD ~ ;/,U d,J,' ;'jjj; f JfJ,t.'7)"G ~ A.., ( r L i L f: 0

!.tl;l 1-;'("tJ:( ~ lId IJ '"?(

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to' '.' ( "J:

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~ ijj]~ +tJ:tJ{6

C'" Used when a main action or behavior (''') is accompanied by a separate, simultaneous ancillary action or behavior (-), It is
added to a verb expressing a continuous action or behavior,

L h" lit Ii\" Ii\"

CD;}." ~-@-7)" 'kai 6 t::'; -("1" ,to .!f- <. .!f- < 0

"1 .z..tt If L.t

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f- t.. -5 A.." 1;.l: -5 t:" -t MI: ~\ \t: t::.; t. : oj

t Lilt" It"
~ ijj] %$~.%/ l \,\ ~ / t,:Jf~ + t z 6 C'9
C'" Expresses a time point in an action or a change, Dictionary form + J:: : ';" indicates a time point just before the action gets
started, The .. -c \ ,~ + t : ;;'''indicates a time point in a continuous action, The" t: form + t : ';" indicates a time point
just after the action has·been completed:
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followed by a phrase expressing an action of short duration,
t: IrA.. It·,(. t"" hb. . Ilt J1p-t-"(1'~ ·t:'"1 ~ . Cd':\> S,i,b .i:.{. < ld."'.{.
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IH 111: 111:

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CDAIV~L,;:I)I: T-=-/Zf Lit1±,.{A'oJ
S l<n, \ '\\T-rtloJ
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t:
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1ft
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~ [j}j]~ + ;:Ut Iv t.J'
(~ Used when making a proposal or invitation. It can be used for joint activities by speaker(s) and counterpart(s) CD. and also
when only the other person is involved @ 0>.
"t'\'''~ (I'.(,.~i ,,~, 1'..,L.z: It ;1)\, ;'1' l' If ;hI'
:J;'t~L t: I) tIJ~ L f: I) -r.:, z ~ I:~ ")0 -*fl: -r {,,~-@' (CD) t, !13~t:lt7]{-r .:,~-@' (ct@) t ;h.:, 0

.hi.
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to
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t
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~ [j}j]~ + * G J;? (iJ')

(~ Used to propose that a certain action be performed together, with a partner's consent (CD @) and when seeking consent for
something you will do yourself (0) ®). In conversation with intimates, the -j / .J: -j form is used (please see page 22) (®).
h\'l ::';p :71' I'''')L.t T"S,.t 1.:.;:£ ti l'
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CD:) 3 - ~ A.-I;t ~?o t 8:zi-'.?o t .p @I?o~" §i5--tLJ: -to

(Jt: I) ,).( ~

@ljJJ.'1; -\"A.-I;t if:.' -A l" ~~~" >l G n i -tt A.-o

rPi¥')I' .;._,
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@: 0) 71<-1
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~OJ~gO)7f~ 18-"'-:';'
C~ Expresses capability (CD @) or potentiality of a situation ®. As in @, it also expresses inherent capability or possibility . .It is
used with verbs expressing intentional human behavior. As with CD and @, the object particle f often changes to iJ' (t, rp i
:' < :'fl;t~~..r. ,;,< f ~7.,...... t, rp i:' < :'1j'IH..·-!t7." .;. < 1j<~'=-.tt6).
(f);IJ,( - - '0' "l; td~d -ttl) - hb t"l -ij'1't1 I)' 11);
fl~7J-Q<;f,";': 1:::«(j)(V) --\"PJfi~1J.';17UJL-Q{~"?1'\\";': 1:::(®) ~*:1'o @)G1).t ')1:i~G1)'Ii.1::: L 1'PJil~1J.'
Ii~n vt: I' L T:! :; \, II"" ~; L ..,Jt. '(,<T"!:: 1.:1 l
: 1:::~ *1' : 1:::t ;f,";'
1;$-;
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t, .. ,:,(::
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I.t'.t' .j.(!
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• t .'I._ .' t<1)

CD: 0) ::J .> to..::. "[,I;t 24*M ~~ '4~~" T'5 i -to
\ oj; t:;"{ t,d> +,t"~, (;11'

@~, :0) ~~~O) "i'1:1;t )\.6 : t~" T'5 i-ttA.-o

I: IlL ItA.. +,1.." i.i \,
®:bt: LI;t 8*0) ~O) .ijM'f -tfA.-,;: § ') : t~{ T'5 i-to
~ ~ +tJ\l'~*9'
c t., It,·
[jj] %¥~7f~ +;::: C tJ\l'~ *9'
C" Expresses a situation of enablement or receipt of permission (CD @) and the existence of capability
expressing intentional human behavior. A slightly more formal pattern than ~ ( '=-~'L) i or.
C®). Used with verbs

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PJfi~1J.°~5JL~{!l "? l' \ \..;,: 1:::«(IXg)) --\"fi~7J~<;f,";' : 1:::(®) ~ *1' 0 A.G1)~;0eg1J.'1t~ ~ *1't&~~ ~~ ') 0
1t;"1: 1)'/:
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--\"a i "? t: 't \ \;Q 0

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n"tl~" ;;h I) i -tt A.-~' G, .J: <
@cl1)
.'j[ z ~ t-;
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~ ~ +tJ\~x.*9'· tJ{M<.:x.*9'
C~ Expresses natural ability to see or hear something.
L -t!.L Il 1:1:" L if... ,l..J. ,:1' h~"
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c t::'- II,.. f !1 L 7j{'J i 1"
 CD;}), j--7"JJ._,(J) __t(J) ~ '/7'1;{ }; t; -'[ -)T1' J: 0

@h ;}), }; \ \ L -'[ -) fJ_' '7 - -t T l' tl 0

Tiv ., l1'i
®:;::I /' ~ ,{,Ii L ,{,Il\ \-'[ -) I: ~~1JT ~1JL 1"
(I: hi.
oo~
l.l',?1(>1"

@.l.1*l,tI:(i q~Ht-'[-) T1' 0

r Iv s t,;,

J::..~T1'o iifuli .). I) -'[ -) t ;})

I) i 1± ,{,tlo
U T" N:t, .t1.1'7,I(1'

+~?~9/~?~~~*tt~(~~0~) ~~:~~*tt~~~~~?~9
", .• <,. (Negative form) (Exception)
11~1:l?'IT~I~ +~?C'9 f9U~:\,\\,\. J:\'\~J:~~?~9
(Exception) (f ". HI

11~1:l?- < 'IT7f~I~ -('(eI: . ~('(eI: +~~~?~9 (~~0~)

(Negative form)
(~ Used to express the sense that something will occur based on outside appearance or circumstances (CD), as well as to make
inferences based on state or quality (~ @), or judgments or presentiment (@ @), etc,
6'p~'L tli~J1 "...
·1: ~ t,d:i .ij"1'L..,..ti T 'tl'~'" (/) 11.I"':',(,.t 1)''('

7HJI.\"~))('i.1· G. fPJi.1·i.1<~~ ~~(;~ (CD), '111t· tl+ L -r~"'f=

(@®) ~.:t1H<f- I), lflllM"' "f~ C@®)
(/) I' 11'1:
-f'J.'t:<~~"'f= I) -t ~'t\ \150

,,'" L lil1
CD;;id{ 1t,1:i L t:o tVli ~ U L I;C") 1" \ \ i l' 0

@.:f t" t t: t; Ii}; t L.'; I; "-") 1" 'j'- f-,. T ;})-'[A- T \ \ i l' 0

$;1;:11: I1H
®~Ii :tJ\\ ~;5-f \\"\"'I;{I)i1'o

~ 117f~1:l?
'IT~I~ +fJ~? '"[\'\*9 . fJ{~ *9
(~ Expresses the wishes or emotions of a third party (chiefly relatives of, and people of lower status than, the speaker). When
used to describe a general trend rather than a situation a: hand, ~,j' I) i -t is used (@).
f:'\'~LL\" JOt .r,. -;t; Yt: h L<r> Lf; f!t; If ut: J;.,!,i 1)~A.~li .t:i"t J.~h \·t .ti of" I '..,I!L

~"='::ff(~I:!!,J*J<7)A\"~::ff.t
'f!ilt'·: i \>
1)"f<7)ir}~<7)A) (7)~*.
H:t, ..,:1}'
~ffi(7)tl-J-~~-to ~(7)tl+-r·I;UJ.' <, -~lt
B9-MJi;}i.1<;l', ~ t: 't\ \ t: \ \ t: Htr ~i.1<1) i -t J (7)~ 'fit? (@)o -nil 1

t,
CD~(1)-), it"f 1m Itt: i i tl i Lt: 0

r Ii-\"
@.:r-I;{ ~ t: fJ_' \ \ i i T Ii \" t fJ_' \ \ J: 0 .)\! <
'5 l: .., ~(-")-')\'I: t; -tt ,.(.11,?

®~ 8 Ii 4 Jl 1 8 T1'I;{, fJ v /' If--I;{ 7'tJl (J) i i -c-t J: 0

~ljj)t;:Jf.~/tci:\'\%
It\' ttl'

'11~1\'\ 'IT~ltci:' ~O) +**

(~ Expresses a state that is continuous and has not changed. Often used in cases where the speaker feels the situation is
undesirable because no change has occurred.
(lit,:\> e- '":)-? .t? 1" J,~f> rlif~\'~' ;:(1) rlit:~,
~!tM{;t::;hG-f'J.'\\T~\\-r\'~:t!k.:r'f*--to
\. If $,.. ;t.>};
..,~.
~tmi.1{~;hG-f'J.'\\t:nl:*f;t L < ,.....\\~!!!iI:.,.J.''?-r\\~::
t: 'f't? ~-@'-I:{thn~:: t: 1j{~\ '0
 t It t: t: •.t:;
Inft,~19>?11
~~
( ) (f)
',·0'
~(f) ~~:a:
:

I~;(_
lElA,\ ~,: G-C i}l,\T
0'
<t.:~l,\o
1 *- ~ I I L.:L 1.(7)< ih I) i L t:o *-f:'f.J.'7){ -t -) T L t:o (t: t?tL~)
1': .s-"
2 )'L --::>7)'tLiLt:o +«. :I.,I1'l.,li rp.., < I) -t-)T-to
(tlGtL~)
-t -) t:·bo
-----
;..,. J~-t! L tJ." t if)

4 7; J: .., (: Jt i L t: 7)'- : I]) J6 I: Ii I I I I JM~ Ii

(fJ.'\ I)
I'L'it

5 ~Ii 7){..,-C t?~ '(>'<~I.,I: ;h11~--::>Li1±l.,o (l;tf17'L\I)

L ;1;1'
-----
6 ~~I: i It i L t: 0 ),.. I., f.J.'Ii 7){..,T I 'i -t 0 (~.' tCtltC)
t;~
7 :1]) #Ii II--::>iTt
111 \
8 A I) '/' / \' f r r . t: t: ),..1]) '" -\" I: )d) f.J.'I I T < f:' ~ I I0 (I;t <)

[nft,~19>?21 e t» btJ) l,\l,\ '~?:a: jt61v-z.: ,<t.:~l,\o

• (}t »-I'
1 (a .ht: L Ii b;hl]) Ali) t?~7){ ih I) -t -) T-t 0

11 fJ."

2 .hih, (a ~;ttl 1f.J.' b ~;ttl '-t -) fi) 1t:T-tbo

3 ih L t: Ii ih i I) (a
~l
*
~~
< f.J.'~ -t -)
!
b *
~t
-t -) t fi I I) T -t b 0

.
4 .h t: L Ii L.:: I]) -g* f F:i(lI 'T, (a t? (:"'; ~ i L t: b t? (:"'; ~ -t -) T L t:) 0

~tH O'~ I'

5 $ Ii (a -Ii ~ -t -) f.J.' b -Ii ~ -t -) I:) g~T [":" <I":>

I.,b J (: § I \ i L t: 0

: f:<!) f,<!) it: i"

6 -T (:" t t: 7;Ii (a ~ L -t -) f.J.' b ~ L -t -) I:) ~ f ~ ..,T I I i -t 0

7 .ht:Lli *1l!
~I'l ...i
(a t:IIIII.,L-t-)-t-t b t:IIIII.,T~-t-)T-t)o
8 IIG, ihl])-f-7){ t?t7;'(>f (a IIL7)<..,T II~.J: b IIL7)<~.J:)o
q 7;rP-)L'(>li Ilt:II-C-to(a tJt:Lli b-f-(:"tt:7;li) rt; 11-\"7){I)i-to
(}t
10 ihCl) Ali (a i L<I":>-t-)T-tb b i L.:<I":>1]{..,TIli-tb)o
(J) (J) L :" t' \.

11 / \'A I: (a *-.., T b *-.., t: i i) i± .. '" q-r ~ i -t 0

IU J:
12 <I":>
1]{b f
11!::1: ;,~
17
' Itt:
T'
i i
,
(a *- f -gft;),.. i L t:
\I;t i.I';(.
b b i L t:) 0

IIi.

13 i!J1:t ~ tJj7)'ltt: i'i (a it:' *1: y~I)i1±1., b -t<" *1:

 -(Jyr: ... ...........
'"t'•.•• ........"< -r.... ........,-c- ...

.t i t ~ J: .; -'I: ~ 'I)'i..

G)-t;J:-:>t )fP:J~{ ;h1)i1"~'G, ~81i :¥tl:: ~~I)i1"o

@;h,)~-1"J.'\,~, G, ~ i) G -1".1.'\
'1'" !
t.if ~
®At'-1"~{ _L.=f-I:: T~i-t±"<"'TLt:o n,.<..,LtP -)~{ JtI)-1"J.,~,-:>t:~'GT1"o
It~\ It\ \ It I '
~ ,~,"?5~/l\,\1d.\'\~ +h'6 ,~,"?5~ +h'6c'9

C" Used to explain cause, reason or grounds, somewhat emphatically.

1,1,(;\''(' I'''''i :.(.~ J: ?1 \' .,6'
~fzg "l!.m " *ttt~H~ < -g -) t ~ I:fj! -) •

[ 21 -ore-
M! ~ .t -; 'l'i"
G)-t.z". i -t±,.<.." ~~{ \ ,t: \ '(/)T, ~ 8 Ii 1*.z". i -t 0

f:\ '
@:(/) -Tli if:' 5~\dJ.'(j)T, /{A1\li ~'~'I) i-t±,.<..,o
;,.., ~ J: .:;
r n~,-1".1.'
I'

®m~{ ,), -:>T \ t: (/)T,

1 ~ 8 Ii ~,.<..,I I:: ~\ -:>t: 0

It\'
~ ,~,"?57f~ (IT~I# -tej. "~~-tci:) +0)1:'

C" Expresses cause and reason. It is a more polite form th~n~,j' 1" and cannot be used before phrases with imperatives, (.1:
;";, :: \ I, etc.), and polite everyday formulas such as 1";" it -It,<." ;t, I) ~'!:: "7, etc.
/I),

11£\\A, ., "111; hb, 1'"I'h,\. \. frh id:: ~\'tt\' .;:,{...t ~ ::

~fzg • l!.m ~ ftt-r 0 r "'n' i?J .t I) t T~[f.j.'-g\ 17) 0 ~~I: 1;t4it~Q»)C (~6") " ]i.'; " *\ Ita") ~;f, \ 1 ~"'?
.f)IH1£ ..:: .
*=mC-r;"1 {f A., " ;f) I) n~t -) ti 1::") I:l:*f.j.'\ '0

[~3~I~_T_""~"_~_<T_"_""_._~~-r_
.._.__ ~~ ~
G) ~ (/) -) Ii
~t
l: < ~,.<.., {± *~{
t, ::~
;h -:>T, t: \ ,",.<.., T L t: 0

@l.x..t:' -t; ~{ \' <

tJ.' T, ~ [F' L\ '0
®L"<"'li\'T, .t < ht'ni-t±"<"'TLt:o
iil
@~;t T < nT, ;h I) ~{t -) 0

@tJ < nT, T' L t:

1".z".i -t±,.<.., 0

It\ \ u -rl' N,~

[j1j] l~ "1--(%I:I? - <l "Ij-%I~ -"C " ~"C ~AEO)7f~: -----tci: l
(Negative form)
<
C" Used to express cause and reason, It often expresses cause and reason for emotions and perceptions, more so than <»: I,
and ~<l) T, In addition to words expressing mood, such as :: it 7.> and ~ rf L \ ", it is often followed by terms expressing
impossibility and polite everyday formulas such as 1";" it -It,<., and ;t, I) lj<!:: "7 ' It cannot be followed by statements of hope,
intention or inducement on the part of the speaker,
If.{.p.{.. 'J "", ;,;'11 _ o',(,td 0',(,0'< If.(.\'.(. IJ rJli \' :J;}; t,1:;:

~fzg"l!.m~~-ro r~;7'i?"~Q)TJJ: I) t, .f,~~1t~~1tQ)~I~H!m~-g7::: tn<y\lo i~I:I;j:r:::

. ~ t "I:,b Ii .s. o' (T);I}J;lfL
::'1:;:

£ ~ " ~ (j L \ IJ 1".j.'t", ~#t; ~~-r-g¥Q)tH'I:, :f;;Y~~*JR.~r-r","1 {fA., " .f, I) n<t -) J 1".j.'
t'Q).f,
UJ_;lf'(' ( b L-" ~ It? \':; _ J..i,b .l:,.{. J;\' T It/:;, .i:"<"::
\' ~ "'?*"..[n<*~:::t n<y\ '. ~:ilfQ):$"'1l " ~f,;] r*-r)C~iI'E!+"Q)~ ~ n'ltQ»)CI;U!U'..'\ '0
 1:" ~ "
1t~
4 ~ (/) 7 Ii ~~,;" (/)T, +t171)/l"I: i Lt:o (,\\\)
!1~·L ----- t,lI)

5 11>"? < I) j:.)~i5"';"

--c----- , ~ L. ';' "? t: -r' -t T ~ ~) 0 (

..,.'I)'t,
6 z o: t"7 <"Ii 1~'\:Q';"
----- , J: -< r:>,;' I) i -I± Ivo (.;, < :Y -o )

[nft,L-~?21 e t» b z» (.,\(.,\ ,~?~ .:t61v",(, <t.:~(.,\o

11'1"
I-t Iv IIi 1".1.'
, t 7 (a j:.) "'C , \';' G b j:.) "'C \ \ T -t ';' G ), .!f- < h J: 7 J 0

li1"ll7lvoJ
t .'" t,'(' (f)

2 it:' *M,;" (a ~6(J)T b ~"?1"), j:.)*~ tx:..7,..i-l±Iv';'o

3 (a j:.) < kl t: (/)T
•
b j:.) < kl 1"), -t.7,.. i -I± Iv T L t: 0

"'''(''~d "',(,~.ti '

4 L-f' ,; , I: L 1" J: 0 7 6 ~ < 1", (a 5fMi L 1".1.',\J: b 5fMi T ~ 1".1.'
\ \ J: ) 0

{t..(..-\:t\. !1H
5 :7t;~(/) ~i5",;" J: < (a r:>,;'G1"J.'\\T b r:>';'G1"J.' < 1"), :: i I) i Lt:o
"1
6 ~ (a' \ "'C';" L \ \';' G
it ,(., l"., ~,~, \' \\ : .<..l"i
7 :7t;~(/) %1: Ii (a fflt1"J.' < 1" b fflt1"J.',;'"?t:';'G), ~~Ii ';,1"J.'G--f'
"
.ff~i-tJ:o
-r ; \'-t
b }' L 1*.7,..i L J: -)) 0

,
q "L-~lv1)<'
.h.t,
(a
l
it"? 1" \\1"
\'
i
b it"? 1" \\6';'G),.!f-<
vt ~
[l""

'* 1" 0

10 1t 1) <' r:>,;' G 1".1.'

< 1", (a ff Itt -I± Iv T L t: b AI: fif1 ~ i -t) 0

j.;L
1 1 +t -7 ~ Iv 1) " ~ ;{ T < kl t: (/)T, (a h ';' I) i L t:
 t,t, .'
CDXI;t := ~ ;t )/' :'5 £Itl: 1t ~ i L t::.o
,H,
@ ~ ij I: :'5 \ \,}, f tJ -t .nt::. 0) T, t I) I: %11) i -t 0

@ ~ L t::. , 8 '* C
I:
tt
}j:_ t:_. t; i}' ~ ij I: t;i}';tl: *60
<

~~~. [j}j]~ +(<:

(.. Expresses the purpose of movement. Before I:, a word expressing intentional action or behavior comes, and after I:, a limited
number of verbs of motion, such as \ ,~ i 1", ~ i 1", 1)';(_ I) i 1" or t t:' I) i 1", Used for everyday, routine expressions of intent.
I' t'i t(T~ M,n 1"t I' L T~t'1 ~ h~h :t It i.t: I' ~ ,ht
~fJJ(1)§ajf:llt-to rl:J(1)1ltrI:ll;f;;0ajfJJ-i'f"f,:llti·"t~, f~U:IHfT~ i-t· :jfU:-t· I~I) i-t, t t'
",!" I' t';t', L ( I:~tdr~ J!'o!. t.<T'~ \' If .hI' '-)Jj'

I) i -t J -I",a", PitG;fLt~~fJJfJJ~iiW* ~ 0 8 'ltaj-l",di\ ,§ aj f"t -) ~.-t;-1:1~h;fL ~ 0

CDlt'? := £ L ~ 0) t::. d1') I:, \ I ;; \ I ;; LT

.....;:A.. ~ I 'i
@7.::...,)0) >fM~O) t::. d1') I: , B
"
*- I:
11A.
I) rP ~ -/;' < L i -t 0
.,
l r ~li
@t±-&I;t t::. d1') , 7,) I) iJ '" iT ~ i L t::. 0

f)'A. l 11A.

@:=.nl;t ~~*f .n£LrP~-t6 C L .lIt.,

t: dI) 0) *- 1',-t 0

~~O) ·[j}j]I5¥~% +tc@')U<:)

(.. Expresses the purpose of an action, It is attached to words expressing intentional actions, and the subject is the same before
and after the to"'" (I:),
: i \' t (T ~ J..i.,h \. L r ~: i \' Mt: : z If -t!,(_:: L f.:' s; f~'

~t~(1) § aj f:llt-t 0 ;f;;0aj~T~ f :llt-t"t~I: ~ < 0 r t~n (I:) J (1)1ltrf~<1).i.~ll~ to

• 1"-
J: < r:;.':=;t6J:~1:,
---
1lfj0) /1 ~ I: -t h I) i L J: 7 0
f)'-If Ill' j.;j.; 10
]i.-/; « A6J: ~ I:, i t"f *~< rtfllt t::. o
[I ~'"") :; 11\' \.;(_ "f
@t1J~0) B, ~;fXI: ;t:-; < .nfJ.' \ I J: ~ I:, ~< ~f t:Jj i L t::.o
•
@Iti}'f L fJ.'\ IJ: ~ I:, ~ f ~ltTfJ.o
l: L.t It I ' It I '

~ [j1j] 15¥~% / td.l, \ff~ + d:? (<:

(.. Used to express one's wish that something should occur, It is added to verbs that do not include the intention of the speaker
(non-volitional verbs, verbs expressing possibility (CD), and verbs for which the subject is the third person (@»,
t',
~ I: -I"J.' -:>
'! ,(.1:..t..Lt 1 l,,::
:J!IlM' ~
Til L v \ t \' -)
t', L
~ 1:\·
*1"
Mh
0
h L\~
~;1;~(1);t:;0 f ~i
"L .;.(
-I"J.' \
L t; I' L t:'i
. OJ Il~(1);'t,°.t(1)fJJ~5J
\~J;~5J (Jl!i;;t:,'tfJJ~5J (Qj) .
L .1'C'l-'t \' J. r':' l

~A~n{.i.~ I: fJ.' ~ ,ell)

fJJ~5J t., z') I: ~ < 0
 . ' , :: ..• ' -I , .•• :. ~ .•• ,

'i.' :z If 1,1; jl'~ .'

!:tt/vL,19>?11 ( ) (J) tj:I(J) ~~~ lE~('\ M': ~T, .(,\T <tCc~(,\o
t i ~.L i \. It,(..;:..,
1 ;f; L t.. J;jtff- A 7J-( "/ I) - 0) I: 11' ~ i -t 0 (J~Afr.!-t~)
ot l' 'I: I; I.<!: ~ j.

2 SO) AI;J: ~8 :0) ~I: ,\/,f I: *i-ttlo CJH)

t::.<I0I:, n<"(_'li'-"Jl \Ii-to C~<~)
{til (J) .'0;

-----
J: 71:, ~f ~;"'i Lt::.o C-f7]{6)
.'.(_ I:
5 -if -7 I ;f; S, .h t::. L 1;J: j:? ( Lt t::. ~:f: f -t (' .h -t ;ft. ~ 0 : i -"Jt: -1".1.' ;f; 0J
1''1:1;
l- L- Ill' < 1;J: J: 7 I:, ~ 8 ;ft.,.(_,L r1> 7 Ll \ I ~ J: oj Ch-t;ft.~)

!:tt/vL,19>?21 (,\~'ilt- (,\(,\ :t(J)"/i ;t01t-""C <t.:~(,\o

t un;{ ~ ~ ;t:! \,

SLt::. 3EF!f1: J;jt,!V\I: *l <t:.'-:5\\o ,!v\iT' ( ) :ff"5i-to

L"" L.(_ "

1{ Fa' f LI: 11'"5 i i- 0

b -". \'> -". c -".\'>O)

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a t::..Y) I: b t::. <100) c t::. <101:0)
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b rJlI: -@'7 t::..Y) I: c MI:-@'7 J: 71:

5 J: < ), &')7]<tl f 7]'lti-to
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a JLz~ t::.1i) I: b JLt~.t 71:

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a Jt -I"J.' \ I t::.1i) I: b Jt~ J: 7 I: c JLz -I"J.'\ I J: 7 I:

7 ;f;;ft.? -:5-"J"5 -if -7 -:5"(_'1;J: t:';ft.I: ( . )
1> ;$,

a %\ II: b%7J:.71:
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.:tA.-tc(_\1 ( ) ,;: fiiJ1i: An*g-tJ)o 1 ·2·3 . 4tJ)6 ~\~'t~ ~\~\ :to)

[ft

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, '1 .,tt ~t
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Bi<f), A,- ( ) 0 J:1.i'-?t::oJ
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1 ~~-? T t \\\\T-t1.i' 2 ~~t?1",j.'< T t \\\\T-t1.i'
11~ Ig
3 ~~ -? T (i \\lti-tt£1.i' 4 It nil'
~~t? 1"J.' 1"J.'I) i -tt £1.i'

m 11J-)U'£~.l:<<7)
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2 Tli 3 Tt 4 i: t

rn <f)n? <f)<7) -f-li :£1"J.'

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B I t:'\ \ L:: .J: -) ';:0 t -) .z- -) T-t J: oj .

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1'L .!f-< ~fji~-'C-)T-ro /{-T''/1) 81:1;1 J...f.I{ };};-t{\1 T'/~-~'"
\, l:fJ'
11" < 1) T, T'/ ~- ~ 1;1 tT t ::.z,. i -r 0 ~ \ I

OJ 1 I1L-'C-7Tt 211L-'C-7t:'t
3 11 L < T t 4 Ii L IttLI!'
m 1
0'
j{ \ I t. \ I 1) I: 2 .'
j{ \ I t: \ 11) T

3 .'
~ \ I t: \ I 1) 1;1 4 .' \ It: \ IV')f.I{
j{

[]] 1 ;h ~ f.I' t" -7f.I' 2 ;h -:> I: f.I' t" -7f.I'

'~,n: t.LI:

3 fPJf.I{ ;h ~ f.I' " 4 fPJf.I{ ;h -:> t: f.I'

m
j;j; j;j;

1 y< -fJ.' -:> t: J: -7T-9' 2 Y< L t: J: -7T-r

j;j; j;j;

3 ~f.I'-:> t::.-'C -7T-r 4 Y f.I' -:> t: J: -) T-r

 Ii",

CDIf'£ :"~lHt /] [/-1: Li -t 0

1.1 ~ ",J: -j 1.1

@"J -5"0) tL£ L rjJ -50) 81i ~Bi 8 I: L"i -I± £i')'o
®:O) 7-=t-, J;\\L-f-5T-tilo :tLl: Li-to
~ .t 1
04'8i')'G t:lf':f -\"d66 :1::1: Li-to
I'J.. • ..,~.-r <I:: t.I';(

®l:.,*h.li 00 A... Ii ~~G-1"J.'\\ :1::1: t r t z,

~~ +';:lJ*g-

C"" Expresses a decision in some matter, based on the speaker's personal volition, It implies a positive attitude,
h L(" :. t.:.(.T~ I' L , "~h ~...,~d1~ f=I' ,. j,~h

.~0.~~~.~T. ~6:t~*~6:tf.~.aa~~a~~.~.

~(-:> I: t:,
CD~ .J: -1"01.'
G I .:;
- T l' - u , 3 }1 158 I: -1"..:I) i L t: 0

1'.1: !;t
@-f-L..o) ;{;ilfTli r~L'G\\JI: fil) i Lt:o
;t~ti. r-»: t,
®MilfTl: ~\ \ t'jt,.i'){ ~"') : 1::I: fJ-: I) i L t:o
l \'> ~l i i, \ 'If....., \,
011-& Ii *}1, 7;(1)/]1: 11"< :1::1: -1",J..'6t;.'7-;-50
~, 'Il",

®*Jf, It'"): £-t 6 : 1::I: -1",J..'I) i L t: 0

hI'> L h"
@m -C W~ -@-I i L -1",J..'\ \ : 1::I:, -1",J..'I) i L t: 0

~ ~ +,;:tJ:t)*g-
t L J: It\ \

[jj] t¥~}f~ / tJ: l, \ 7f~ + <: c: ,;: tJ:t)

It\'

* g-
C"" Expresses a decision in some matter, regardless of the speaker's personal volition, The form is also used when a decision is in
fact based on the volition of the speaker, but the speaker does not want to state this directly (@),
~J L,.. : L'<"T~ I' L ~'..t.11" ~ Ai,h L: .;:.(. I' L ~
~~0M~~-I'J.'.~I:j;lJ1~-I',s:<, ~6:ti.l{*i6:t~.~. §-B-0.~T*~t~:tTt, ~.n~
~..tl"lL fi I' '")~,

ilfjiIDl:tB~i"I:-g7 t~l:t1Y:.7 C®).

 'i.' :z 1.1' t, t: .'g .'
)(J) *(J) ~~~ IE~('\ ~,;: ~-C .(,\"t <t2~('\0
I/) tQ) : i I; "
~k.z,..~tJli L i l' 0 (*J:~)
'1'1"
2 tlt:'/Vl;{ !£-~\tJ) .. r. :n~
Aft ~
3 f.fu -rJ.' tJ)1", t": A".t L iLl: 0 (tl:: 7]' It 6 )
*,~t: Q)

4 1*tJ) 1:601:, t?~ltli ;hi I) Li L/:o (itt;)

1).\ 'r l i 'I)'~ ''I)' A.
5 / \-j- 1 -tJ) %~Ii -r,J..I) i L 1: 0 (A8C~ti")
1)'\' ~- . i:,\ ,t 0$; 'I)' .ti t':
6 -'J~"tJ) ~tlli -r,J.") 1 Lt:o (:J1~~(7) .:kB"i8)
1)/"? 1)'\ -L v-

7 4 J31;' G : tJ) ~:f±1"

InA,~19>?21 e t» b z» (..\(..\ ,~?~ .:t61v1? <t2~(..\0

[vA ~ -7 /'1"]
1',(,\ 'A.. ,,< ~,,~
J6~ r~t,*" t"t;GI: La -r,J.") 11'1;' b Li1'I;')oJ
~~,t~. tl'
~ ~ <
~.J:7
r L s-,
1)'\,~'
.h I: LI i
:J..
,~
1:
t'
( 2'
~:'\';~i
a f,J.· I) i:-t
t: ":1:1)'
b L i 1') 0 J
2 ~8 %tll;{ ;h-:,f:o +n»: ~-&Ii lBo/~/vI: (a f,J.'-:>/: b L I:) 0

-; 1 z i l :. I('-t
3 tl-'JI;{ ;h6tJ)-e, ~8Ii· {±.~ {*t; : tl: (a f,J.·') iLl: b L iLl:)
*
0

:H'l I·;t
4 ::t;f. ~ Iv I;{ .h I: L ~ I: L J: -) I: ~\ L -r < n6 .; t I: (a -r,J.'I) iLl:
b L i L t:) 0

~'1)' lli
6 : -) .;_/vtJ) 0/ I: -If 'j tJ -~I;{ 1"~ 6 : t I: (a f,J.' I) i L t: b L i L}:) 0

ti t,'('(dV'
7 It/vrt?X~/V, ;hLt:li If<tJ) ~~8t:',LJ
I; I; 11\'
r.h 1;'
.';l

X -:> t: 0 ;h L t.I i ~< ~ -:> -r < 6 : t I: (a f,J.·6 .J: b l' 6 .J: ) 0 J

1,11'"") 1.t. I'

S Ar4J3I;'G ~<GmrA". 11'< /{Ali f,J.'<-r,J.'6 :tl: Ca i ~.:

-r,J.·I)iLt:

b L i L t:) oj
t, h~
r L ~,
j\'1:

8
~t,
: n 7)' G Ii 4if 8 :I} < : t I: Ca il)
-r,J.'.iS-)
q X rt?tt;~I;{ ~\.iS~\.is ;h6tlo t"nl;{ ~\~\?J
Ii -r,J.' r.h t: L, .; n 1: (a -r,J.'6 b l' 6 ) J 0

-tt"<"~\' ~.t -i ~
10 7'c~r~f.,.~lvl;l:, ~81i *-r ~\i-t!.-/VtloJ
<
roo 7)' G
(I: fl';;"

+f '7 t?q ~£ I;{ *- 6 : t I: (a fJ.' -j -r

"
11' ~ i L t:oJ
 t,
~""T h. T < t:'~\ '0
@:<7) )j'-Ld.:t };tl7,\',£o I-L-t h. fJ_' \ , ?
It\ '

~ [j}j)TjB +01;.*9
(,... Used when trying something out to see if it is good or appropriate, or when expressing an inclination to know about the
nature of something. It is also used when making a mild recommendation to another person (@ ®), It is added to verbs that
express intentional behavior.

"
CDI:t"")f n'Ii',.{.,I: A.nT 1-J~i-to
-t z n •
@ :" h. f 9~I: te l T 1-J~ i l J: -) 0

IJ.t : i 11'il -;,1:.

®*ff<7) Mil.:t -lT71: 1i;t T 1-J\'t:,£o

;,
@i t"l.:t -7:<7)
i i ~'ltT 1-J\'T < t:'~\ '0
It,'
~[j}j)TjB +<!B~*9
(,... Added to verbs to suggest that an action is being taken to avoid possible future trouble, or pre-emptively, As in ®, it is also
used to indicate that the action of the verb should continue, It is added to verbs that express intentional behavior,
1>1:: :t t~· 1'.(1: Jt~" tl;f:\' 111'
1~TIE I:, -Ij_'\ \ J: -) I:, i t: Ii S ~ : t I:-jl;t -r1oJ'6'f -t ~ : t f *:-t 0 G)q) J: -) I: of V') i i V');jj{~ HIl\
-t.( \'.J.. -ae- \' LT'!:,p 1.';" t:"i l
Mt-t),,) t\ \ -);f;"*I: t~ -) ~i0t!19~T~f*:-tfJJf;iJI:--:> <
0 0

t:
CDL--;f--I-I.:t slt: telT li\'i-to
~ .t 'i », 11,(, .t
@~ B ~
Ut
-:> t:
fJ,.·
*- l.:t
i:t
t -) ~?1:"{" (" l i "? t: 0

®S<7) A_<7) ;gi¥rf h-tnT li\'ilt:o

L~ ,;,(

@s, 8\' nRn{ .J::"nT li\'i-t.J:o

It\ '

~ [j}j)TjB
.(,... Expresses rapid or early completion of an action or behavior «j) (2)), as well as regret at failing to do something or making an
error that cannot easily be undone (@®),
~\' ::: [l-'\"Il"\'" 'O'''('''ld ;,t:t,t:" ~·"<"tl.{. J.,~"
:Rl.{~;f -r--!j!-kt.3tj-t~: t (CIX1)) "\,, {~~I) T'5-nU?",j.': t (<))G)) f*:-to
 f.l'",,' :!:: 11' I: n ~'I:t, .".

t r. .~'-r <t.:~~'o
,I

)(J) J:j:l(J) ~~~ :iEG~' ~t;:

1 h \ IL\ I ry -1 /' T-t .J: 0 J,. i -tL'(, 1;, 0 (
'" ;t;)
v\.
< -----

2 h~ '<' < ~ 1v1;{ *~O)T.

3 A 11;'~"I;t z; T-t1;'oJ
ii..
B I"":) < «v: J:I:
(It t
4 S. 111;'0) AO) 1;'~ ~ Li -J t: 0 ( =M' -:>T < ~)
L i \I i L t: 0

Inlv(';~?21 ~'"5tcl:iv ~,~, =b(J)~ .:t6~-r <t.:~~'o

,,'J,

~~I;t
~.,
a 1~-:>T
t 7 -tf Iv.;: (
J,. i L t: b 1~-:>T
)
~
0

.. "

h ~ i L t:
..,,,,
c 1~-:>T L i \ I i L t:
2 :tt.. hJ,.-\"lfO) (1'7 L r-r , 1?.J:-:>t '(
a 1;'.;: -:>T H. T b 1;'.;: -:>T h\ 'T c 1;'.;: -:>T L i -:>T
3 .7(:0) (;t ~ J,.(;t if:' 1'l\ I i -to ( ) < f:'~ \ '0
~ ~ ~
a tbLT J,.T b tbLT h\IT c tbLT Li-:>T
l ".;:" .1
4 A I: 0) ~JTrll'l. i f:.' ~?tt;? 1;'t:-:)'ltT t \ 1\ I? J
i pi

B IS. 1?.J: -:>t M= -:>T 0 ~ ( ) 17'GoJ

. .1 .1
b ~?tlv T h < c ~?tlv T Li 7
>:' £ t z ,,'\. ~. t "," l
5 AIJ.J*~lv1;{ \Ii-l±lvtlo sLt:O) ~~O) ~M~ 9;o-:>T p6TL.J:71;'oJ
B!t:'\IL:J: 7.;:T-to ~0)7. ;(-JI"T ( )oJ
a tt. Iv G < L T J,. i L t: b tt.1v G < L T ;h ~ i L t:
c tt.1v G < L T Li\liLt:
J.t,
6 A 17 - Ivo lt1;{ tJ 1;' G 1';.' < C,. )oJ
'.!i
(It

B IS. SO) AI: (12) )oJ

='

CDa
@a
.r~'\ 'TT
1';.' -? J,. i L t:
J,.i LJ: 7
b1'i-:>T
•
b r;n\ 'T
h ~ i L t:
;h~iLJ:7
c 1';.'

c Fll'l\'T
~
-:>T L i \ 'i
Li\liLJ:7
L t:
 "t it 111",.1'

CD~li +t "7 -:: ,\.,!: :it ~ if, 1 t' i L f:: 0

It .(_It, '
@7tj:.I: f7 ';; 7' ~ -:: L if, 1f i L f:: 0

t Ii" t, l'
®+t';;f7-~I: 1i<(J)? :ttM~l~ ~'~'1"----'-
if,lt'~,L
~~~ +(t1)~f*9' ~U(t1)~1'*9
ttl'

IIlT% +(t1)~'f*9' ~ U(t1)~f*9

C.-. The subject is the speaker or somebody emotionally close to the speaker. The person affected by ("receiving") the thing or
gesture is a person other than the speaker. When the person affected by ("receiving") the thing or gesture is of higher status
but outside the family (teacher, company president, customer, etc.), ~ L ;r., If ;t 1" is used.
l.,..:' hll" LJ...IJ-r~ hLI" t,I}' vI:: t,d) :;\. ; VI:: hLI"I'I}'I' VI:: 1},-t'(,'I}'I' il)ix VI::
.i.i:Ht~:{f, i t: 1;1,-:';lIBtll:~t:{fI:i!i\ -i: ~ey-\'>1t~"f 1CIt ~ AIHt:{fy).:9~O)Ao *~y).:9~O) El.J:.O)A
it J...-t!\ • L <' f,J 'i ! I'{ j, t~ '?I}'

(7\:;~, H,*, ~~a') I:.};t ~ 1::: ~ III ~ L ;})Ifi -tJ "f1~'7o

\';1 t: tlt\·
CDJii:8 -:: £Ii .hf: Li: "Ef.!f~t~ < ni L f::o
-t±,{..~l' ,'I.i.: 11.(_
@7tj:.~{ ~ I:
~ t, hit
*-~ Ii' L,
< t:_." -:: ~
I; L
'i L t:: 0

®:R t:.' 1; ~{ 18 (J) ~PJT~ ~;;{_ 1" < ni L f::o

:,il;I',{..
"
@+t"7 -:: £Ii ~'-:> L .t I: ~fI3t"" n -:> 1" < n f:: 0

~~~ +<n*9' <tc~I,\*9 IIIT %

..... It\'

*
+ < n 9 . < tc ~ I,\ 9 *
C.-. The subject is somebody other than the speaker. The person affected by ("receiving") the thing or gesture is the speaker. or
somebody emotionally close to tile speaker. When it is a matter of receiving something from someone of higher status who is
outside the family. < t:~\ 'i 1" is used.
lot:' hl<'l'n'" fJ'1:: t.~ :.j\l oj ut: hL\'" L.{.'}-r~ hLf' t,n' Ut:. n"f{,'I}'I' nit Ut:
~"f 1CIt ~ A IHt:;f , i t: 1;1,~l!'.l¥-]I:~t:;f I:i!i\ 'Ao *~}X9~0)
.i.?a-IHt:{f}X9~0) Ao 4!8,(,>-11' El.J:.O)A
; ~I}'

1.1' ~ 1Clt ~ 1::: ~ III < t::' ~ I' i -t J ~1~ -) 0

\':1 t, t ttl'

CDJi83 -:: £I:/~' ~ Ef.!f~t~ t ~~'i Lt::o

"IH 1t.(_It" 11'(_
@~Ii 7tj:.I:/~'~ *-~ . [/11l''(''\
~ \ f:: t:_.""'!! i L t:: 0

®+t"7 -:: £1: ~\ -:> L .t I: ~fI3t"" 1t -:> -r t ~-:> I:: 0

It"
~ ~ ~ +-t 61,\*9' 1,\t: t.: 2' *9 IIIT % + -t ,_;I,\ * 9 . I,\ tc tc 2' * 9

(.-. The subject-the person affected by ("receiving") the thing or gesture-is the speaker or somebody emotionally close to the
speaker. When it is a matter of receiving something from someone of higher status who is outside the family. \ ,t: t: ~ i 1" is used.
Lito:: ttl) :;1' i ut: hL(' LJ...IJl'~ hl(' t,1}' 'o e 1}'.f'{I'I}'\' I'.l-Lt ut: i
.i.?a- (4eyi T: 1;111'~ "f 1CIt ~ A) 1;1~:{f,
~
~ 1::: ~ IlIl ,t: t.:'~ i -t J f1~ -j
.. 0
i t: li,-:.;lIl¥-]I : ~t:{f I: i!i \ 'Ao *~»).:9~0) El.J:.0) A 1.1' ~ 1CIt
 II' : t Ii' t, f: ~,!:~
< t.:~~
"',f

L. -r- .~
I}'

I nit, L.,19>? 1! ( ) 0) t:j:IO) ~~1i: IE L.~' ~,;: \T \0

'JJ1l£ ti~li x:
f,liHJiX: **A7J1'/"j-f if>lff:"("-9o (Jt1±6)
It,cl.i \,,1"
2 7't1!, wlE ~ Iv-/;{ / '-j- '( -I:: <niLl::.o (LJ:7l::.\1-96)
It,clt" ;;l
3 7't~!i ,I-:>t (,In,'I:: <t:':'5\li-9o (~J,:;t6)
z ~ --'-c-L '-'-'l-:-,c- 1111 I; <
4 -5..t:'-I;I:: t G -> t: ~~f ~I:: 1!')iLt:o(t6)
~ I t: t:' ! t i -t± Iv -/;'0 U,cj:.)-t)

[nlt,L.,I9>?2! ~\'5';f1v ~\~\ 'to)1i: ;t61v~ <t.:~~\o

1 ht:L-/;< -/;'1fT n( ,\6
"
z s , wlE~L-I;{ \"~
C )0
'!: ~ ~
a*-(
~ J: i
if>If i L t: b *-( < niL t: c *-( t G \ \ i L t:
2 ~8!i C ), lllvt-)I:: if>')-/;{t-)o
T~" T~" T~"
a ~1z:. -> -c ~1z:. ->
b ( if>If ( c ~1z:. -> ( < n(
It ,cit" J.
3 ~ (7)-) -/;', \ t: ;;t f 7't~ I:: Jt (. ) 0

a ~ L .f) If' i L t: b < t:' ~ , \i L t:

T,c",c
4 VA r7/T J6~-/;'G' C~ ) 7Jv/5"'-f, /3/~1v1:: C
~
CD a .f) Iff: b < nt: c t G -> t:
@ a .f) If i L t: b < niL t:
5 rL..r=(7) -t-5'-, -+t7:'51v1:: «J; ) Iv ("-9oJ
\,,1 " ~<'
wIEr"" ;;t, -+t 7 ~ Iv -/;{ -it -> t: Iv T L J: ", -/;' J 0

rL..r;;t;;t, -+t7:'51v-/;{ C@ )IvT-9oJ

CD a .f) Iff: b < nt: c t G -> t:
~<
c -it -> ( t G -> t:
)(7)T, j?n\ll:: j?-/;'Lf
CD a fi: -> .' ( .f) Iff: b .'
fi: -> ( <;ft t:
@ a .f) If i L t: b <;ft i L t: c t G \ 'i L t:
 24'_ ? It J.
~:!1t 1 Passive 1
~.t. i tt£-t:b',

CD~ BIi 1t:i.I:: 11&0 ~ ;fLt L t: 0

;f,~

@$L -+j- "/ fJ - (}) tL£Lr)l-)n' .h6n'~, \I"")t

~,Vi U z J. Ii ,
@3z-(}) AI:: :it f Mn'tLi L t:o
? It J. !'I,~
-4~~0);Jf~ 24-"'->1'
(~ With the speaker or somebody emotionally close to the speaker as subject, this passive verb form expresses the state of being
subject to tbe actions or behavior of anotber person. When tbe subject is tJ f= L, tbis is usually omitted.
'f, b· L.{. I) T~ h L'I'" .i)I)' r/t. Lit:: vt' ::., I' . ,il'!d -) liJ,h to) ~ .
~::ff·iU:: 1;J:,-:.;l!B9I:~:t'I::ili\
LliIJl"(
'A. ~ .i.~I: L l, IH'(1)A.(1)ff~(1)J3"
• 0-
~ ~It ~ ::
•
z ~*i" 0 .i:~1]<r h
t:: LJ (1)z ~ I;J:, .l,-,) -j ~~i" ~o

-i It J.
:W:~ 2 Passive 2
'U,L ~
CD (tJ t: L Ii) ~-'-(}) .},
i tL i L t: 0

~t;t t:
@~ I:: 7-+ f ~"'~tLT L i \\i L t:o
;::"J,. f • -t T ~ tL T,

(~ Used when your person or belongings are affected by tbe action or behavior of another person (<D @), It is also used to
express 'being affected by tbe behavior of a person, not necessarily directly, or by an event (@ 0), In both cases, the form is
usually used when annoyance is felt. The subject (tbe speaker or somebody emotionally close to the speaker) is the person
affected by tbe nuisance. When the behavior or action is not annoying, but something to be grateful for, ~ (' < ft ~ or ~ (' t
I\d are used .
., s; Ii· '.~.'t;, .j;:' t t,.q) 116' PI:: :i \' ;(\'~{;" ? ~J,b ::., I' ~t(-tt.,.,
1#d)~$-\"'~t;~1]{~(1)A.(1)~f~(1)J3W~~lt 6:: t ~*i" CCDCV)o i t::, ({f~ Hl~.~lt ~ hltT
.. :.... . ",r :", T" ~::I:: .;(\l~d' .; . S,J,b ~t. nl'#?( 1),,(. If ~\' ..,1).
1j_'\ \1]<)A(1)~t~-\"'t:I:l*"(1)~3'H~lt
V.,. ::: ~\·"t>( :i!i ·VI: . h L('
~ ::
L'(' II T!
t ~ftti" C®®)
b L.. t)~. Vt
0 t't;
nl'h(
~ t .i:1:it~t: z ~ t O~,*I:f.~ -j 0

.i:~(;j;~~
It 1>\'.
a:-~..., t::A.T, ~:t' i I:: 1;J:,":':JlB9I:~~I:ilt\
.,6'
\A.. it~-tJ.·:: z T(;,t-tJ.' <, if:, I) 1]<t::\ ':: t (1)
~,*(H""lUt6 ·~lt~-jJ~1~-jo

[~~----~~------~----------------------~~--------------------------------~
31 ,,_,(0) n*-r :W:~ 3 ,.~.""?
? It J.
Passive 3
I?\'.tl..t Ui.,

CD*if-, _J(}) :t I) :/' to ';I ? n{ r#']n'tL i -t 0

11A-
@:(}) *Ii
~1A-
@:(}) it Ii 1800if-1: -Q'n'tLt:-T -) r-r,
(~ A passive sentence with an object or event as the topic. This Conn is used only with facts, without reference to the emotions
of tbe speaker.
tif)'. L,,:- 11t J,. .i:'<" h L\"' .o'.<..t.d .t.: c-s . . ~ ~'1rl·
~1fr.W.i.~l: -t... ~ ~-!tXo ~~:t'(1)~11T(;J:-tJ.' <, *~t:lt ~i2Ii" ~ ~\ 11j 0
 "

:,u.; ,;:~!; L :'t

1 ~i'!li ~H~:I: {±* f, f: < ~ Iv i L t:o (t:0) t;)
t,t,

2 ht: L Ii J: < XI: i -to (L -Q'~)

1111 -----

3 iVl: ilvn{f -tflv,): i Lt:o (-tT~)

zt f.· ;t;t

4 1i..t:_''GI: -tilfTf l, n,1J,'Ln'-:Jt:o (it,7){;;t~)

11,' ----~--:-t <
5 j:),),;;I: A-:Jl \\6 t~,1i..t:_''GI: r. :::il)iLt:o(*~)
6 ~ \ \ :::'I: T Iv f

Inlv~I9>'521 {",51th, L\L\ :t~1i ;tf)h,C' <t':~L\o

l~
~ (J) -) I}) ~ Ii, ( ) 1"J,'
7)' h T, tJ. G h i -l±IvT Lt: 0

a +t"t I;{ b +t"t I~

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l-i(1t ~tit:
b ' tf, I: c tf, f
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a J:IvT b J:lfhl' c J:""l

zt '"{"';' t:
4 1i..t:_' 'GI: -'f-*t\ f ( ), tBLiLt:o

,;,~ ~t L~LL
5 ~(J) AI: j:)tJ.I;{\\Ll, h-1v1J,'1}) ~~f ( )0
at'? l < h i L t: b . z '? l t G\ \ I L t: c t Gh i L t:
it"~ .' .';._ t,.' ~t £;(
6 ~@J~T, -l±n{ ~\ \ AI: ilfT(J) -l±~ I: ( ),::: i I) i L t.,
a -th-:Jl b -th'?l tG-:Jl
7 1-£"1\\\\ A7J-7t:_'tloJ
t t t,.<..[li U
-+T7 I~ I) n{t -) 1i..t:_''GI;{
0 ~j:_81: ( ) (J)oJ
~< ~(
a, 1!-:J l < ht: b 1!Ght:'
 TA..~'; ~'i "[A.."A.. 1i~') j;1i

CDr.5-&r~8. r.5~ ~ -A. -\,",Q)~-ttt:lo «': < -/;{ t9\ 'O)T·t!oJ

;,,, Hit
@JLU(~I::
,..,"-.l\'r]) -t-5 L~ ~-tti Lt:oJ
@It£l;i 3t~ LI1J-5I:: <h-tLf-tti-fo
@::r]) /- r. '::J to-~-ttT < fLi-tt£-/;'o
t,t,
® -5-t ~ -")\ I"C X ~ t? :: ~ -tt T L i \ I i L t: 0

l'tH
@~~ fJ_·-/;'-ttTI;i \lltfJ_'\llo
L:<'~ 6'1,\
~~1~0)% 26""-::/
C'" Used to mean somebody to behave in a certain way «j) @). to give permission or a favor (G) ®) and to evoke an emotion (@
@). The particle for expressing the agent of the action or behavior is l' as a rule when the verb is intransitive «j) @ @ @).
and I: when the verb is transitive (0).
ur :i ~JHt\' . :i ,;

«co».
I' J.il:'{' .,',(..I:J1 "';[J"")

tH'O)AI:<fJ61T~f~*'J-t6 <fJ61T~f~~-t6 (®@. <fJ6~itf~ge-t6 (®@):: t

Hh :i VI:: lI~h l.:~ L I' .[t.(.t<t~ t; ~i L t'; L
1;1:1,,' [illp f;

f*:"j- 1T~ f-t 6A f-*:-tllfJf;iJti.

0 ,*J!'JBt7I: ~fiJf;iJO)~-@-ti if J CeD®@@. 1~fiJ~6J0)~-@-ti il:J
~ e-
f1~"7 @)o

T,.(,pA.. ~J:i
CDr.5~ r ~ 8. I It" / \' l' r ~ -\'"'Q) ~ -tt G fL i L t: J 0

~tit ;,,,
@~ rJLI:: "-.-\,",O) -t -5 L ~ ~-tt~fLi Lt:oJ
@It£I::I;i l < U -y < I) ~ -tt ~ fL i -f 0

;1'i.
@..:f-t··t-/;{ t?-t< iT' Y~-YT ::fi< T. L£I;f\'~-tt~fLi Lt:o

C'" Used to express the idea of reluctantly being forced to do something that has to be done (j) @) or when some person is the
cause of an emotion (@ ®). The subject is the speaker or somebody emotionally close to the speaker. In cases where it is not
a matter of compulsory, but hoped-for. behavior, ~ ~ -ti: '( < tt. ~ or ~ ~ -ti: <: t i, -)is used.
VI:: !Ii-ttl' :i I' Ut li''(''I''(' ~'A.r,i ,.,
;Y, 6 AI:~iIi'J ~ it. -r U,t~"..' < ;y, 6fT~ f -t 6 «ixz». <fJ6A>?<,*I?Sl-r--t "7\ ' "7~,t1l,;<;@ ~ 6 (®®)
J,i,,.. L.,::: '·,L.... L,(..IIT~ hLI" i;"t1' vt: ~.:itt\' :'jl' OH" :;1' If 1.1'
Tli" ..· <. ]l,(_,t':1T~O)~-@-
::t f*:-t
til ~ ~ -It -r Ul6
0 ~~tHt:t-.
j:.: i t~ ti,.:.;J!Bt7I:~*:t-I::ili\
~
. ~ ~ -It -r t i, "7J f1~"7
.. 0
'Ao 73iili'J ~ it.t~1T~
 ~... :rlt t.r: ~'f;~ .'

IttA-L-19>?11 ( ) (J) t:P(J) ~~~ lEL.('\ ~,: V"C .(.\"(" <t.:~(.\o

·U.~1i T.(.\ ,.(. : ~ It
1 J6-&I;t J6~l:t,I:: <h\\~""?0) §~'f i-to (};{Lt6)
~ 'Y.! I'

2 If < l;t *1:: if-/[, f t 'J I: ----- iLl: 0 (ft <)

I'

3 I-L~£I;t j:.JtL.2)\\ ::::tf §-:J1",-If7~£f _____ i-to (.hG 7)

1':
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l :'1::::.h I)1; L'('
5 \\\\ 1±.f yt""?lt1", f.!;jiltf
-tt'('l.;
6 7b~l;t [/;f-I-f 3""?t
L \~;li 1:1;l i '(j *'\IL \"
7 ht:Ll;t *1-&1:: 8BiBt ~*1'"

IttA-L-19>?21, (.\~ttlt- ('\l\ =t(J)~ .:t61t-""C <t.:~(.\o

+ ~t t" I:: I: < ~ £ ~ ~\ \f (
~
) i L J: -) 0

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a i:'" G n b i:'" ~1± c i:'" ~1± G n
it ~ (J z
2 ,!lR0) AI: r::::::::T 1:lf::::f -thf,j.'\\T <t:'~\\Jt )0
:,,,
i \, ~I) 'i \' ;,. i \'

a, 5i;t: ~ niL I: b 5i;t: ~ 1± iLl: c 5i;t: ~ 1± G niL I:

un • "h T'?t:
3 Lf < l;t ~ L < <h -t £ T \ \ I: 0) I:: , j:.J-BJ ~ £ I:: -t-1z. \ \ f ( ) 0

a ~ ni L I: b ~ 1±iLl: c ':51± G niL I:

.: ill! i,,! £.-tf"I' 1111£ I'
4 t~-&7t1:. l;t ( ) ~ Jt f § h 1±1" < n i 1±£ T L I: 0

a If < I: 1; I:: c If < I: 1; f

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5 -) t.a: j:.J-BJ':5£I;t, \ \""?t t.:: rp -) I:: i £7){f ) 0) T, -) n L \ \ T-t 0

J: ~
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t, t, L

a #/:n 1" b ~~/:1±1" C ~~/: ~ n 1"

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8 IJ\~~O) t ~, 7t1:.1 :: ~t~f,j.' .if ( ) , t1"t , ~ L 7)' -:JI: T-t 0

a 7)'7)'1± 1" tG-:J1" b 7)'7)'~;fL ( C 7)'\ \(

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:tA.til-\ 1 ( ) ,: 1PJ1! An*9"1J)o 1 ·2·3 . 41J)0 l,\~';t'1v l,\l,\':tJ(J)

1ft
{r --::;> .:t01v-r <t.:~C\o
t.;t.; L $,\ \ o i.,
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1 (7)1: 2 .; t I: 3 t ~I: 4 l -)
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I' I'

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Vt
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~, T'J...l..... ",l.~.
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;t'!\\A.. tQ) 1.:1':1'i i..~\'1..-
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t cr=J
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0 ;h t: L Ii r~ \ I
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n » -71"i"
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0
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.. ~ L.<.tt..,

.
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IIf.1' (J) ~J{ 1: n » -7 1;{ ;h 6 : t 1;{ ;h 1;' I) i L f:: 0 ~Ji'l;7]-I'J_'A 1;{ f;,;( -7 f
;(_ ~ \\ ,

c.:I:J (J)T-to ;hi:: L Ii -t(J) ,~i Ttl) I: {Tf.1,-I'J.'lttLif -I'J.'I) i -I±lvf.1\

TIl-I.;',!, r -/;{ ;h -"Jt::(J)1". ;h L t::. t I) I: [IJ 0 TIl-I.;',!, r I: }; <.n l'
1': J,

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~ ~ ~
OJ 1 r:n~ i Lt:: 2 r;nf.1'tLi L t:: 3 rl(Jf.1'-I±
i L t:: 4 Mf.1'-'::_
tLi L t::
rn 1 -i-7 2 .J:7 3 GL\' 4 I;):-t
rn 1 U 7; -"Jl' < tL t:: 2 U 7; -"Jl' ;h (f't::

3 U ..; -"Jl' t G -"Jt: 4 U 7; ;htLt:

2
.' <
n .J:7 I: -I'J.'
I) i L t:

3
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n : t I: L i L t. 4
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I) i L t::
Skills Development Part 2 : Ensuring correct use of grammar forms

"
 -:>0' 0'1-

r-z:: J O)fft, \15-

A CD;; -3 I), T ;{_f ,j' ~ i L t: 0

~.<- c, 0' r
@iltfifj-T :)(:f:,j' ~ I) i Lt.:o
C.,. Used to indicate where an action or event occurs «1) or something happens (@),
:1 \' 1'l; t 1;:'; 11' LJ: 1" ~ ,:'t $:i If L.t lJ~h
ft~· ff.1i<ffhn~:1,;pff(CD) . tB**1i<~: ~~pff@) "f*:-to

i' 'I: 1;
BCD~B
0';' -:>(

@#-t!:.T 1:A.,~"J:-3f fpl)iLt.:o

L"f!L ~'I"'Ji hh
(.,. Expresses method or means «1) or material used (®), .t-j~ (CD) . ## (@) "f *:-t 0

U:,{.. \' J,~h

(.,. Expresses scope within which a comparative or other statement is made, ~ 1m "f *: -t 0

1;1; "1
DCDXli ~
@,j'-tf'T'
'. ,,", • 1f,(,.I>,(, I, ""1 J,~b
(.,. Expresses cause or reason, *JZg. JIdl"f ~-t 0

\qt \'It ~.1·~·

A CD~ -t :: I: 5il?,j' ~ 6 T L J: -3? ~ 0) 5il?1: f!!, ,j' t.: < ~ A., \ \ i 1" J: 0

(.,. Expresses location of inanimate and animate objects «1) and place where something manifests itself (®),
tl1> -tt\'.i:"':) +'<"~I' If L..t rd'~\' Mil Ii LJ: J,ith
~~-\,",j:,*1i<B-tE-t ~:1,;pff <CD) . ~1!li7i<*:n T \ '~~pff @) "f ~-t 0

BCD;; -3,j'I: ;t f 1.1' ~ i L t.: 0

@~~
:1 \'11 ~
/\,/zI: *IT)

I) i 1" 0

(.,. Indicates the location the subject moves the object (of the action) to «1), or indicates the location the subject moves to (®).
t"i '! f:\'ld
tIJ{'FI7)M~l7)jIJ~,,);;,
t:it,~{TJ... t"i
<CD) . tIJ{'F17).i.1*l7)jIJ~A
~ L.,/:\, t';t,,,(T.{.
«z» "f*:-t bl,.,
0

IlL "'''':1 ',(/,1' /,I'A

CCD~Lt.: ::()) *f LLo/~A.,I: 1l&Li1"o
LrL.<- ;, ,
@ --'C 0) ~ ~ , 1; J: -:J t .h t.: L I:: Jt -li"t J: 0

r'') ~ t->..t f:\'ll'l "I,h

(.,. Refers to the receiving party, or person or object affected by an action. tIJ{'F1i<&,}:M~ f *:-t 0

t TL hi,h
(.,. Expresses a time-point. a;f,,);;,"f
*:-t 0
(tt/d./ 19> ?1 I
+ t" t (J)
~~ ~<
2 .:r t" t (J) ) \ \ -:> L .t I: #~(J) U : -7~ f 11'I) i L 1: 0

3 L: (
4 *
t .;~.t i;t ~

~,-tf
*J~R«j) )
"l: ~
t;

~t!rl'~ (@
~'l""7)

t q)
) *') (/)

~,;;t i -t 0
'i~" '
5 Ji.«j) ) 9~(J) 1±,.{.,t:<~~~{ t(/-t-7T-to "o/(@ ) )...;ft"'( <t:'"?5\\o
t, <' ~'\' t
6 ~Lt: ;t-/I--«j) ) 1?*(J) ~~~' ~I)i-to 3~(@ ) ;t-/I--(Q) )
;'-:>

~i -:> l < t:'"?5 \ \0

....l ~ ~.t i ....

l

7 J./~~' YL;;t~-r'L.t-7? ~Bli ~(J) J./(@ ) (J)lfl)i-to

-t: ....-t
8 .; 7; G (J) '" ~ «j) ), : (J) \ \ -t (@ ) -t;h-:>l 1'L 1*,.{.,T <t:'"?5\\o
9
t t.
'i9... t:' 7; (J)
-t
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«j) ) I: t -:J f
~(

~ -:> t: Itt", -e ; (@ ) Ii t-7

1i,.(., T \ dJ.' \ \ J: -7 t:.' -:> t: 0

~,~

10 : (J) #~ (n;

[ttlvL-I9>?21 atJ) b z»
\ lit
l,\t\ '~-):a: .:t6A,-r: <th~l,\o
: -7;;t,.{., T (a 5t!?~{ b:J / +j-- r ~{) ~ I) i -t b
'JJi I) ..,<
2 :: I: (a I: t -:J f 1? \ \ l b #J! f 11'-:> l) < t:' -:5 \ \ 0

t:\ I.i· i
3 BJi. T (a Ii L 7]{ :;h ;ft i L t: b Ii Lf ;h t: I) i L t:) 0

4
t L.t "'I..
~ _it I: *f
Ill..
. (a -I},;;t L i -t "0 -:5 7]{ L i -t) 0

rs~':(J) ;tj-/I--I: (a \\7;If'''{'' \\\\ "'~Ii t":T-t-l)'

"'~7]{ ;h')i-t)o
it ~ j;t 11"",' ~ ",
6 W\(J) iltr I: (a ;(tJj_7]{ T ~ i L t: J!: \ \ i L t:) 0

t "'I.. t
7 \\-:Jt (a 8~MI: b 8~1:) tli-to
t"i .i:.-.,;:t.<.,. ~1.i:'" t'i ,;:'? ;.,.

8 fJ7~~IEI: \\.t;\\.t;1i (a fJ7~~7]{ \\i-t b fJ7~~f YL i L .t -7) 0

t, ~<
9 : (J) h. -I) , ,.{., T (a t; L 7]{ ~'" i L t: b :/ =z_ - A f 11'I) i L .t -7) 0

1)''' It:
b \\7;If'''{'' $\\ OOli t":T-t7]')o
A CD\ \ \ \ <~ f
·,
Jil: \ \ i L t: 0

C" Refers to the object or target of an action or behavior,

t'; ~ f~1.t Ji
fhfl' c7);tt.t.l'*"t
1,':'11
0

8CD<f:,0) Ii L f tJ t: I) i -L
t,i, 1,":t,
@Xli ~8 :::-);;L,Cf ~A.,lrLi1"o

C" Expresses place where passage or movement occurs,

"?i ot' 1'1:::',
i!~' ~f:/]"t .:,~P!T l'*"t
It l.( Mh
0

~l'i z i.. '5 ,"£L ,.

CCDff:tMRT it~f J? I) i L t: 0

•
@ht: L Ii 10~wrl:
tl£1'- <"
OOf
T'
c8T, 8*1:
" 11£

"
*i L t-:
Il~: !f LJ: .~ T.(. J,i,h
C" Expresses place left behind, or point of departure, mUt,:,~p!T' ;tg,~, l'*"t 0

f:T ttJ) ~'f:;

DCDGhO) ~t0li i~\\ 1T;f LT \\i1"tlo

"'.' .'Ii
@Ii f,e/; '\" A.,, t" -) L t: 0) ? $\\ 'AA f LT \ \~ h 0

C" The form ~ ~ l T \ '1 ~,,~~:p~es~~ th~:ha~:,~,r; sta!:.ofa person or thing,

r~
f L T \ \ t"t J c7)1W't, ~~~ J..c7)%:I;l; f*"t 0

\ 'Yol t I)

ACD -) 1; I: Ii 7U~ tl ::: I:: J~7){ \ \ i 1" 0

C" Used to link items in a list or sequence,

t.'':'
_;lf2_ ~.:,
"""
t c7)f *"t 0

fi"")'\"'i" lil1 .;. r ~,(

B CD~ 1*;". I: £J I:: O)lf I) i ~±w I: l' 0
L ,.. (J z
'1)'1'

CD~;f± 0) '" I:
At: 1; I:: J? ~ It f ~X;". "
11" ~ i L t: 0

C" Used to refer to the partner when something is undertaken together with another person,
: + I' II? L.t 1.1' T
~t-1!.9 f -jt.!tl:"t.:, ~EI-t'f*"t
Il"!o
0

~tH tt
CCD§f, Ii l < t;:_ t=_' 1; I:: It A.,-h' L i 1" 0
Ijlj t;t; ;1\.'

@£Jli XI:: <G"'T EJl ~ \ \ -['1" 0

};tJ,.' tL
®ht: L Ii -lf7~A.,1:: 1iiJL: ~ -['1" 0

C" Refers to a counterpart or rival (<Il) or expresses a standard for comparison (@ @),
I~\' ;'1' T < i, ~ [,,( lI;,b
;tt"t':'~EI-t(G))· tt~.:,£!1!'(@®) f*i"o

C" Comes after proper nouns, as well as utterances and thoughts,

t:£i. /.1:""11£ HA' 't°,'.ti ;'i,h

~.~M~·~~~Cc7)~3'f."to -m 1 HB17~
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7 I) i I) +T ~ Iv CD ) 1~-:>T \ \ 6 O)~ 1Jt-:k (1) ) B~@J f JL (: 1T < 0) J 0

I: I,_t "to

2 qa:!f(: *( ) t:l::i Ll:o

0' 0'" ", I)'f'

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-tt ..t.o\!I' V t: IJ ~ l -i L"'J
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5 ~ ( ) t Iv T, i$j 0) 00 '" 1T~ t:. \ \

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6 ,~ T j§_ t=.' 'G ( ) tJ 7),tL T i L t:. 0

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T"A.. h
5 11'<li 71)~lvt (a ~g~f 7)'(ti-t b (t-:>::::IvLi-t)o
f)'I' ~. l"" . t7) n i;t
6 %'tli:li, 7iJ'\\T .:cv~-7-f (a *"?T b ;I? I) "f), -t<" ElO) WTT-tlo
;(~ J..,. h I'

7 ,~ T +T "7 ~ Iv t (a JL T b %"? T): \ \ -:>L J: (: ::::7 ;t Iv '" ft ~i -t 0

1",,: f)'

8 [7.7:/-0)0/]
i,.(. t A.. L r1l

if~=f-~Iv, -")~"O) iJ't"f (a ;I? I) i-t b i7){-:>"Z' < t:'~\\)o

zt \'
q ~f,.~lvli j§_t:''Gf (a tJiJ';t(: b -r7t:'IvL!:) 1T~i Lt:.o
 3~~ iJ'_ , ,

1)1; IJ ...,< -:>(

AG)S L t: Ii .h t: L 77{ ;¥4Jl ~ 1-;: I) 1 -t 0 ;h 77' L J:_ 1-;:I) 1 -t 0

7 J, >:'i 1"
@.ht:Lli ;#It JJt ~f~"t-to
t:·i.ti (h
(..- Expresses addition of something similar or related to something previously mentioned, ~ t!q) t q) ~ ;1;0;:t ,:, 0

i.I'\' L '(> L 1J'Jv

BG) -51;77' i-:> ~U 1 -C 2 a;fM t 77'77' I) 1 -t 0

'i,(, t' 1:',(, h

@1PJJt t ~~i5L 1 L t: J: 0

C..- Emphasizes the high level or number of something, when used with a quantifier or li,{, + counter suffix,
i";!lJi L ~:,(. l:.t"ti L 1'..,L.t -ee- $-it; !Ji~d
~:I:~-\" fM +1l/}~~ilJJ z -~I:1.t\', y\':: z ~;m~-t,:,o
L
CG)t-5'-~ 11\\t #'?T \\1-1:[,<.,0
I: 11,(, C'(' z t vz 'I
@8*AO) itt':'1;li 1t.:' -At \\1-tt/L
(..- In a negative statement using the pattern I + counter suffix, emphasizes the complete absence of something,
U TI\,;:,(" "..'1}' t.l.'1"i L ,'..,LJ: ""11' ~li~li
~:1t::5cq)tfTf 1 +1l/}~~J t-~1:1.t\', t'oT,f>,:,:: t Hi~-t,:,o
,
o G) t:';/'L t *- 1 -tt£ -t vt: J: 0 I'

@'5O)-5li '(_":""t 11''51-tt£TLt:o

(..- Used together with interrogative (+particle), emphasizes the negative nature ofa statement.
'!t'('L tJ.L 1'..,L,t ""1}' u--rl\.;:.(, ~Jit,li
~M~ (+1l/}~ilJ) t -~I:1.t\', ~;;t::5cT,f>,:,:: t ~;m~-t,:, 0

C..- By using an extreme example, suggests that something else is a matter of course.
Hft.:L tH' Ii \, '1' l'tJi t:·Hf,{. III.., t.:
ti~"J.'{9H tl:: L T, ·HtJ>),p (J>kl:.) (:H1H'& T',f>,:,:: t ~Bijf;-t,:,o

C..- Used together with a quantifier in a negative statement, emphasizes the paucity or limited nature of something.
Y t\\,;:'(' "l''O' i"1tJd L \'?Ll '?I}' "t< !lHd
~:1t::5cq)tfT~:I:~ t: -~1:1.t\', 1"".1.' ~ ~;m~-t,:,o
t: I) ~{\ \: < LL
~tl: 5'~OOAli .ht: L L 77' \ \ 1 -tt£0
11H liLt lit.,,:

~i5li 1 t.:' -B}'I: L 77' ~i5L T \ \ 1 -tt£0

C..- Limits something in a negative statement (equivalent to only in English), affirming the limitation and excluding other possibilities.
U"(I'.i:,t f..'1}' 11.(..1'1' :')1'1', 11~\ UT\\
~:1t::5cq)tf T.:n,:, t q) t~lt H~:it L T"t:1t L, ftH ~:1t-t,:, 0
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)(J) tF';: r-tJiJ) rL-iJ)J€ IFL\l <t':~L\o t'~6-t

'(j"?J:i U';'\\ \\

!0~-r'j: fci:L \ :ijj'8',j: r x J € An l < t.:~L \0

Please put t or L fJ' in the ( ) as you think ncessary. If you think neither one
applies, put an x ih the ( ).
"
::: <J) .; c:: Ii f:' *'1..1:: ( ) § t? -f,L'\ 1 Ttl 0

~~A~ .~ , ~l
2 ~ <J) i Ii *- f,fu fJ' .).' J i L t.: 0 ~ ( ) 1~fJ' -:>t.: -r" -t 0

<TJ
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;tA- .'
6 -t fi. i -Ii Iv 0 500 F9 ( .) ~ L 'r 0

~<TJ
7 :::I..JJ: ;b\'L\' ~~Ii C::":::!::( ) th'Ji-lilvtlo
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IV.

.~
~
t~ -:>-r \ dJ.' \ Iv f:' J
I 0

9 '!i: fJ' -:>t.: <J)T. /" '/ ! \I < -:> ( ~ \ I i L t.: 0

\' t, t:' tt n'\ \ IJ J: : .}

10 \I-:>fJ' -Jl:( ) .)·"tlT -Bt11t11<.1tf Lt.:\'T-to

I nit, (..,19> ? 21 a tJ)

If"?
b tJ) l,\ l, \
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\ \;t ",1.'1: t: t:
2 ~,Mt (a ~""t.:\'T-t b ~""t.: < -f,L'\'T-t)o
3
LilA-
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4 5 *M (a
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t
A'S
~ \ I t.: fJ' G b L fJ'
A'-'
~ fJ' -fJ.·fJ' -:>t.: »: G ), -:> fJ' niL I': 0

5 :::i 'J i L t.: tl 0 \ I -t fJ{ 12 (a t th' J i -t tl b L 77' th' J i -tt Iv tl) 0

1:,(, ~

};~'<'< ~lvli 15A *i-tJo

'" A-Il A- 1t,-t
6 Art? t.: L Ii {PIif- t :::
<J) mr !:: 1i Iv T \ i -L J
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L
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1ft
@-f(7) hiJ'tC"f --"Jt:'lt
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I: 11A- ..,~ .'-?
@8*T fl (j: 6 fl t:'ltTLt 1,j.'~ '0 J: <
11'(" "tl'
C.... Used to express a limitation, ~R:t-t {, 0

c.... Using an extreme example or proposing something that is not a matter of course, expresses the idea that something can arise
regardless of adverse circumstances, Even is the English equivalent
~;( f:L .f1.\' t ;-t!.(. hI' f; Ii hI' fol." r: L t')

~;lj/ijfJ,'i7IJ'I"lli~Tlif,j.'\ 'i7I]f tl:l L, -t(7)~*1"<F,.., l' t ~ I) ti: --::>:: (:: f Jf;-t 0 --m 1 ffB 16~
,i:"{" tJ.·~(

BCD 1 )j- T t -& < hT ~I t: ~11"1' 0

i.A- '1"1"
@1 F91"t ~~I(l-)iJ{. ~1~lo
1": ~
®.h t: L (;t jt' L T t H tC 1,j.' (7) "I" < I:: ti: 1; t: ~I 0
c.... Usually expresses the idea of minimal concession when used in 'conjunction with the "I + counter suffix" pattern, Roughly
corresponds to English even if it is only" "
1?t l: J. 1"; L I'., L J: ..,'Ij' t:l i II "",",
.i.1:f1 +lI/;~~~J (::-*lf1:1~\1, -t;/t.Tt\'\'(::\'7~~f*-to
(, IT) t-
cCD~ch, chi\1 i~Tt i:'"'i1±tCiJ'o
1 1
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r; t,.t i
n Jt I:: T t
7} [j.f.L' J,. \'

® B BI B I:: (;t 1T: -)iJ' 1J.' 0

c.... Mildly suggests an option in the form of a proposal, request or expression of intent, etc,
T\Ij-,,{., \' (,P I' L .i:/v ".~ ttl'

~~ . fUJi' ;t;;t; 1",1.' /::'(7))(:T, ~ < ifI]f 1, (f {, 0

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~
H~fJ.' I:::~I:: *T
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/;1\.
<t:'~~lo
@:(7) J-:'77"I::(;t t:'tLTt AtLi1'o

c.... Used together with an interrogative, expresses the idea of any (place, time, way, etc.),
~. ('L L \'--:>L.J: "?~, t:';,!:,\\ ,;.( "~b
~r,,'f;iJ/::-*If(:1~\', Jiil~(7)-t"" l' f % t;:: (::f*-t 0
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t t
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2 ':«: BlJI:· e*t®tgll (a --')T't b --')t) ;hI) i1±lvo

If)

3 -') 1;' fL i L t.:: h 0 :J - t - T t (a iK h. i L t.::

f,I.;t ~d t..,
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5 :ht.::Lll ~~\dJ.' ~"";:~~ll ;hi I) ;h1)i1±IvI;'.1'J.''?tit':'ltll
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6 : (J) @l Ii ~ Tt (a t1J ~ 1;< ,_;, I) i 1" b t1J ~ Ii ,_;,I) i 1±Iv) 0

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7 ;h(J) 1611 ~(j) 12Fl'ifTt (a M\'T \'i1".J: b M\'T \'i1±Iv.J:)o
vt ') ~~ kit », ~
8 - J..... T t ~ < :h t.:: L (J) 16 I: JiY\ 1(: *- T (a t ~ \ It::. \ I T1"
b t ~\ -t. < 1'.1.'\ I T1") 0
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z ') -t ~ ~~.~. h.i' ~.'1}'

@.t(;I: ~f t U'i-t 0 ,i({!, (;I: 1./(0) 0/ f

.j. "'L i ~ l: t"') \' ,;:..(. In f£I' Ln

C" Used with a topic of a sentence which expresses an unvarying fact. ;;p ~ B9 fJ.' *-~ f 't -')
:5c(/) ~tM f jj';l' 0

1/'1> 11£ .' t:

BCD~::"~J1 ;b"',.c t -)f ~~)
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fJ,.'-Q'1}<h ~\\Lrt; ;,
@o/)I] ~ ,.ct (;I: *11! %\ I i-t 0

f: < ....:~ r t: h t:I' LM'J

C" Used here to set apart a topic from other possible options, 1t!! t IK$IJ l' ~t: 6/) I:: 115Z
I) :tL T t: ~tM f jj';l' 0

J.

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*:ff~T-tt?'- ?;<-I;I: ff~T(;I: tf:,1)i-tt£o
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C" Used here to contrast or compare a topic with something, :ittt l' ~t:6/) 1::ll5ZI) s: T t:~t~ f jj';1' 0

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C" Used to indicate a minimum of some kind, .1t~RJJ(f jj';l' 0

t I,J

A CD;f) , n-('G L \ I .t 77.- t £T \ i -t 1:

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r..·,(...t oj 7...f

@1PJBlat?'- \'1;(;f£ \'-tt?{L\'T-t77'o

L z: t
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C" Used to indicate the principal agent in an action, behavior or event (sometimes with an interrogative), ~( is commonly used
when you are commenting on the situation at hand (ill) or you wish to rule out other options (Q)@),
t::i ~ 1"" ~ :-1:::' L,.,f.:I' ! tL L 1:( Ill' L,., I').t;t I' t:
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@.ht: L(;I: L L,.c 77{ =.h \ I -t-t 0

C" In a statement using the ~I;t~~<,,' pattern, ~, expresses t1~etopic part (0)) or something you have mastered (ability),
perceived (sensory perception) or felt (emotion) (@®@),
r~ (i~';{
N:t.. ,;:,( h f:'I' 1.1; ,;~ ,;:,{. ff};IJ!( ~·A..Ii'< 0',(..(;; f:\'lJ; LI')
.. 'oJ(/)1f~(/):5c -r', ~U!
(~)(/)--ffll)3' (CD) ,<" fi~;fJ . ~::l!; • !~d'lf(/);tt* (@@@) f:if;1' 0
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'('1'
@'5(7)-5, t"-5 LT 1t/vt:',(, rre-,
~
®A IGh, fJ'h f tJJ-., t::.(7)? J
;f,-:> 1,[1'-

BI-5/v, ~\lfJ'~ ~< Lt::./vt:'oJ

C"" Used when explaining a situation (CD,@ B), requesting an explanation (@) and affirming something (@ A), The formal
expression is ~!J) -(,T,
t.: ,-1\ -tt"""'I' -tt.,4")\' t t:: ".( I:J., ...,,,.
*jB(1)~a)H--t6 t ~ (CD, @B), ~B)H-*d1')6 t ~ @), <t~~f-t6 t ~ C@A) I::f~ -) 0 r~(1)T-tJ
-tt1'L! trf: \, "'1:
li1E~"',j.'~\ ,¥\ '150

~ J: -i L.(..i:"{' l A..;:,(,
@ ~ fJ{ L T \ '6 (7)Ii ~ B (1) ~lTM Til f,j.' < T, '5 (7) -5(7) ~lTM l'-t 0

h~ ",.(,~Ji
®TA ~(7) T,(,fJ{ ~fJ'-.,t::.(7)li Ghi I) }fM~Lf,j.'fJ,-.,t::.fJ'Gt:'o -~H!~9~

(,... Clarifies or more narrowly specifies a piece ofinfonnation about former part of!J) Ii with latter part of TT,
[Jilli LI'>
~ 1:"")\'"( (1)'I'UIH.... Tli"? ~ I);f;-t 0

~ ~ J.,. ~

C "'(})ffi~~~·"'(})ffi~~~~ "'(})~~~."'(})~~<
1; ~~ .J.
CDlIIJT ~ L. fJ{ :!p- \ 'T \ '6 (7)f YL i L t::. 0

6'LI)'( "~b
C"" Expresses something learnt through sensory perception, ~:It Ttl? ;t t: : t f ~ -t 0

-:>f.l' 11'/'-

2 1~(::J(}){~C\:Jj
A ",(})~(::
~{..,;:
i "',,"1: L
CDGh(7) ~~(1) :=tf 1PJfJ' jo-.,T \li-tfJ'o

C"" Specifies or pinpoints a focus of attention r-,

L
z. (::""('9
¥>I'

B '" (~~liJ Noun) ~j:,..

;t \ '_ ~( .J. t:
CDL tPhll ~@Jf YL,6 := t z. ~"""-:6 := t T"'4""
@If < (7) {±.Ii
L :'t ,,_'"

~f
. ~ ,(,/11: -:>nT \ I <
0

:= t T-t 0

~n'.t -; (" f:I'T! "~h

C"" Gives more specific information (--': 1::) about the topic (~Ii) of the sentence, ~(1) r*J~ f'" T ~W89I:~-t 0
 ~o· ~.
[nft.,L.,1il>?1] )0) !:PI: fO)Jfj) fZ.t:J~ jiC\""( <t.:~C\o
t-
*~ *f
;h~ \.;.(_ C'IlL

tb~( )!i 7B9'lf-::::"';T-to

e- r V'
2 j(" (7) (t' J., \ IJ., !i j( f (t ~ -fJ.'1]' -s t. ( ) -r"-t 0

It,
3 ::::(7) BlJ(7) ( ) f L G",-r \I;t-to
4 Af7nL-t7T-ttlo t"7Lt:(\i1 )T-t1]'oJ
B f 7° v -tt /' ~f t G -:> t: (@ ) T-t 0 J
I) , : i t.; t -r ~ t <ll ~

5 ~~Hr(7) \'i;!f'J.,(7) I~\'tb!i :tf~~f >it: ( )T-to

: ~t ~
6 + t" t t: i; 1]' 7'~1" ;h -t J., T' \ I~ ( ) 1]<' Jt;:{_;t -t 0

~t.; <~
7 -fJ.' < L t: ( )!i -t\ I 1]' ~ T!i -fJ.' < -r. :~,\ I 1]'~ -r'-t 0

8 -t(7) J?1]'L, t:';J-t(: t G-:>t: ( )?

[nft.,L.,1il>?2] 1-\t;Ia:/v 1-\1-\ =t,O)~ ;tE>fv"t-' <t.:~C\o

~L...(7) \1\1 t::::';!i ( )0
t v \,

a 7-tf g.f?1i\'(7)T-t b 7-tf g.f?1i\' ::::tT'-t

I'

e 7-tf §\';t-ttk
-tnl.; ~,(_.tirl
2 I)-~J.,(: ( )!i 7t~(7) ~BI8T-to
;n

z
b ~ -:> t: ,::::
~\\Lrti

3 *~(7)
L It,(_ lltA.

a ~~,~ e ~~,~~(7)
t .:. ..c ~~.t;

4 ~-:>5 § ~T' -:) -:> t: ,f!!, T-t 0

r. r. to) r.
a 1t'" t: (7)!i b ~"'~~!i e ~"'t: ::::
t!i
""1-

5 {oj 1]' ( J., (j0-:) 1" t

;:{_ \ I\ I T-t 0

a"<(7) .' b"<

~<\': <
.' ::::t
L :' t:
e .. <
.'
~~
t<ll

6 .f?t: L!i L.t 7 G \ I 7'~00 1" 1± .. f (

a -t ~ ::::t T-t b L t: \ I ::::t T-t
L.t if t,,,i \,
7 J: -'f- (: 1" 5 -fJ..'1]' -:> t: (7)!i .f?t: L (7) 51~ f ) 0
, ,
a ril1], -fJ.' 1]'-:> t: 1]' G 1"-t J: b ril 5 ;t -tt J., 1" L t: tl
e
,
r~'\ -r I < t:' ~ \ I
 I)'

7~ I

r "'T···/ "'fci:C \T···J (J){~C \"jj

-,.' trt:

A CD.h t: LI i ,Jj ;I, ~

r
6 * r
1: ;@ ~
t;

-r, i f :/,..
;I,
?- f ;h U'i -t 0

@ 5' ~ :/ -1;< Ji i "J -r, f /I;{ 1m \ \ t: 0

r
®:: ;h, "" -\'> f 1t
1;' t: -:)' r. ~*f
l!,

L l '50
C'" Continuing from -r, ... action or event follows. If the subject of -_ and··· is different, ... cannot be used with a phrase
expressing intention or inducement.
lJ"")") h:~' h l,,:' t,,,( [1';'~' hL.,~ \'':1 h\'T UH
~1:~I~Mt\'('''''HT,)' ,,·,j{;ts:~o ~t:".q)30.~,j{:it')~.g., "'I:IH;;-:tq);t,y{;JN§-t-"q)1l>i~,j'
1;"" .i:,(. .:
It f*-tXI;l:*,-I'J,'\ '0

f)'1..- t "J. ,,'A. r' .'

BCD~~ f *,~I: 1PJJt:t :t\ \ -r j:) (fit i -r,
;1,'; ~

@::: ::: i T
®r17f
l'\\-r
-,~
1~hfJ,.'\\T
*- i L t:
/\,/f
0

.
t;;"Jt:(]'rc-tI;'o
111'11 "
C'" Do ". using the - method. ~q):Q7J;;T'''' f-t ~o

",f)'A. 1ft ~ t<1> • IIH

CCD:::O') ~UE'(J) J..t:i?I;t. J..;./...JJ,.' ~~frlf ~-r 1f);\\-r \\i-ttlo
\, Q) I·Lit \' 0)

@ht:Lli ::1-t-l: '::l::-;f .A..h't iKJ..;.i-t1;\~li .A..nfJ,.'\\T §,kJ..;.i-to

~I: ~

® ~L. r::::: hli 1PJI;' l;'lt -r ~'" 61v T-tI;'oJ

~l j t:\'
C"'Do,,·inastateof-. ~q);f;R~T"'f-t~o

~ .t i t: (/) 1;11..'

DCD::;h, J..;.fJ,.'::Iv, ~Bli t:<::1v ~",-r, iKlvT,

--- -gi5L-r <t:.'::\\o
@ t.::
;1,1:
rp ~" J: -; Ii q * t:
I: :Mii"J
11 t
-r, 3 * ---
t
I: ~ hI) i -t
j;

®JL Ii :z- -; t.:: f L -r, If < (i :: ~ f ;h ~ "J t: 0

tI'I' $-;t: r}t : Ii"{'~' (}t ~

®~O')-;O') %I:(i '30') J..t:i?li *-fJ,.'\\T, -};:O') J..t:i?t:Jt #d:o

C'" Expresses the idea that two things are done or happen in parallel or in contrast.
.....\'tI....,"(~ f~\' (} T~ ,;:t..' I;

~ t:'\lR7'JB9' Mtt.B9I:"· Hh . "',j{;ts: ~o

TI..-L", r L<'r
ECD1tllil;{
I).t: i
Jii"J
1\
-r, 1±*1: j; < hi L t:o
@~ff I: 11'1t fJ,.' <",C ::"Iv tllv T-t 0

C'" Expresses the idea that something (-) causes something else to happen or be felt ("'). The negative form is usually not ~~'\'
T but fj,' < ,,(C@),
11.(.\'.(.. Y. -r... ..,:~
«s»,
-::>1)'

"",,j{,*I1SIT"'I:-I'J,'~o ~:;tq)1fjIH-I'J,'\ 'TJ ("I;l:1j: <, ."",:) ') < (' J f1~
r-l'J,' ') -m1l}B9~3
 f,,,, :t 11 tot; ~.u, ",
io: I=j:l(f) a~~ lEG(,\ ffM~ t.r. ~(,\l <t.:~(,\o
Ut i~ ~
1 1.1L:: n 1" }; }; -tf\ ,0) A 0) iVT I: 7, to -1- f L i L t.:: 0 (.IT. -:> )
:t: ,u
2 ;nil) l< 1}lt1" Li"iLt.::o (~;t~)
t.I'fl \'

3 };~f ;t'5':/f };L1" <t:'.::5"o (Atl~)

Uli I!! ~ I' t, t;
4 -)1;TI.1 iVl.1 ;ni I) #l!f , X-I;{ l < L i-to (-t~)

5 <--:>f
6 i t"f
7 -'(> .::5, ' f =i 1;' < , =0) .::5GI:
"
Atl1" <t:'.::5"o
.
(1;7]~)
-------- i~
8 -if -7 .::5J.A « ~ L.. .::5J.A{ ;f 5'- f U'5 i L t.:: 0 (~-)

"-

Ittlt,L,I9>-52] e i» b z» (,\(,\ '~'5~ ;t61t-"t' <t.:~(,\o

fjJ.;\ 'A.. \ \ (11 1
1 ~~.-..., ft-:>1", (a ~f tG"i-t
I,,,
2 i$J1'J.'0)I:, -1;'.::5 f (a.::5.::5 1'J."'T
s;r t
3 to - t .g--I;{ (a L 1" b L t.::) , '5 -1;', 'i} { .ll: i '}i L t.:: 0

",t.! t: • ~ IlL ~
4 }; ~ -I;{ (a JlI) 1'J."'T b ~ I) 1'J.'< 1"), ;<jq< J{ It i -\:r,.<., T L t.:: 0

..,,,, ~')~, 1)'

5 /{'/-::J:/f (a 1~-:>T b1~.h1'J.'<1") v;f-~f .'5i-to

TL h Ii', 111...· t:
6 7tt*T (a t*L 1" b t*L1'J.'i}<G) ~"'1'J."'T < t:.'.::5"o
7
t TLL <'
§.till! I:
TL
(a * If)

-:>1"
Ii"
If)

b *I} -t,J,'i}<G)
11" if, t
= -)1...Iv.-...,
"

ft'5 i-to
to",
8 '5-:>.::5161: (aA-:>1" b A -:> t.:: f~ T), it" 0) 11t < I: -t .h I) i L t.:: 0

t: IT)

9 = 0) 7- - -t f ~'"1", (a "::J - t- f ~.z,. i'-t b};, , L, , T-t l ) 0

10 A[,";n,
....
1 t;
J;1B.::5J.A< *i Lt.::loJ
•

B [,";n;n, l i}' -:>t.::

Ii t
0
l("t

.::5;n, J; IB .::5Iv -I;< (ci

f:
* ~
1" b * <\

t.:: -1;' G), / \'- T -1 - f

:kElni L J: -)oJ
'IIi IJ l:' .i:'(" N,,~I (.I, '? <
11 ~L..['"=O) #l!, (T)a §7]-T ~lt1" b 7,-/\'-T J(-:>1") 1"1'-:>t.::O) ?J
-if -7 ['"-) -) Iv 0 .; 0) *'
Ij,l

f (@ a
;,

Jt 1"
;,

b Jt ~ -1;' G)
-> <
1"1'-:>1.::l ~J
 ~'i L
1b~6J Transitive and intransitive verbs

t: ~'i l.
EI tJ) / ~j:+ §tJJ~iiJ
(Agent) (Object) (Transitive verb) (Intransitive verb)

* Focus is on the action or behavior of an agent.

~-; e l" ::-; I' t,.,.; t <
* Focus is on the action or behavior.
i:' 1, .. 1t <
IttJfF±_1 0) ff i9 I: 5i 13l' ~ 0 BO)fJJ~ 1:5il3-t~o

'CA. .~

n'~' f L &06 'it~n'~ <

::."l? f };t -t \ '-t f 1'J.'G "" 6 ::"l?n'};i;6
L :'~ -J,--
J1/il L :'~

.
J, U~'l

1±* f ..[~It 6 ~if~-j'lt 6 1±*?j{..[ ~n' 6 ~i7}'~-j' <

~ ~ .h
,
t.l t:',{; f J:If' 6 t.lt:'1vf"flf'6 tlt:'lvn'J:n'6 t.l t: Iv n't n' 6
,,'_ \,;t
it t:' f}; 6 *f::.tJ-t itt:n'};n6 *n'::' tJK6
- ~ : ~
-rt"t f~::.-t
--
/\'/f.l('< -r t' tz n'~ ~ 6 / \ '/;?'.l(' It 6
<;1 ~ nt <;I

~fJt&06 t rp ~" J: -3f:ilEl&0

6 jJ!.7}{Jti 6
\\;;t \\ , \,;;t u\\
t.l::. f*I::An6 ~ "? ,;: f 1'J_'< -t t.l::.n'*I::A6
L: T A.L '" L: TA.L '" lid ~
§ ~jJ!. f 1'J.'};-t § ~~n{1'J.'}; 6 ~~n'1'J.'}; 6
",-.l('7}'~ t: t: n' < 1'J.'6

;,-_, if, (~l ~"i ~

CD~ \ '0) T, i t' f MHt i -t 0 CD~ 0) F7 n' ,~I:: ~'~iLt:o
t: L T t t: ~< < -It" i L '('

@",-.l('I:: \'t::;ef 7'~I:: lliLiLt:o @*~Ii 1~;;0) ~'7n'G ::Bi-to

.;.~ ;,~ ~~' IJl:i

@ r L..li tS-\' }; t t; \" f ~&0-r @l?Iv1'J_'n' ~i "? r. ~*ffO)

\'i-to f:-3t:'lvf Li-to
 ii.
1 '::;--7"/'1./(7) _tl:: ~Gf (a 1",;:Gr/iLJ:i b 1",fG-",i LJ: i)o
~It\' ~ z r ~,I..
2 *~t~{ (a JI: i -? l b Jl:d) l) ~ I l, *M ~<' n~' I) i -t:t£0
1 t, t.ll..h.
3 :(7) llIJ(i 10lfM'1::: t:'~I,;: (a'~'~t: b -Q'n-?t:)o
11..., () L"ili'A. '.' (;;
4 I:::-rt :I-~I 8~{ 1~rJJy)._t (a -:>-j\'l b -:>-j'ltl) v- r r,
V,t,c (}~ T
5 1tr",-Q{ S~ Ali -t-f (a Slf'l b S-Q{-?l) < t:'~\\o
~, t(l) ~,t.l

6 t:< ~£ ~\\t~Lt:(7)T, 1?~~{ (a 1".1.'<LiLt:

':'\'L,,-j ;../:4 lit 11 L
7 *~-Q'G fn-L\' F77~{ (a -icf1d)~ b -icf1i ~)o
'('i" li'('

8 .J:< 1*£T,.!f!.< ~'{ff (a 1"i1?Ll b 1"J.'1?-?l) <t:'~\\o

~ t:1 '.;,"

q : (7) *-11 ~ Ji\ T (a 1? -? l b 1? n l) L i \ \ i L t.0

t:\,()( I' 11" Vt 1:" 'i()<( L !t,{.
10 *~I:: (a Ant:\\ b AI)t:\\) Ali, A~~1\J~~f ilti-to

Li~ It-t

., i. t ,,)
3 L:: L £T t:1"J.'(7) _t~, G t~~{ CD l, @ i L t:o
----
4 -t 1:::"t ~{ : (7) }; t 1; '(' f u;
------
l L i \ \i L_ t::. 0 @
---
< ni-t:t£-Q'o

ur IH j; j;

'"')-j'(t~ -:>--5< -icf1i ~ *f1d)~ ~~~ ~:-t

;f,"! l: li'('

5 +t "/ i;-(7) n£ L rp i ~{ ill 7*1:: '-' -Q'G, It£li .!f!.<

-;I..t:"itd \'

l, il~~'" 1T~ i-to

6
@
~J:.tl,(.

~lf ;; "3 ;f:/ ~7" f (D

. l,
\,1

~t @ l \'i-to
 Ii'

9~ I

II£' I,n

ACD~, rn7)" ')' -:>-r ~\ i -t 0

11\ '

@L::L,{,(7) t~, t;.) ..t;I: A-:>-r ~\iLf::.o

i \\ zL !.I{\': < I) .I: : .;

®4iI-lf 5'~@]:Q1'Z1if L -r ~\i-to

c.... Indicates that an action or behavior happens on an ongoing basis. Used not only for temporary events «1) @), but also for
things that occur repeatedly over a long period (@).
s s-c «
t:'1!! 11P"H LA,,:i
~1'f1)<*IU?tL liHfL l\' 6:: t f*-r.
1.;'11

..",
\'(~::T~
-*89-/",,':: ((D@) t':'lt 1"1',,'
tI'x.
'MflUt I) ~ L l\' 6 z c, *\
t.l·~(

:: z (@) I: t {~-) 0

BCDit"7]" Li-:>-r ~\i-to

@:) 3 /':5 '{'11 d1)7)"h f 7]\lt .:I__:__\ i -L
~~ .;.~t}
®j($ I1 It -:>:: ,{, L -r ~\ -r, 4- t" t 7]" :::_J..... ~ \ i -t 0

~~ ,·1 ·c
@Xlj ~ t±i7]'lt-r \\i-to
('(---L-- I'tit .Il"

®h t: Ll1 It ,{,~ 11 9;0 -:>-r ~\ i -t 7]\ ~ ~ ,(, Ii 9;0 I) i -t±,{,O

c.... Expresses the fact that the results of a situation, action or change are still being left,

S6:1i.*, ~~ . ~{'t~~*;?<~~"'l\'6~~f~-r.
U:; 11,( t,
C CDi f:' ~ ::"~ f 'it'" -r ~\i-t±,{,o
L :' t to )}'il
@1±*7]" ~h -:>-r ~\-tJ.'~\(7)T, ~*ni-t±'{'o
II i~(...., : i
®11-t.Ci:) \'" ,(,Ij if:' IJ'cf:lxl:
c.... Used in negative statements to indicate that something that should have been realized remains in an incomplete state, or that
should have happened has not.
lJ 1"1' .;.:,{. "''0- V>lfL ;. 'O',UJ.i cd/:,' bI1h
~;t(7)C1"{~\', ~U!-r 6" ~ :: U<*1G1 (7)~~ 1"S 6 :: z f*-r.

1;1",!.·

CD;:h, :it 7]" ~n~\I: 7]'·Y-:>-r j;)1)i-tho

@t -) ;t T It,. f J: '\'" < L -r ;:h I) i -t 0

®"'- -\"11 -Z- -) L::L -r ;:h I) i -t 7)'0

t..· i;( (J'

@TA ~I:: ~wr7)" .~\-r j;)1)i-t±,{,TLt:o

c.... Expresses the state of achievement of some action with a specific purpose, It is added to transitive verbs,
t (T~ t "£1: It.., ti' tdf:p i~" f.; t:'"; L
S6 1389fM'.., l{PJ;?'f Lt:~*(7)~1!Bf*-ro ft!!.~~I::"') < 0
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1 It£li ~, *f
;hI: \.;:. <
2 JLli 4'00"-
t; t; : -j : -j .. \' :' j.;L

3 Xli ~~T ~~f \\i-to (~;t6)

(t'J 'f!

4 if:: ';'{['(7) ~ f \ \ i -tt £0 (jjzt,')

~t <
5 1J:..f:'t;,;~' *~(7)1\ 7--1'-';'
1,j.·~'

6 7'J~7Ii ';'If£(7) 4'1:

InA-G~?21 C\~';:I:A C\C\ =to)i§: .7t61v-r? <t.=c5C\o

T,c ~
~tL, 'it~,;{ ( )0 t:'tL,;, \ \~(7)T L J: -) ';'0
a "':)~i-t.J:: b -:Jlt-r \ \ i -t .J:: c "':)\I-r \ Ii -t.J::
~ J: i 'tt,

2 ~81i ~I: t: < ~ £ 11 L /J" )0

T tf r:
a tB-r \ I~tl b tBL-r ~~tl c tBL-r \I~tl
~ ..t i T',c h T,c h I;L( :'-j

3 ~81i It\ It:\ I'~gt;f ( ) (7)T, :;3/~£(7) 'itgt;*~7){ :b,;' I) i -tt £0

t t t
a # t: fJ.' \ I b ~ -:>-r \ 1fJ.' \ I C t~t: fJ.' ';' -:>t:
!1\ \
4 ~~, t -) -t (' /\-j- 1 -7){ ( )0 ,,--'(>1: AI) i L J: -) 0
~c ~t ~c
a *.(5 i I) i -t .J:: b -k{5 i -:>-r \ Ii -t .J:: C *.(5&1) -r ~ I) i -t .J::
Q':<_

5 :;3/~£li t-7 ~~ I) i L t:,;'o ~tL, ,;,~ f )0

a :b-t tL i -t tl b :b-tn -r \ I i -ttl c :b-ttL -r ~ I) i-ttl
6 :J 'j 7°li {f£,;: )(7)T, t-7 ~tL\'T-to
a ~ G-7 b ~G-:>-r \I~
t
7 t -) 108'ffi(7) I:, rt..~£li it:' ( )0
~ ~
a *-r \'i-tt£ b *-r Li\'i-tt£
lJ. ".I.' 1"... ' i;:(_ L
8 Ar:::(7) 1t(7) -i;fltj, ~P-:>-r \I~?J
B r -7 -7 c. ( )oJ
 i)' ,

io a
il'l,~ t'l
AG)~tij, 7i?0) I:hl: ,~n{ t"(" "(' ~ i -t
1,1: IiI'
---- 0

@>Ln{ ""'--'<' I: A"?T ~ ;1 L t:o

t'l J.~.;,.
®,~n{ r-J!j0) 117 ""'- t:"(" T' ~,~i L t:o
1,1: T'
@>Ln<' ""'---'<'f tbT ~,~ i L t:o
C'" - T ~ i 1" indicates the movement of things or people toward the speaker (1) @), - T \ , ~ i 1" indicates movement by
things or people away from the speaker (@ @), They are added to verbs expressing motion,
t'" vr h L~ ~~, "r'i $,"" tn Ul:: b L\" /If,!.'

r~l ~ i l'J u. ~fr.l\" A~<~*::t-f::iti:-? < ~fi1~~1' «(D@)o r~l\' ~ i l'J fl, ~fr.l\"A~<t*::t-~, l?~
"r'; I.,," \\ t'; ""h t'i L
;ft.~~tIJ~:i{1' (®@)o ~fi1~*1'tIJ~f:"') < 0

BCD=O) ="h. f -tTT ~T < t:.'~ ~'0

~'.c:i
@$HtT
.."
;h~f l;t~"?T ~ i L t: o
1)'\ \

®%t±l:
L ,,,
-:J-t.-f .' ~'~i-to
fi:"?T
@t:i?r)l7T rP7 -u,.(.,~ J: < I: J:"?T ~'~i-to
C'" - -r ~ i 1" expresses the idea of return to a place after an action is carried out at a different place (1) @). -
expresses the idea of going to a different place after carrying out an action (@@).
-r \ \ ~ t 1"
f~ If Ll. :.1 \' lit:: "t It LJ: tot:" I,i,b
r ~ l ~ i l'J fl, f1l:.(7)~pJfT1>~1T~ f Lt~fK, ~\' ~~pJfI:,*~ ::: t: f:i{1' (G)@)o r ~ l \ ,~ i l'J
: ; ',' ht .1 11' L e; III If L ili,h
1' . J: J: \I

fl, ;t,~{f~(7){Jt, ~\'~~PJft::i!-?~pJfI:1T< :::t:f:it-t(®@)o

C:--}.;:~liJi\'(..
C CD ~ \,~ £ tjJi~~JIJt i')<'
t,li,

@.f- r_" to) =;S -Ii' ~ t.°i / f 1& "?T ~i L t: 0

it,
®= 0) HlJli t:.'£t:.'£ -li'.h"?T ~'<TLJ:70

C'" - -r ~ i 1" expresses the idea that something has continued to change up to the present (CD), or that a state has continued
without change (@). - -r \ ' ~ i 1" expresses the idea that a state of change will continue (@), or that the same circumstances
will continue to prevail (®),
lit "'/..,
I)' -?-? ~~: t:dt~\' -,,-1 ;'~h
r~l ~ i l'J fl, ~i T:Jt1t.~<Mt\
"'A. 1./' ..,., t;~.
-t.: z <CDH6J
Cd/:,' ..,..-)
t:j1;.~~<Mt\ \t~::: z
Soi,;,
«z» ~:it1' ° r ~l\ \ ~ i l'J fl,
::;ft.~'l?~1t.~<Mt<:: t: (®) ·l6Jt:j1;.Im~<Mt<:: z @) Nt1'o

oCD;h ~,t:<
-fJ.' n'n{ "?T ~ i L t:
-fJ.' 0

1,11)

@;t, ffin{ .1' "?T ~ t: J: 0

C'" Indicates the beginning of a change. WHen used with this meaning, there is no corresponding -
....../..,.1./. Itt S,i,h \1 J. It Ii" ':"1;1 f'/;t,
-r \ ,< form .
:Jt1t.(7)Mli 1)~*1'o :(7)~,*<7)~~, itlitt~r~l\\<J(7)%flfJ.·\\o
 .... ~
......
f.-I)' : t It tot, ~'I,~ I),

! tLlv L-19l? 1 ) )(J) r:p(J) ~~~ IE LA,\ M';: V-C iflY[ <t.:~~\o
1 t.l : 7){ ~,~
i L t:o (1:lt'6)
2 s r r, (GhG,,})
3 ~i L t: 0 (t,).' 6 )
1111 I)'fl ;; ( 1, 'I: t; U/;i,

4 iV I: t? i:- ~ ~ 6 t: GI') I::, ~ B i l GI') I:: ~ i Lt: 0 (~ <)

T t)'h ,.
5 :(1) .:f-~~~ ;fArl:: ~'...,Tt.lo (A;fL,r,)
j:.t ;t ~ U z
6 Wi(1) MT A.7)' t: < ~ Iv ~, ...,
t: 0 (j:.) I) 6)

!tLlvL-I9l?2)
-tt ;;t
~\b'tft, ~\~\ :t(J)~ ~6ft,""f <t.:~~\o
5'~T iit7){ L t: ho 1;.J:..., I::: ( ) 0

J, ( J,

a Jtl:: *6J: b JtT ~,< J:

t)'1: i 1: ~ 'h~
2 : : 7)' G *t<:iT 4iI-~ ( ) 0

IH IH
a ;i!t...,T :5i-t b;i!t...,T ~'~i-t
l. :'t
3 ~~'~Iv, 1±$7)' t:.'lvt:..'1v t:~-<): I:: ( )0

a 1"...' ..., T ~i-t b 1"...'..., T ~ i L t: C 1"J,'..., T ~, ~ i L t:

1lA.1;i_ J,{t L :'t
4 3ifWi7)'G -9'...,1::: :(1) mT 1±*~ )0
a LT ~i-t b LT ~iLt: c LT ~,~ i L t:
5 :(1) F7<li :n7)'~ t?tL';< 1"...'...,T (
a ~t:TL.J:-) b ~'..., t: T L .J:-)
l.oF L: t),A.. "":)t), ¥"J

6 -&:~, EFlfM /\'J-:J/~ f~...,T ~'t:(1)T, El7)'

a ~ 7)'h T ~ i L t: b ~ 7)' nT ~, ~ i -t
\\;t IJ' -t'(

7 I::: 1"...' I) (1) *1:: I:: ~"l(' 7), 1"...' *~7)' ( ) 0

a U...,::LT '5' iLl::. b U...,:LT ~,~ i L t: c u-. : L i L t:

1:17.J:·j u- tI,

8 BBitBI:: jj:_ t: i; 7)' "} 1; I: ) 0

,
a <h1:-IvT' :5 t: b <h1:-IvT ~'...,t: c <h1:-UI:: *t:

"
 ,'1 1',,",:

OJ Ai~, 1iiJ7J< \\tyl;f'(' L/:\\T-t1.l'oJ

B ih/: L 1.1" L 1:\ \O)I;L rP -:>< 'J j?l,7;, I: )oJ
11~,

2 A'J/:\\T-t

m "50)7
1>
~t
1J:..f:_'ty!:
1 ~-:>T

rn
{hi ~
hi: L 1.1< ~~O) (::"5, :; 3 /~ ,(,1.1" < -t ') 'f (
.'
) 0

0'
~-:>T "5T < tt iLl: 2 ~-:>T \\-:>l < tt iLl:
0' 0'
3 ~-:>T "5T t G \ \ iLl: 4 ~-:>T \\-:>T t G \ \ iLl:

m -IT -:7 i(::"

7 L I: 0) ?
TI....L (> fin'
-t 0) -c \ \ :,
..... '.J 0
J
r L... i~,*O) t:f I:
3 j? ty T \ \ I: 4 j? ty T \ \ -:>I:

[]] r L... i1.l'-tfli (::"7? tl~li i f:_' ch~? J

-fj- -:7 i tl ~ lit 7 ) l 0 0) (::"Iii f:_' \ \ I:\ \It (::" J 0

~ ~
1 Tlf'T \\~ 2 TifT ch~
~ ~
3 T1.I"-:>T \\~ 4 T1.I"-:>T ch~

~..t 7 !1H
[]] ~B, ch-fJ.'/:(:: g~1.I" T"5T, ( )0
C,i1'
1 ...t-t-T-t 2 l1.l'-:>f:T-t
»';(_

3 7 ty '" ~ 'J iLl:

t:>lvt'::(.,\2 * ,: AG 11 ~ ,

Ut
b(7),j: c':h""<?-g7J)o 1 ·2·3 . 47J)6 (.,\~';fh-
(.,\(.,\ b(7)~ ---:J ;i6h-""<? <t.::~(.,\o

*
 230)i(G\'
,;:.(_
* 3 4 1t::.
w Ar~n, -lj-7~'{'!i?J
B r ~ -:>~
kr
7j( ~
"
* \ 1 ~ i L t::. J: 0 J
2 ff <

~\
\ 1 -:> L .l: I: ~ L t::.tJ)
;"1:tt
JJ *'~,(, tJ) ~.J: -fJ.' G / \'- T -( - tJ)
f: ~....ii'
t..:: tjl Iv U f
<
L .J: ") t:
§-:>t::.,{,T-t-/;\ j:;-fJ.'-/;'-/;{ \It::.'< -fJ.'-:>l ~t::.tJ)T, ffit:f~,{,-/;{ *6iT

i::t
717f CD t?-tnt::.tJ)T, T~7··/(.,tJ) ..1:1: -fJ.'G-"T j:;\ll <t:'~\lo
"i t z
-tn-/;'G, ~Lt::., JJ*,~,{,I: ~1f'6 fJ-j.:·f [IJ <t:·~\\o /\-T-(-tJ)
it •.
i¥rl: hl...Jrt .~ i L.l: ") 0

1: 1:
OJ 1 i~-:> l 2 i~t;-fJ.'-/;{G
m1 !i G \ \ i L t::. 2 !i G -:>l \ \ i L t::.
.3 !:tG-:>l \'11±,.{:," 4 !i G -:>t::. .; t: -I; <' ;h I) i 1±,(,
J: ; ~\
W 1 ffl;t:-t6 tJ)-I;{
.t.., l' J: -) \ \
ffl;t:-t6tJ)T
m 1 ..
3
..
J1:-:>l sr
4

2
ffl:'t-t6tJ)1:
,j•

~-:>l \\-:>l
3 ~-:>l \Il 4
I)'

~\'1: *l~
 11*_' -,.' .'1,
.
rz (<:n' <:(J)' <:<:. <:-j)J(J)f~t-\/J
CD: nli t:.-n(J) n'lf'(' -r-tn'o
~" I: 11,c
@Af:(7) )J~~\\ 7'7_171i 8'-F-(7)T-thoJ
I,.'
Bf.;t;to Tt, :nli 1?J:-)t ~\\T-thoJ
®: : n{ \ \ t::. \ \,(, T-t 0

-,(

®-t L!i .; -7 LT 1t ') i -t 0

C" Used to indicate things that are close to both the speaker and the person addressed, and which can be seen by both (d) <2», or
to refer to something close to the speaker (@ (1)).
h L~ ~ r 'Jdll? ;~, !li"'; ;.. . b L "dfh ~
M;;~n::r>ll~:f-O)iiEi:;!jO)i6:<
I::;f,..,l, #i!I:Jtl\\~tO)((j)@), t/=I.tM;::till'JO)to) (®3) H~-t

. -,~ ~~
2 f of (ofn . of(J) . of z . of -j) J (J)~t- \/J
CD-lf7~,(" f:(7) l'PU'h, ~n\\T-tho
@ ~ l' vIi -e ; T-t 0

:1:':; tt';n ut: ~\'L~i ~

®~(J)-7 ~*3Z(J) 'Jx.t:.-tt %\\i Lt::.o f:(7) At *~(7) /\-j-1-1: *-i-to
r ') J,1t
®U;J: LJ T-tn'o +v: l6"li t": I: S I) i-tn'o
C" Used when indicating things which are closer to the listener than to the speaker (d»), or are located a little way away from the
speaker and listener (<2», or to things that are known to only one of either the speaker or the listener (@<1)).
h L'(> ! 'T t;d' h I.. '(' '! -r ... : U:~' h l 'I" ~

~::t.t I) t r>ll~ :f-I:ili\ \ to) «i». M;::t I:: BII~ :f-n' GJ' L ~Ut.t= I:: :: .') I:;f, ~ to) (@), M;::t 1:: BII~
T L ~ "'do
:f-O)t·t; G1.1' L ..Ho GfJ.'\ \ :: t ft~-t z ~ 1:1~-) (®3)o

r1> -i 8")1 ' 1::: oj ~ 1. '}

CDs nn{ 1f;g -fJ.' *JlC~7'7l' '/) - T'-t 0

~ i i.. 1::: I)

@!l G, S (7) *- (7) J:. 1 : .~ n{ \ \ i -t J: 0

I' ..z,.-tt
"
®~ (7)-7 ff-) t: l6"li J: n'-) t:T-tho it::. Sf:: I: ff~ i L J: 70
!H'L ~ J: i ,.
®Af*~,(" ~8n'G .>(> IJ/) :; t g -) T \ \ i L t:: J: J 0

tJot
BfS(7) Ali \\"'Jt
C" Used to indicate things that are some distance away from both the speaker and the
listener, but visible to both (d) <2». It is used to refer to things of which both the
speaker and listener are aware (@<1)).
~, L\" ~ '( I/Iilb 'HI.' !Ji"?? ;,. h
tif;~tr>ll~:f-O)iiEi:;!j1.l'G~it.l\\l, #i!I:Jtl\l~tO)((j)(~), ~i
L-:o ~ "( 'ld!li L ~ ..,d'
r \\~::t H~-t t ~ 1:1~-) (®3)
::t t BIl~ :f-O)iiEi:;!j1.l{~o", 0
 r- t: ~,!:; 'I)'

[:h/d"f9>'51] IL·-f·i16JO) lEG(,\ ~~ .(,\T <t.:~(,\o

-t h. i -l± Iv 0 T t: 1 f::: f -t "? "( t \ I\ I T -t iJ ' 0

2 CD -t
1.-:-(----

3 1;. 1<h0), G) ~ ~-r'/O) M-lf1 :;(1.1 <h') i-tiJ'oJ

"U_".c ----- 1

T6~I<h<h, @ -t f,fG <h1)i-t.J:o i;.l:"?t {~"?"(

()~

4 <h 5")iJ{tl f iJ'ltT \ I~ Ali t~JLT-tiJ'o

$ICIl <h I: ~.\I c'll--iJ{ <h I) i -tbo 'I -
" -----
"'-IviT 1t"5i-tiJ'oJ
"
1;t;L 11'"5 i -t ,LJ

[nlvL-f9>?2] (,\~'11v (,\(,\ =t(J)~ ;t61v~ <t.:~(,\o .

-t!",{.,-tb' tltp ;,/:L,

7t:i.lrL.~Iv, (m ) *~t, fJTL\'T-ttloJ

f,.ct, i 11 1,1:
r L, I ;t ;t , (@ ) Ii ~:i. 8 I: JLI: t G "? t: Iv T-t oj
CDa :::n b -tn c -to)
@a :::.n -,
c -tn
2 l t- 7. l- -7 /' T]
AI( )0) 77v-l.1 1;\ \ L \ \ -r'-ttloJ
~ ", +
B l-t -7T'-ttlo
h~
*~t
i,\ 'll';

*iL.l:-7oJ
h~ h~
a ::: 0) J;!; b -t 0) J;!; c <h0) 16
~.cl.; '(>1 t: 1,

3 A 17t~, JJ83 ~ Ivl: ~\ Ii L t:.J: oj

'(>1 t!
BIJJ83~Iv? (", )Ii t~
.n. -t-tiJ'oJ
A I **~ Iv
lIN

(7)
~ t

:tzt:' i; -t-t .J:oj

()~
B I <h<h, (@ ) T-tiJ'o 1; t L .2) \ I A T-t .J:tloJ
()~ ()~

CDa :::'0) A b +»: A

()~ ()~
@a :::'0) A b -t (7) A
t){\ -: < c,{. i'
4 -7i;0) t f.j,' ') I: 7'~OOAiJ{ 1ilv T
()~ ()~

a tho) A y-t(7) A
 "Z:9"fj)0 . t2fj)0
Ut;t,t J...,;t,t
CD :: fL {~ - -::> 100 p:j T 1" 0 T 1" -Q'G, .::. -::>(" 300 p:j (" 1" 0

l-1> c !!il.'" IiJ _

@t -3 ~ 8*t.:'0 t':'-Q'G, if'$(~I:{;!: t:'fLt \11,J.'\'i::: 1~70
Ut u; tCTl
@:: .; I;!: An{ 1:< i@.6£t:'0 t:'-Q'G, ::::1: i0"f };-Q,1,J.'\'To
e... Expresses a conclusion (fact, judgment or statement of inducement) arising from information in a foregoing statement.
~(7)jC(7)~~ (*1i . ~~~. {ih n'lt) ~i? 0 (u_\'I"'~~W- g,. \...AA\w.\ Sb\..,~,

2 -ftL"Z:
t", ~ s; ~I,-
CD)J\~\' ~-Q{ Jt;;{_1,J.'< 1,J.' 'J i L t:::.o -tfL T, ~fr L \
~,~
I

1}'l'L v.. tl; ;t\'~~ IiI" \\;(. 'r

@~:f±-Q{ il\ 10 -t fL T, .!f-< ~f 8:l60
i:i ,i:L ~ It., t t-, I'

e... Expresses a conclusion based on factual information in a foregoing statement. M(7)y:'IT'J~~ (*~) ~ -g? 0

3 ~ttLc' (b)
CD t: l t n « £ {f 'J i L t: 0 1t fL t:" i., \ I \ I " l £ {;!: t: fL i -tt- £ T L t: 0
-t: I;t
@ :: (J) t; _J -'7 {;!: \ I \ ~o 1 t fL t:", l' L ~ \ I 0

e... Used when something contrasts with a foregoing statement, or stands in opposition to it.
.t:i .i:,(,
.(7)Y:.t&~6:t,
IJ'{' 1:\·11"'T~
Mft~~:t~-g?o
\,

beX\I\W""'" ~ "-,,l:,f1\~ st~U~~"'1.

I"-t '
CD/{-t-t{;!: };\'L\'l"1"o -tfLl:, ~\'T1"o
;'dI) .'-tf
@mn{ ,}'-:>l \'6L, -t ttl: , ~t ih60

e'" Expands on or adds to the content of a foregoing statement.

"'IeMi ... """, 4~" i~ 113; 9<- \utilVl"1- 51, \~4
i:i
•
: t 11 .;:1,
(7)-g ~ 'I'>Y:. t ~1 L J: ?
S-;'..'
fJ.· :
..., <
t ~ 11It1;O;t T -g ?
h I'

5 t.:: (:: ;;(Ja:'

r: Il,t
CDa*(J) ;;z;f--'/', t:::.t:;;{_{;f. 1.::t1>-3t:"-3"f ~-:>l ht:::.\'T1"o
1"1
@J...rs ~ £ I;!:
to
\ 1-::>t };-t <
.';t
9w6 0 t:::. '(_ ;;{_ {f, ~ (J) -3 {;!: 11 *
~
I:
'H.
9w -:>t:::. 0

e... Expresses an example of something mentioned in a foregoing statement.

~{'ol.-l~ Co"~'"
t:i
•
: t Ii
(7)-g ~ 'I'>y:. (7)17rj ~ -g ?
,;:,(,#1.1' I'
0

6 (-ftL) "Z:'i . G '\'!'

11 t
@ I.:: t1> £ U' {;!: T ~ i L r. n' 0 -t fL T (;!:, 1<~<I") i L ,t -3 0

@;t-:>? 4]--'71;!: /\~T1-1: ·;jU,J.'\I? 1.::-\", Ir<t ~6')1:7n'1,fo

e... Introduces a reaction to a foregoing statement (the English equivalent is in that case), The reaction can be one of inference,
inducement or intent on the part of the speaker.
i;i ,;:.{. t!illi., h L~ "t,.?.(. 1':7 .h1'1" 111;" .'
.q)y:'(7)'I1~H ~ It 1", ~t:t(7):tt~'I'>;tJf;), 1§-t- .....(7)1t?"5n'(t 1".1.' to' f -g ? 0
I ttA- L,I~ iiJ a tJ)
;(, \ \ IJ<,
b tJ) ~ \~ \ 'a:?~ .:t 6ft., -c < t.:~~ \0
*,flJ<

1 z.o: ~@J(;t }Jt L"~C\o (a f:_'iJ'G b It;ttc:"t), -&-t~"~o

1;<

2 I: t """?(;t ~ (j) -5 ~ ') i L t:o (a -C-tiJ' G

3 A j.:f), ~ \ I,}, ~ h -t;tt -r L i \ 1i L t: J 0

-r: 'I'
Si(a -t:";ttT b l-\'"'), jI'L ~Li LJ: -5iJ'oJ
HI
4 jjJi iJ<' \ 1t: \ '0 (a t: t: it (f b -t:";ttI: ), tl"""? t ch ~ 0

r; 11.(. :' -,.' l :'t

5 B *t! ~ 1~-5 1±. ~

l :' t

1±.T-to
~ .t -) (~j ~ <Tl

6 ht:LI;t ~B ~T *-i Lt:o(a'T-tiJ'G b -t:"tLiJ'G),}J~lt~ fk<4i1±,C

.'t.l " r!) t<7l
7 ::1: }Ji:-~ AtL~o (a f:_'iJ'G b -t;ttiJ'G),I1L\1 fk<4~~(j) ;t'7/'~ }J-to
8
l' :

)" L *')
,;, z
i L t: 0 CT'a -t:"n I:
t: tfll
b -t:"n T),
~
$,

~ B
'I: 1;

.:; 3 .:f' /'7" L -r \ 1i -t 0

(~)a -t:";ttl: b -t:";tt-r), ~'-"::~~I: t ~~ """?It-r \ 'i-to
"1 1': ;(~ tl;

q ~(j) A",-\"I;t jI'L 1±i\IT-to (fa -t;ttl: b -t:";ttT) , AAiJ'G It\\T-to

((2) a -t;tt I: b -t:";ttT), U '? : -t : t: I: L i L t: 0

IttA-G~?21 atJ) btJ) ~\~\ 'a:?~, '.:t6ft., -c <t.:~~\o

1 ~ (7)-5 }J -t:"< tl t.0 f:_' iJ' G, (a tl t' \ 1 b h t' < 1'.1.' \ I) 0
11,(, : z If 1;1; t:
2 ;(j) *I;t hiJ'G1'J.'\1 g~iJ<' ~\IT-to -ttu:, (a -\,,<1: :ft.t;i-t
t: 1;"
b q=iJ<' IJI~\IT-t)o
1111 I) "? < t;t
3 l.t l 60 T .; (7) ;fBI ~ fF') i L t: 0 1t ;tt t" i.. (it}J \ 1L < T ~ t: t: ,~\ 1i -t
b }J \ L 1 < T ~ i 1±£ T L t:) 0

:.(.t' !:1;loU'
4 Ai~li:(7) BBllBI.t \1-t:"iJ<'L\I£T-toJ
If"?.tiU· 1:t;.tirJ ",(1:

SiTI.t, (a fjBllBI.t t"7T-tiJ' b,BBllBI.t 1PJ~ Lii'iJ')oJ

3: t, 111.( };~

5 :(7) IIlJI:I.t 1tiJ<' ~n\dJ.' :7it£iJ<' 37\10 t:t:itlf, (a ht:LI.t

I; I; t OJ " hI; t oJ

*~:7it£A",I.t it'?t: :t:iJ<' 1'.1.'\1 b*~:7it£l.t ~<G(7)

: 7 it£f:-)o
 13i_
116 11A- r:
G) ~ L- t.i- ::"~Ii r t-7 ~..-...::t:? J
-If -7 r -7 -7 A.h it:'
r ~'k: i 1,

@ ~ L- ~~1Tli rrt,\' -r \' i i"'~'oJ it:'

L i ")-r \ \ii"' J::oJ
t: 11~
®::n, };\\L\\o t-7 -"':) ~..-...::-rt
@;Z-7°1:
1':
t 7 1'L L};f An-r .'
C'" t -)indicates a state reached or process completed, i t: indicates a state not yet reached or a process not yet completed,
t -)is also used with "I + counter suffix" or -t : L to mean "a little more" (@@),
(lit::" I:., /:,., l!~h 1.:.1:1"; L -t:
rt-jJli;h6~MI:i!Lt.:::1:::, rit~Jlii!Llld ..'I\:1:::'t~-to rt-jJlif1 +Jl;/)~t<lJJ-\"rjtLJ
\·.,L.r. t~ '1.1; (h I>"h
-~ I: JfJ 1 -. -t q):I: 't ~ G I: hn ;t 6 : t 't ~ -t : t t if) 6 (@@)
-f;j: t' 1::: 0

2 1;]:. tNJ:. tJ) -\'!'':)C c-5c-5

,
G)/{;Z~{ tc»: u»: *-i-t±/vo
L :' ~ j.;

@~")(::: 1±.~{~h I) i L t: o

®-r t- t:'~{ (:::7(:::7 :hn-r L i ")

t: 0

C'" The "l' tJ' t~'IJ'~ t~'\ • patterns suggests that something will be or is difficult to realize or achieve, The ,<,.., t: ~ to pattern,
equivalent to at last in English, 'suggests that something was completed only after a long time and with difficulty, The t: -j t:
., ~ to, ~ ti IJ'.., to pattern, equivalent to in the end in English, indicates that sometbing finally happened, or failed to happen,
after a long wait.
C..,tfL 1:16' Mb t;"'~, c 1"'(.,
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[..,11.<.. i,i,h _ ~::+f u "'.<.. lit: :!Pt"il'!' ~ 1;

t.:::t't~-t. -
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,
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C... tJ'''l'':' l' means without exception, or express near-conviction, strong determination or inducement. ~.., t: has slightly less
conviction than t},1j_' i., l' and is used to express intention and inducement but with somewhat less urgency, {fV expresses a
strong wish or hope,
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t.t i l'
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IJ J:: : ; L ," L A. J, J,

10 ~,iiT<-1TV') ~$,T·-t7j'o (/-+1'U b ~-:>t) Jtt:'\T-to Jt-ttT < t:·~,\o

"';iI,

1 (_pY y~ I) i L t.: ,\i-tt,{,)o

", liA- J: J:
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t; l' J, J,;t If L.t

6 ~i31:K1 f Jt t.: Itt", J;!i V') ~plT7j< 1'J.'
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< I: I)! i I) t:. t:

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(~ Indicates that an action, behavior or state has gone beyond the appropriate extent. It usually has a negative meaning.
THt"? -r ';, t" : bt,b \. J. "?~.

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fJ.'\ , : z «(j)@),
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~~~ +~91,\C'9

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0' t<1'! if> t
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3 :(1) 7-=\=-li -t~':1-to (.hi\')

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j;j; ----- r:
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8
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b j:?\ I L < fJ.' < fJ.' I) :1 L t:) 0

3
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fJ{
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if>~ ~ih~
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8 :nli (a :.hn-'("-t<-c b :tJnl:< <-c), \1\1 j:?tt;""T'-tbo

i~ ;~
q 77 -7;t 7 T (a ~\ I-'("-t < -c b ~\ l-t ~"-C), (1)t"fJ{ \ \ t: < fJ.' I) :1 L t:o

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f:1ll '('t
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Ii\> If ,-". t.:.t: L t: rH <\'>1: ~:l
T . I: tn:') ~<A~:li*I;t, @(7)J: -) I:!lht;i] t'1{5h t:~I: 1".1.' ~ (LLI: (7)If I) 11: 1"-LL(7) If I) 0

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(@).
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3 ilJ~ (Adverb) # ~~~iiJ (Adjective)
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T
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tll·6(,· .i·( l lI.,j·
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4 ~~ (Noun) ~ 3t (Sentences and phrases)

tt I:J: .,~: f:1ll tt Ijt...
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;,
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3 /\--r1-(j) _____ Ii If < t: 1; -/;" -t 6.to (-Q'f:-5It 6)
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5 I:t",:)(j)(j) t (j ~ fziZT c t.:»>, (*~\I, :t:\I)
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6 *~(j) -/;" J: < h-/;' I) ;f L t:o (kl:}])

t.'1: I; ~~
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