ABSTRACT

GSM means global system for mobile communications. GSM is a generally utilized mobile
corresponding network around the globe. It is a 2G network with an advanced time division
multiple access (TDMA) framework for correspondence. GSM is a portable communications
framework used to transmit versatile voice and information services through different
frequencies ranging from 850MHz to 1900MHz frequency bands. J.C Maxwell laid the
foundation for the electro-magnetic theory in 1873 however it was not until mid1890s that
this theory was put to economic use for wireless communication. In the following report we
have an overview of mobile communications and a review of GSM and its efficiency in the
communication system.

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CONTENTS

I Abstract 4
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Overview of Mobile Communications
1.2 Handover
1.3 Location Area and Location Update
1.4 Mobile Antenna System
1.5 Feeder Cable
1.6 Identifiers
1.6.1 Mobile Handset
1.6.2 SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)

2 GSM Network Architecture 9

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mobile Stations
2.3 BSS (Base Station Subsystem)
2.3.1 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
2.3.2 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
2.4 Network Switching Subsystems (NSS)
2.4.1 The Home Location Register (HLR)
2.4.2 VLR (Visitor Location Register)
2.4.3 AuC (Authentication Centre)
2.4.4 EIR (Equipment Identity Register)
2.5 Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
2.6 GSM Network Structure

3 Mobile Intelligent Network (MOBILE IN) 12

4 GSM Network Connectivity 12

4.1 BTS-BSC Connectivity
4.1.1 Decision on Media Between BTS-BSC
4.1.2 Chaining Of BTS
4.2 BSC-MSC Connectivity
4.3 Connectivity of Other Nodes
4.4 GSM Interfaces

5 GSM Network Identities 14

5.1 Identification of Mobile Subscribers
5.2 Structure Of TMSI
5.3 Numbering Plan Requirements
5.3.1 Structure of MS International PSTN/ISDN Number
(MSISDN)

6 GSM Radio Specifications 15

6.1 GSM Frequency Bands
6.2 ARFCN (Absolute. Radio-Frequency Channel Number)
6.3 Duplexing & Access Methods

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 6.3.1 TDMA & FDMA
6.4 Frequency Hopping

7 Signalling in Mobile Networks Structure 17

7.1 Signalling Types
7.2 Common Channel Signalling System Number 7
(CCS7)

8 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) 17

8.1 Advantages of CDMA
8.2 Differences Between GSM and CDMA
8.2.1 Technology Used
8.2.2 Sim Cards
8.2.3 Flexibility
8.2.4 Spectrum Frequencies
8.2.5 Radiation Exposure
8.2.6 Global Reach
8.2.7 Security
8.2.8 Data Transfer Rate

9 Conclusions 20

10 References 20

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW OF MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
In mobile communications the connectivity of the user (Mobile Subscriber) with Mobile
Network is through radio signals and there are no wires from the network to user equipment.
The objective of mobile communications is to provide a truly anytime, anywhere
communication. Today mobile is providing Voice, messaging and a number of data services
to users like real time TV, on line payments of utility bills, m-commerce, news,
entertainments etc
Although mobile telephony can be seen in broad sense as the wireless communication and
wireless services can be offered through various technologies like GSM, CDMA, Cor-DECT,
etc.
In 1873, J.C. Maxwell laid the foundation of the electro-magnetic theory, which is still valid
today. It would however several decades after (in 1895) that Marconi made economic use of
this theory by developing devices for wireless transmission of Morse signals (in 1895). Voice
was transmitted on wireless for the first time in 1906 (R. Fesseden), and one of the first radio
broadcast transmission 1909 in New York.
This type of one-way transmission is called simplex transmission. The transmission takes
place only in one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver. This was the first type of
fixed wireless transmission. For conversation, a technical solution is required, where the
information flow can take place in two directions. This type of transmission is called duplex
transmission. Walky-talky was already available the early 1930's. This system already
allowed a transmission of user data in two directions, but there was a limitation: The users
were not allowed to transmit at the same time. In other words, you could only receive or
transmit user information at any given instant of time. This type of transmission was therefore
often called semi-duplex transmission. For telephony services, technical solutions are
required, where subscribers have the impression, that they can speak (transmit) and hear
(receive) simultaneously. This type of transmission solution is regarded as full duplex
transmission.

1.2 HANDOVER
The mobile communication service was only available within the cell. In order to overcome
this limitation, multi-cellular systems were introduced. A cellular mobile communication
system consists of several cells, which can overlap. By doing so, a whole geographical area
can be supported with the mobile communication service.
If the subscriber is leaving a cell, and in parallel is entering a new cell, then the system makes
new radio resource available in the neighbouring cell, and then the call is handed over from
on cell to the next one. By doing so, service continuation is guaranteed, even when the
subscriber is moving. This process is called handover (HO). A handover takes place during a
call, i.e. when the mobile phone is in active (dedicated) mode.

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In the idle mode, the mobile phone is listening to this system information. If the user moves
from one cell to the next cell, and the new cell belongs to the same location area, the mobile
stays idle. If the new cell belongs to a new location area, then the mobile phone has to
become active. It starts a communication with the network; information is send to the mobile
network. This is stored in databases within the mobile network, and if there is a mobile
terminated call, the network knows where to page the subscriber.

1.3 LOCATION AREA AND LOCATION UPDATE

Location Area is a group of cells. The subscriber is paged in this area. If the mobile network
does not know, in which cell the mobile phone is located, it must be paged in all of them. One
or more base station controllers are used to serve each Location Area but by a single MSC. A
mobile phone is paged in only one location area at a time. The LA is used by the GSM system
to search for a subscriber in an active state.

The process, where the mobile phone informs the network about its new location is called
Location Update Procedure (LUP). The registration of the Mobile is done at the VLR (Visitor
Location Register) associated with the Mobile Switching Network. Each mobile is needed to
report regularly its location at a given time of interval by using a periodic location update
process. A random location update is required, whenever a mobile moves from one location
to another while not on a call.

1.4 MOBILE ANTENNA SYSTEM

The transmission and reception of information using Electro Magnetic (EM) waves is known
as Radio or Wireless communication. An EM wave, consists of an Electrical component and a
Magnetic component. The directions of the Electric component, the Magnetic component and
Propagation are mutually perpendicular to each other. Antenna transform wire-propagated
waves into space-propagated waves. They receive electromagnetic waves and pass them onto
a receiver or they transmit electromagnetic waves, which have been produced by a
transmitter.

1.5 FEEDER CABLE

RF feeder cable is used to feed antennas and deliver radio frequency power from BTS to
Antenna. RF Jumper cables serve its varied purposes as a connector between main feeders
and antennas. Also, these jumpers can be connected in between main feeders and RF
equipment, such as telecom tower, BTS, antenna feeder system. VSWR (Voltage standing-
wave ratio) is defined as the ratio of the maximum radio-frequency (RF) voltage to the
minimum RF voltage along the line.

1.6 IDENTIFIERS
The Handset and SIM are identified in the network with a set of identifiers. The Handset is
identified with IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity). Whereas SIM is identified
with ICCID (Integrated Circuit Card Identifier) and IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity).

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1.6.1 MOBILE HANDSET
The mobile handset is the only mobile part in the mobile communication system. A mobile
phone (also known as a cellular phone or cell phone) is a device that can make and receive
telephone calls over a radio link whilst moving around a wide geographic area.
1.6.2 SIM (SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE)
A SIM is an integrated circuit that securely stores the Information related to the subscriber’s
identity which is used to identify and authenticate the subscriber within the GSM Networks.
A SIM card contains its unique serial number (ICCID), international mobile subscriber
identity (IMSI), security authentication and ciphering information, temporary information
related to the local network.

2 GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
GSM system can be looked as consisting of two main blocks namely–
1. Radio Equipment & 2. Core Equipment.
The Radio Equipment is one which provides access to mobile subscribers.
Core Equipment is responsible for call handling, billing and other important functions. Core
Network also has databases like HLR and VLR which keep a record of subscriber data. A
cell, identified by a BTS which transmits and receives the radio signals, is the basic unit of a
GSM network. It provides coverage in an area. Cells are of different shapes and sizes.
To take care of Operation and Maintenance of the GSM system, we have a third component
of the GSM network which is called OSS (Operations Support Systems). Through this OSS,
we maintain the health of the network as well as do the day-to-day operations like subscriber
creation, facilities modification etc.
A GSM network comprises of various subsystems as described below:

(1) Mobile Station (MS): Comprises Mobile Handset and SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)
(2) Base Station Subsystem (BSS): BTS - Base Transceiver Station BSC - Base Station
Controller;
(3) Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

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MSC - Mobile Switching Centre; VLR - Visitor Location Register; HLR - Home Location
Register;
AuC - Authentication Centre; EIR - Equipment Identity Register;
(4) Operations & Support Systems;
(5) Important Interfaces:
Interface : Interfacing Nodes
Um : MS & BTS
Abis : BTS & BSC
A : BSC & MSC

2.2 MOBILE STATIONS

MS is a combination of GSM Handset and a SIM card. GSM handset is technically known as
Mobile Equipment (ME) and is identified by a unique number known as IMEI. SIM has also
an internationally unique number inscribed into it. This number is called IMSI – International
Mobile Subscriber Identity. The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice
and data over the air interface of the GSM system. The MS also provides the receptor for
SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle between the voice and data use. Moreover, the
mobile facilitates access to voice messaging systems. 
MS keeps the GSM network informed of its location during both national and international
roaming, even when it is inactive. This enables the System to page it in case of incoming
calls/SMSs.
2.3 BSS (BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM)
The BSS comprises of two parts −
 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS
may consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The
BSS uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1
or E1) is then connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.
2.3.1 THE BASE TRANSCEIVER STATION (BTS)
The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link protocols
with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.
The BSS is a set of Base Station equipment, namely BTS & BSC, responsible for
communicating with MSs in a certain area.
A BTS comprises radio transmission and reception devices, including the antennas, and also
all the signal processing specific to the radio interface. BTSs have number of GSM radio
frequencies. These radio frequencies support voice and data communication between MS and
BTS. More are the number of GSM frequencies supported in a BTS, greater is the traffic
handling capacity of the BTS. BSC is the only intelligent unit in BSS. Number of BTS’s are
parented to a BSC. It essentially controls the radio functions of GSM system.
2.3.2 THE BASE STATION CONTROLLER (BSC)

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The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the
MSC.
BSC is the only intelligent unit in BSS. Number of BTS’s are parented to a BSC. It
essentially controls the radio functions of GSM system.
2.4 NETWORK SWITCHING SUBSYSTEMS (NSS)
The NSS (Network Switching Subsystem) consists of main switch (Exchange) as well as
some databases, needed for subscriber data and mobility management. The MSC is the main
unit of NSS. It is the switch or exchange for Mobile Network which does the call handling,
routing of calls, etc. MSC is also connected to other MSCs of same LSA to support mobile
calls within same LSA. Similarly, the MSC is also connected to MSCs/ Exchanges of other
networks like Landline Exchanges and MSCs of other operators/ LSAs to support the call
routing to and from other networks. NSS also includes some databases to keep the data of
subscribers and their locations.

2.4.1 THE HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR)

HLR is the main database of GSM system. At the time of a new GSM connection, on
activation of services the subscriber data is created in HLR. HLR is the permanent data of all
the subscribers of an LSA (Licensed Service Area). There is one HLR in an LSA.
2.4.2 VLR (VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER)
Apart from permanent database a temporary database of the subscribers is also maintained in
the form of a VLR (Visitor Location Register). Each MSC has a VLR.
2.4.3 AuC (AUTHENTICATION CENTRE)
AuC is another database of NSS to be used to authenticate a SIM (subscriber) in to the
network. A subscriber is allowed to access the network after it is authenticated in AuC.
2.4.4 EIR (EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER)
EIR is another database that stores the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
numbers for all registered MS units. It is also used to validate the IMEI of all the MS working
in a LSA.

2.5 OPERATION AND SUPPORT SUBSYSTEM (OSS)

The OSS is a server used to monitor the network performance. The OSS is connected to all
the BSCs and MSCs in the network of an LSA in a LAN/ WAN. An OMC (Operation &
Maintenance Centre) is established through OSS which monitors the network round the clock.
OSS provides fault management where alarms of network entities are monitored so that
corrective action may be taken. OSS also provides network reports which may be used to
analyse the network performance. As the OSS is connected to all the network elements, it is
also used to control/ configure the network entities.

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2.6 GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE
Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming call to
the correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is
of great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers.
In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned areas.
 Cell (BTS Coverage Area)
 Location Area (LA)
 PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) service area;
 GSM service area
A cell is the smallest geographical coverage area of a GSM network. The coverage area of a
BTS is called a Cell. BTS coverage is further divided in to 3 sub-cells, called as sectors. A
number of such cells (BTS) are further grouped to form a Location Area (LA).
A BTS is further connected to a BSC. A BSC controls a group of BTS. Thus, a BSC is
controlling one or more Location Areas (LA). A BTS is used to provide radio resources to a
GSM subscriber (user) but this is not incorporated with control functionalities. A BSC is
provided with all the intelligence which controls a number of BTS and manages the radio
resources
In order to serve number of subscribers, generally more than one MSC is located in an LSA.
These MSC’s are placed at different locations.

3 MOBILE INTELLIGENT NETWORK (MOBILE IN)

Mobile IN is used to offer prepaid services in combination of MSCs. An IN may be
connected to MSCs of more than one LSA. The IN provides the feature mainly real time
charging of voice call, SMS or other uses.

4 GSM NETWORK CONNECTIVITY

4.1 BTS-BSC CONNECTIVITY
Antennas are connected to duplexer unit of BTS via feeder cables. Two feeder cables (main &
diversity) are feed to duplexer. BTSs are connected with BSC via PCM (Pulse Code
Modulation) cable, OFC, IP, satellite or microwave.
4.1.1 DECISION ON MEDIA BETWEEN BTS-BSC
 Microwave Link is used where line of sight radio path is available. Microwave is
suitable for hilly, inaccessible and difficult terrain areas & its deployment is also
quick. It can provide both TDM & IP Connectivity. But it supports maximum STM-1
system & it is less reliable as compare to physical connectivity. Also fading &
interference are few drawbacks of microwave connectivity.
 Leased Line (Copper Cable or Fibre Optic) used where the distance between the BSC
and BTS is too great for microwave.
 Satellite Link is used where previous two methods are not possible.

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BTS & BSC may be interconnected with simple PCM cable if they are situated collocated. If
the distance between two is less then 100m, then also PCM cable can be used to connect the
both.
Satellite connectivity can be better option to serve remote areas. It also takes less time to
deploy. Terrestrial build-outs can take years to plan and implement. BTS-BSC connectivity
in areas of ‘minor’ interest can be provided by it. These can include small isolated centres
such as tourist resorts, islands, mines, oil exploration sites, hydro-electric facilities, etc.
4.1.2 CHAINING OF BTS
Generally, one PCM is sufficient to connect a BTS with BSC (up to 4+4+4 configuration).
BTS can also be chained. One BTS me be connected with BSC and rest BTSs may be
connected to BSC via master BTS. This may save the media but reduce reliability.
4.2 BSC-MSC CONNECTIVITY
BSCs are connected with MSC via E1. BSC works on 16kbps while MSC perform 64Kbps
switching, that’s why a transcoder is placed between BSC & MSC that convert 16kbps to 64
Kbps and vice versa.
CCS-7(Common Channel Signalling System) signalling is used between BSC & MSC while
LAP-D (link access protocol on channel D ) is used between BSC & transcoder. Transcoder
is transparent to CCS-7 signalling between BSC & MSC. Now a days TFO (transcoder free
operation) BSCs are also used.
4.3 CONNECTIVITY OF OTHER NODES
MSCs are connected with gateway MSC/other MSCs via E1 for inter MSC communication.
It may also connect to other PSTN switches for communication with land line subscribers.
Generally, in one PLMN (public land mobile network) all MSCs are connected with GMS
and inter PLMN traffic is handle via GMSC.
VLR is generally integrated in MSC and it communicates with HLR via E1. Signalling
between MSC & HLR is CCS-7.
SCP (service control point) is node to control IN services (mostly pre paid calls). It is with
MSC/VLR and provides call control functionality. CAMEL protocol (CAP) is used between
MSC/VLR and SCP.
Billing server is connected with MSCs/GMSC and process CDRs transferred by these nodes.
Integrated customer care, billing and accounting platform (B&CCS) is used to support a wide
range of GSM Services like GPRS, WAP, IN Services.
NMS (Network management sub system) is a centralized node and connected with BSCs,
MSCs and HLRs etc. It provides centralized management of these nodes and can generate
network quality report.
4.4 GSM INTERFACES
Following are the specified interfaces:
Um: MS - BTS (air or radio interface)
A: MSC – BSC
Abis: BSC – BTS (proprietary interface)
Ater/(Asub): BSC – TRAU (proprietary interface)

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B: MSC – VLR
C: MSC – HLR
D: HLR – VLR
E: MSC – MSC
F: MSC – EIR
G: VLR – VLR

5 GSM NETWORK IDENTITIES

5.1 IDENTIFICATION OF MOBILE SUBSCRIBERS
A unique International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) shall be allocated to each mobile
subscriber in the GSM system. In order to support the subscriber identity confidentiality
service, the VLRs and SGSNs may allocate Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identities (TMSI)
to visiting mobile subscribers. The VLR and SGSNs must be capable of correlating an
allocated TMSI with the IMSI of the MS to which it is allocated. An MS may be allocated
two TMSIs, one for services provided through the MSC, and the other for services provided
through the SGSN (P-TMSI for short).
IMSI is composed of three parts:
(i) Mobile Country Code (MCC) consisting of three digits. The MCC identifies uniquely the
country of domicile of the mobile subscriber;
(ii) Mobile Network Code (MNC) consisting of two or three digits for GSM applications. The
MNC identifies the home GSM PLMN of the mobile subscriber. The length of the MNC (two
or three digits) depends on the value of the MCC. A mixture of two and three digit MNC
codes within a single MCC area is not recommended and is outside the scope of this
specification.
(iii) Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN), identifying the mobile subscriber
within a GSM PLMN. The National Mobile Subscriber Identity (NMSI) consists of the
Mobile Network Code and the Mobile Subscriber Identification Number
5.2 STRUCTURE OF TMSI
Since the TMSI has only local significance (i.e. within a VLR and the area controlled by a
VLR, or within an SGSN and the area controlled by an SGSN), the structure and coding of it
can be chosen by agreement between operator and manufacturer in order to meet local needs.
The TMSI consists of 4 octets. It can be coded using a full hexadecimal representation. In
order to avoid double allocation of TMSIs after a restart of an allocating node, some part of
the TMSI may be related to the time when it was allocated or contain a bit field which is
changed when the allocating node has recovered from the restart.
In areas where both MSC-based services and SGSN-based services are provided, some
discrimination is needed between the allocation of TMSIs for MSC-based services and the
allocation of TMSIs for SGSN-based services. The discrimination shall be done on the 2 most
significant bits, with values 00, 01, and 10 being u used by the VLR, and 11 being used by the
SGSN.
The network shall not allocate a TMSI with all 32 bits equal to 1 (this is because the TMSI
must be stored in the SIM, and the SIM uses 4 octets with all bits equal to 1 for indicating that
no valid TMSI is available.

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5.3 NUMBERING PLAN REQUIREMENTS
In principle, it should be possible for any subscriber of the ISDN or PSTN to call any MS in a
GSM PLMN. This implies that ISDN numbers for MSs should comply with the ISDN
numbering plan in each country.
The ISDN numbers of MSs should be composed in such a way that standard ISDN/PSTN
charging can be used for calls to MSs. It should be possible for each administration to
develop its own independent numbering/addressing plan for MSs.
The numbering/addressing plan should not limit the possibility for MSs to roam among GSM
PLMNs. It should be possible to change the IMSI without changing the ISDN number
allocated to an MS and vice versa. In principle, it should be possible for any subscriber of the
CSPDN/PSPDN to call any MS in a GSM PLMN.
5.3.1 STRUCTURE OF MS INTERNATIONAL PSTN/ISDN NUMBER
(MSISDN)
The MS international ISDN numbers are allocated from the CCITT Recommendation E.164
numbering plan, see also CCITT Recommendation E.213.
The number consists of: - Country Code (CC) of the Country in which the MS is registered,
followed by - National (significant) mobile number which consists of National Destination
Code (NDC) and Subscriber Number (SN). For GSM applications, a National Destination
Code is allocated to each GSM PLMN. In some countries more than one NDC may be
required for each GSM PLMN. The composition of the MS international ISDN number
should be such that it can be used as a global title address in the Signalling Connection
Control Part (SCCP) for routing messages to the home location register of the MS. The
country code (CC) and the national destination code (NDC) will provide such routing
information. If further routing information is required, it should be contained in the first few
digits of the subscriber number (SN). A sub-address may be appended to an ISDN number for
use in call se-t-up and in supplementary service operations where an ISDN number is
required The sub-address is transferred to the terminal equipment denoted by the ISDN
number.

6 GSM RADIO SPECIFICATIONS

6.1 GSM FREQUENCY BANDS
GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges, with most GSM
networks operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these bands were already
allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in Canada and
the United States).
These are different types of GSM 900 Band
 P-GSM, Standard or Primary GSM-900 Band
 E-GSM, Extended GSM-900 Band (includes Standard GSM-900 band)
 R-GSM, Railways GSM-900 Band (includes Standard and Extended GSM-900 band)
In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries because
they were previously used for first-generation systems. In India GSM technology works in the
frequency bands of 900 and 1800 MHz.

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GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station
(uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF channels
(channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. Guard
bands 100 kHz wide are placed at either end of the range of frequencies.
GSM-1800 uses 1,710–1,785 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base
transceiver station (uplink) and 1,805–1,880 MHz for the other direction (downlink),
providing 374 channels (channel numbers 512 to 885). Duplex spacing is 95 MHz. GSM-
1800 is also called DCS (Digital Cellular Service) in the United Kingdom. GSM-1900 which
is commonly called PCS in also used in few places.
6.2 ARFCN (ABSOLUTE. RADIO-FREQUENCY CHANNEL NUMBER)
In GSM cellular networks, an absolute radio-frequency channel number (ARFCN) is a code
that specifies a pair of physical radio carriers and channels used for transmission and
reception on the air interface, one for the uplink signal and one for the downlink signal.
6.3 DUPLEXING & ACCESS METHODS
Duplexing methods: - Duplexing refers to the way downlink and uplink data is arranged in a
two-way wireless transmission. There are two types of duplexing schemes, FDD and TDD
 FDD (Frequency Division Duplex): It requires two distinct frequency channels for
transmitting downlink sub-frame and uplink sub-frame at the same time slot (meaning
simultaneously).

 TDD (Time Division Duplex): is another duplexing scheme that requires only one channel
for transmitting downlink and uplink sub-frames at two distinct time slots (at different times).
Here same single frequency is used to transmit & receive data in turns (doing only one thing
at one time).GSM use FDD duplexing method hence it use different band /frequency for
uplink & downlink
6.3.1 TDMA & FDMA
FDMA, like other Multiple Access systems, coordinates access between multiple users by
allocating different frequency to different users.
TDMA allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into
different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its
own time slot.
To achieve a high spectral efficiency in the cellular network a combination of FDMA
(Frequency Division Multiple Access) and TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access ) is used.
The FDMA part involves the division by frequency of the 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier
frequencies spaced 200 KHz for GSM-900. For GSM-1800 the frequency spectrum of the 75
MHz bandwidth is divided into 374 carrier frequencies spaced 200 KHz. One or more
frequencies are assigned to each BTS. Each of these carrier frequencies is then divided in
time, using a TDMA scheme to increase the number of channels per carrier frequency.
6.4 FREQUENCY HOPPING
The Frequency Hopping function permits the dynamic switching of radio links from one
carrier frequency to another. Frequency hopping changes the frequency used by a radio link

13
every new TMDA frame in a regular pattern. Frequency Hopping is a GSM feature which can
be enabled or disabled on a per cell basis. It reduces the probability of interference.

7 SIGNALLING IN MOBILE NETWORKS STRUCTURE

In GSM, signalling can also be independent from speech. The different functions of signalling
are call control, control of services, and charging control. Mobile networks have some special
functions, such as location update, handover, subscriber administration, and short message
service. GSM signalling can be divided into three main categories: o Speech and data
connection (set up, supervise and release a call) o Mobility management (location update,
handover) o Subscriber administration (including all basic and supplementary GSM services)
7.1 SIGNALLING TYPES
Signalling messages can be categorized into two main types.
 Circuit-related Signalling
 Non-circuit-related Signalling

7.2 COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALLING SYSTEM NUMBER 7 (CCS7)

Common Channel Signalling (CCS) is a Signalling method that uses addressed messages to
convey Signalling information over a single channel. CCS supports both circuit-related and
non-circuit-related Signalling. CCS7 is an internationally standardized CCS system that is
optimized for operation in digital telecommunication networks such as GSM. One of the main
advantages of CCS7 is that the Signalling does not have to go along the same path as the
speech. Therefore, CCS7 can support both circuit-related and non-circuit related Signalling.
8 CDMA (CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)
CDMA is also a radio telecommunication standard similar to GSM.
 The CDMA came into existence in 2G and 3G generation as the protocol of wireless
communication.
 It is based on the spread spectrum technology and makes optimal use of the available
bandwidth. Since it uses the spread spectrum technology, hence allows each user to
transmit the data over the entire frequency spectrum at any time.
 The CDMA provides one of the most secure modes of communication due to its
spread spectrum property.
 It is used in UHF or Ultra high-frequency cellular systems, with frequency bands
ranging from 800MHz to 1900MHz.

8.1 ADVANTAGES OF CDMA

 It uses a fixed frequency spectrum in an efficient way.
 There is no limit on the number of Users.
 It provides a flexible allocation of resources.
 It is compatible with other cellular technologies; hence it allows nation-wide roaming.

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8.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GSM AND CDMA

8.2.1 TECHNOLOGY USED

The GSM is based on the wedge spectrum technology, also known as a carrier. This carrier is
split into various time slots on the basis of TDMA technology, and each time slots are
assigned to each user. Due to this, until one outgoing call is finished, no other user can access
that slot. It uses FDMA to provide multiuser access by dividing the user frequencies.

On the other hand, CDMA uses the spread spectrum technology and hence it makes optimal
use of the available bandwidth. It enables each user to transfer the data over the entire
frequency spectrum at any time.

8.2.2 SIM CARDS

SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) is a smart card that contains the user identification
information to identify the subscriber on a telephony device. In a GSM-based phone, a SIM
card is required to make the data or call transmission. These cards can be easily replaced from
one mobile phone to another with saved information.

On the other hand, CDMA based devices do not require a SIM card; instead, it uses ESN
(Electronic Serial Number). Since it does not use a SIM card, hence changing a device from
another is difficult and required a proper procedure.

8.2.3 FLEXIBILITY

The GSM standard is more flexible as compared to CDMA. It is because, in GSM, the SIM
card can be inserted into any device and can be used. Whereas, CDMA mobile phone can
only be used if ESN is registered in its database.

If a CDMA stops working on a phone, we need to buy the new phone, whereas if a SIM stops
working, we can use another SIM rather than changing the phone.

8.2.4 SPECTRUM FREQUENCIES

The GSM works on the frequency spectrum ranging from 850 MHz to 1900 MHz, whereas
CDMA also operates in the frequency range of 850MHz and 1900MHz.

8.2.5 RADIATION EXPOSURE

In GSM phones, there is 28 times more radiation exposure takes place as compared to CDMA
phones.

GSM phone continuously transmits wave pulses, whereas CDMA phones do not continuously
produce such pulses.

8.2.6 GLOBAL REACH

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GSM is more used globally as compared to CDMA technology. Approx. 80% of the mobile
networks across 210 countries use GSM compared to CDMA. The CDMA-based mobile
phones are mostly used in the US, Canada, and Japan.

8.2.7 SECURITY

The CDMA provides more security as compared to GSM technology because it has inbuilt
encryption and uses the spread spectrum for data transmission.

In CDMA, the signal detection is much difficult than in GSM. Hence it is more secure.

8.2.8 DATA TRANSFER RATE

The data transfer rate is high in CDMA compared to GSM technology. In CDMA, EVDO
data transfer technology is used, which provides a maximum download speed of 2 Mbps.

On the other hand, GSM uses EDGE data transfer technology that provides a maximum
download speed of 384 Kbps, which is much slower than CDMA.

CDMA GSM
It stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It stands for Global System for Mobile
Communication.
It uses a CDMA mechanism for data & call It uses TDMA and FDMA mechanism for
transmission. data & voice transmission.
The transmission rate is fast compared to The transmission rate is slow compared to
GSM. CDMA.
It uses EVDO data transfer technology. It uses EDGE data transfer technology.
It is handset specific and does not require It is SIM specific, hence requires a SIM
any SIM for communication. card for communication.
During transmission, it is much prone to During transmission, it is comparatively less
radiation emission. prone to radiation emission.
It offers more secure communication It offers less secure communication
compared to GSM. compared to CDAM.
The signal detection is difficult in CDMA. The signal detection is easy in GSM.
It provides built-in encryption. It requires additional encryption as no built-
in encryption is available.
It enables limited roaming. It enables worldwide roaming.

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9 CONCLUSIONS
With GSM Technology we are having low-cost mobile sets and base stations.
The data and voice signals are of high quality and GSM is also compatible with
integrated services digital network.
Today GSM is used by more than 800 million end users spread across 190
countries which represent around 80% of today’s digital wireless market.

10 REFERENCES
i. GSM System Engineering by Asha Mehrotra (https://www.pdfdrive.com/gsm-system-
engineering-artech-house-mobile-communications-series-e158717889.html )
ii. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313879684_GSM_Technology_Architecture
_Security_and_Future_Challenges
iii. CDMA vs. GSM | Difference between CDMA and GSM - javatpoint
iv. https://studymafia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Mech-GSM-Report.pdf
v. GSM - Architecture - Tutorialspoint
vi. Mobile Communication Introduction - Javatpoint
vii. Cellular Handover or Handoff » Electronics Notes (electronics-notes.com)
viii. How GSM works ? - GeeksforGeeks
ix. https://eeestudy.com/gsm-architecture-explain/

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