Aisha Mubashar

201350047

SOCIOLOGY
FINAL ASSIGNMENT
● Submit a portfolio of your learning’s of this course. Describes briefly
the learning from each of the section. Give real life example from all
these topics or areas which we have covered.

Sociology itself has actual substance. For the one who knows it, it has academic
implications. The study of sociology encourages us as a student and even as a
human to understand human society and the functioning of the social system. A
quantitative research on human societies helps one to understand that there are
many diverse alternatives to the common human dilemma of making a living in
people in various societies.
We have learnt numerous things about sociology and its functioning relating to
different matters in a very short span of time as this subject sociology is now
widespread spread enough to be a prolonged course.

Topic: Sociology Perspective

In this topic, first of all we have learnt the meaning and the definition of
“SOCIOLOGY”, Sociology and other sciences such as political sciences,
economics, anthropology, psychology, and then about different momentous
sociologists and their honorable work such as:

▪ Auguste Comte (1798-1857) - coined the term “sociology” and suggested

“positivism”. He applied a scientific approach to the social world. He also
established two specific problem for sociological investigation.
●Social statics – Problem of Order and Stability.
e.g., Family; in social organization holds a significant role. It is the basis for
society's social system and advancement.
●Social dynamics – Problem of Social Change.
e.g., An increase in the standard of education follows an increase in the
prestige and then a rise in revenues.

▪ Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) – coined the term “survival of the fittest”.

He viewed societies as evolutionary. He was well-known for the theory
Social Darwinism which is comparing Human Societies to Living
Organisms.
 ▪ Karl Marx (1818-1883) - was one of the most important of the 19th century
thinkers. He was the founder of the Conflict Perspective. An example of
conflict perspective would be #MeToo Movement.

▪ Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) – wanted to recognize sociology as a

separate academic discipline. His main interest was the consequences of
work in modern societies, which lead him to make a theory Anomie.

An example of Anomie: A poor person belongs to a society which places

rich people at higher/better positions in hierarchy. The poor person must
earn to live a better life. But there are no opportunities or means available
for him to get anywhere in life, because he is poor. The individual ultimately
either succumbs to the feeling of worthlessness and commits suicide or
he violates the norms and uses unfair practices to get where he wants to /he
commits crime.

▪ Max Weber (1864-1920) - defined religion as a central force in social

change. He is also credited for the Ideal Type, a key conceptual tool.
Example of ideal type would be a person whose everything you admire so
much to the point where you made that person as your ideal type, as the one
whom you want to be or become.

Mainly, there are THREE theoretical perspectives in sociology.

▪ Symbolic interactionism regards symbols as the foundation for social life,
objects to which we assign value.
▪ The Conflict Theory is presented as a society consisting of groups rivals of
finite resources.
▪ Functional analysis is that society is a complete entity consisting of
interconnected components working together.

We take armed robbery example to further elaborate these perspectives.

▪ Symbolic interaction will concentrate on how armed robber take choices,
such as when and where robbing someone, and how their encounters with
other criminals strengthen their own crime trends.
▪ In a conflict perspective, it should be noted that most street criminals are
needy and thus highlight that armed robbers are the consequence of poverty
distress and dissatisfaction and the loss of employment and other economic
and social prospects. It will propose far-reaching improvements in society's
economic system.
 ▪ A functionalist perspective may say that armed robbery is still a positive
function because it does think that attempts to curtail armed robbery should
be made, but it also assumes that far-reaching adjustments in the society as
part of the initiative to curb crime are not wise or necessary.

A short concept of applied and clinical sociology i.e., In order to solve challenges,
applied sociologists propose functional improvements whereas Clinical
sociologists participate actively in social transformation by working in different
social fields. Also, there is some other notion for the origin of sociology and nature
of sociology.

Topic: Culture
In this topic, first of all we have learnt the definition of “Culture” as a general and
according to Linton too. A few Example of culture is customs, laws, dress,
architectural style, social standards, religious beliefs, and traditions. We learnt
different characteristics and elements of culture which are pretty much different for
every country.
Following are the two major parts of a culture:
▪ Material culture consists of things that are created by humans. Material
culture is always a product of Non-material Culture. Examples include cars,
buildings, clothing, and tools.
▪ Nonmaterial culture refers to the abstract ideas and ways of thinking that
make up a culture. Examples of nonmaterial culture include traffic laws,
words, and dress codes.

The Cultural Shock explains the effect of moving from a familiar to unfamiliar
culture. It includes the shock of a new environment, the meeting of many new
people and the way to learn about new country’s culture.
Example of culture shock would be a Desi person of Pakistan who travelled to
Korea will face a big culture shock when he/she will see the food menu in the
Korean pubs or restaurants. As in Pakistan he/she eats Biryani, Nihari, Chapati etc.
but in Korea their food is Kimchi, Soft tofu stew, Bulgogi etc.

Two major components of culture are:

▪ Symbols - Anything with a specific sense that people who have a shared-
culture understand. Examples of symbols will be a mark such as Christian-
cross, the star and crescent in Islam.
 ▪ Language – is a form of communication. It is an expression of thoughts and
ideas into words. Language is the cornerstone of culture

Cultural Transmission is a method of passing culture to the next generation of

one generation. Example of cultural transmission is that knife and forks are used in
western societies but in japan they use chopsticks.

Values are the ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Some of the Examples
of Values are Reliability, Loyalty, Consistency, Honesty.
Norms are unstated rules about what behavior is appropriate. Norms are further
divides into Mores and Folkways. Examples of Norms: Say Assalam-u-Alaikum
when entering house or meeting someone, maintain a space when talking to other
etc.
Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. For Example, we
as a Muslim believe that there is no god but, Allah.

●Subculture refers to cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society’s
population. Example rock music fans, bikers, goth etc.
●Social Control are the attempts made by the society to regulate the behavior of
its members. Example an extremely usual rude behavior with your inferior that has
to stop.
●Ethnocentrism the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one
own culture. Example it is normal for some people to eat insects but other people
will start to judge them as disgusting or absurd.
●Cultural Relativism the practice of judging a culture by its own standards.
Example starting to think that why people chose to eat insects. They are full of
proteins and even a few amounts will be enough to eat.
●Cultural universals are patterns or traits that are globally common to all
societies. Examples gender roles, cooking, music etc.
●Cultural Alternatives refer to two or more forms of behavior in a particular
society which are acceptable in a given situation.
For example, care for a patient is a universal aspect of cultures; but the way people
care for patients varies. There are many diverse ways of doing the same thing.
●Cultural Change the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society. Example
war and disaster will result in cultural change as people only focus will be on
surviving.
 Topic: Socialization
Socialization is a highly complex process that is ongoing. It often occurs
without any conscious awareness.
Examples includes: Interacting with friends and family, being told to obey
rules, being rewarded for doing chores, and being taught how to behave in
public places.
These family, friends, peers, teachers, colleagues, media all are the Agents of
Socialization.
There is always a debate of Nature vs. Nurture in socialization.
●Nature refers to innate qualities like human nature or genetics. Example: there
are high chances that an angry father will have an angry son than a polite father
who have never raised a voice. This can be because of the genes the son inherits or
because of the way seeing his father angry in all of his life.
●Nurture refers to care given to children by parents or, more broadly, to
environmental influences such as media and marketing. Example: we are always
taught to be kind and humble by our parents. It is something that hasn’t been
taught in schools.

Socialization and personality are explained under different theories such as:
▪ Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud- Id, Ego, Superego
▪ Erik Erikson – 8 stages of Development
Stage 1: Infancy (the challenge of trust vs. mistrust)
Stage 2: Toddlerhood (the challenge of autonomy vs. doubt and shame)
Stage 3: Preschool (the challenge of initiative vs. guilt)
Stage 4: Preadolescence (the challenge of industriousness vs. inferiority)
Stage 5: Adolescence (the challenge of gaining identities vs. confusion)
Stage 6: Young adulthood (the challenge of intimacy vs. isolation)
Stage 7: Middle adult (the challenge of making a difference vs. self-absorption)
Stage 8: Old age (the challenge of integrity)
▪ Charles Horton Cooley- Looking Glass Self
▪ George Herbert Mead- The Self
 Topic: Social Group and Organization
Social Group can be a group of two or more people who interact with one another,
share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.
Examples of social groups include: families, companies, circles of friends, clubs,
local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and local religious congregations.
A social group can be:
Primary or Secondary Group
Informal or Formal Group
Small or Large Group

Social Organization means social relationship among groups. Individuals and

groups interrelated together create social organization. Examples: Colleges,
businesses, political parties, the military, universities, and hospital etc. In social
organization, every individual is assigned a task and has a role and status in
organization.

Topic: Social Action, Interaction and Structure

Social Interaction is the way in which people act with other people and react to
how other people are acting. Example: A person interacting with their parents.
Following are the important types of socialization:
• Exchange—social interaction with the express purpose of receiving mutual
rewards
• Cooperation—social interaction engaged in to promote common interests
• Conflict—social interaction that involves working against each other for a
commonly prized object
• Competition—form of conflict in which individuals confine conflict to agreed-
upon rules.
• Non-Verbal Behavior— involves communication through body movement or
kinesics

Social Action is about people coming together to help improve their lives and
solve. the problems that are important in their communities.
Examples includes: Delivering speech, raising slogans, leading a procession and
holding out banners.
Social Structure is an arrangement of persons in institutionally controlled or
defined relationship. Examples family, religion, law, economy, and class.

Topic: Social Stratification

Social Stratification is the dividing of people into different groups or layers.
Examples: when a society becomes rigidly divided along class lines and people of
upper classes move further and further away from lower classes, is an example of
social stratification.
▪ Caste system---- based on birth, in agrarian societies, closed societies
▪ Class system—based on birth and individual achievements, in industrial
societies, open societies
▪ Meritocracy--- based on merits, in industrial societies

Topic: Social Mobility

Social mobility means a change in one’s position in the social hierarchy.
Example: getting a promotion from an accountant to sales manager in an office.
Following re the four forms of mobility:

• Horizontal mobility involves moving within the same status category. An

example of this is a nurse who leaves one hospital to take a position as a
nurse at another hospital.

• Vertical mobility, involves moving from one social level to another. A

promotion in rank in the Army is an example of upward mobility, while a
demotion in rank is downward mobility.

• Intragenerational mobility, refers to a change in an individual's social

standing, especially in the workforce, example when an individual works his
way up the corporate ladder.

• Intergenerational mobility refers to a change in social standing across

generations, for example, when a person from a lower‐class family graduates
from medical school.
 Topic: Deviant Behavior and Social Control

Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient
severity to warrant disapproval from the majority of society. Deviance can be
criminal or non‐criminal. Examples include: robbery, theft, murder etc.

Social control is described as a certain set of rules and standards in society that keep
individuals bound to conventional standards as well as to the use of formalized
mechanisms. Examples: set laws and rules that are stopping the peoples from
committing crime.
There are two types of Social Control:

▪ Informal Social Control-- Used casually to enforce norms. Example: smiles,

laughter, raised eyebrows, ridicule
▪ Formal social control-- Carried out by authorized agents. Examples:
penalties, fines, punishments by law etc.

Topic: Health and Medicine

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Medicine ---Any substance or substances used in treating disease or illness.
There are four sociological perspective and they are given below:

▪ Functionalist Approach---- A sick individual is not a productive member of

society. Therefore, this deviance needs to be policed, which is the role of the
medical profession.

▪ Conflict Approach--- The dramatic differences in infant mortality rates

around the world reflect, at last in part, unequal distribution of health care
resources based on the wealth or poverty of various communities and nations.

▪ Interactionist Approach--- holds that deviance is not inherent to an act.

Labeling theory is based on the idea that behaviors are deviant only when
society labels the as deviant.
●What was your favorite topic in this course and why that topic attracts
you more than any other topic?

The most favorite topic in this whole course for me is “Types of societies”. As I
always wanted to know how did the human survived in back days when there were
no such technologies like nowadays. How come we have invented so many things
that if by any chance you started to think the procedure or a process of
commencement of a commodity, as a consequence you will be completely
astonished and sometimes even zoned-out of this world about how far we have
come!!
In this topic, we have learnt that how societies change from time to time. There are
Five main societies:
▪ Hunting & Gathering Societies
▪ Pastoral Societies
▪ Horticultural Societies
▪ Agricultural Societies
▪ Industrial Societies

Hunting and Gathering Societies

The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting
animals, fishing, and gathering plants. The vast majority of these societies existed in
the past, with only a few (perhaps a million people total) living today on the verge
of extinction. It is the oldest and simplest type of society. No individual can acquire
because there is no wealth. There basic norm was sharing. Family and Kinship are
the only defined institutions. Members shared an ancestral heritage and a common
set of traditions and rituals. They also sacrificed their individuality for the sake of
the larger tribal culture. Examples: San people of Kalahari Desert in Southern Africa,
Bushmen of Southwestern Africa Hunting and Gathering Societies.

Pastoral Societies
Members of pastoral societies, which first emerged 12,000 years ago, pasture
animals for food and transportation. Pastoral societies still exist today, primarily in
the desert lands of North Africa where horticulture and manufacturing are not
possible. It is the beginning of religious belief and inequality. They are larger in
size and has better productive strategy than Hunting and Gathering societies.
Pastoral societies allow certain of its members (those who are not domesticating
animals) to engage in no survival activities. Traders, healers, spiritual leaders,
craftspeople, and people with other specialty professions appear. Examples: North
& Northeast Africa, Sahel, Sub-Saharan Africa.
Horticultural Societies
Horticultural societies rely on cultivating fruits, vegetables, and plants. It came into
existence about 4000 B.C today in sub-Saharan Africa. These societies first appeared
in different parts of the planet about the same time as pastoral societies. Horticultural
societies occasionally produced a surplus, which permitted storage as well as the
emergence of other professions not related to the survival of the society. The surplus
production allows some wealthy individuals to become more powerful than others.
This leads to the emergence of political institutions in the form of chieftainships.
Warfare is more common. Horticultural societies are also the first known societies
to support the institution of slavery. Examples for horticultural societies: Guru rumba
Tribe in New Guinea, Masai people of Kenya.

Agricultural Societies
Agricultural societies use technological advances to cultivate crops (especially
grains like wheat, rice, corn, and barley) over a large area. Agricultural
Revolution refers to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years
ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies
then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater
surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various
rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to
worry about locating nourishment. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring
areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided
warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system
of rulers with high social status also appeared. Examples: China, India, Peru.

Industrial Societies
Industrial societies are based on using machines to produce goods. during the 18th
century when the production of goods in mechanized factories began as
the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution appeared first in Britain, and
then quickly spread to the rest of the world. As productivity increased, means of
transportation improved to better facilitate the transfer of products from place to
place. Great wealth was attained by the few who owned factories, and the masses
found jobs working in the factories. Family and Kinship begins to lose its
importance. Religion also loses its hold over people. Importance of Science,
education, status and class increases. Examples: United States, Japan, Europe etc.