Edward Tufte Meets Christopher Alexander
John W. Stamey, Jr. Thomas L. Honeycutt
Department of Computer Science Dept. of Computer Science
Coastal Carolina University North Carolina State University
Conway, SC Raleigh, NC
jwstamey@coastal.edu tlh@csc.ncsu.edu
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the relationships between Christopher
Alexander's Fifteen Properties of living structures, found in The
Nature of Order, and Edward Tufte's Principles of Information
Design, found in Envisioning Information. In the examination of
examples of Tufte’s Principles, we find commonality between
the Principles and Alexander’s Fifteen Properties.
Categories and Subject Descriptors
D.2.1 [ Software Engineering] Requirements/Specifications -
Methodologies
General Terms
Design, Documentation, Human Factors
Keywords
Christopher Alexander, Computer-Human Information, Design
Patterns, Design of Communication, Edward Tufte, Envisioning
Information, Fifteen Properties
1. INTRODUCTION
Quality of information design has been a goal of the Internet and
the WWW. Two schools of thought have emerged on this topic.
Christopher Alexander, in his four-part series, Nature of Order
[1], describes positive and living structures as embodying many
of the elements found in Fifteen Properties. Edward Tufte, in his
book Envisioning Information [2], claims the universality of his
Principles of Information Design. Both Alexander’s Properties
and Tufte’s Principles have been subjects of interest regarding
the application of their philosophies to web design. [3, 4]
Hart-Davidson [5] defines quality documentation in terms of
four criteria:
• the quantitative measure of end-user satisfaction;
• the satisfaction measured by self-evaluation;
• the quality of the end product (such as a well-written
manual, a usable help system); and,,
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18
Simon Blanchard
Department of
Management Science
HEC Montréal
Montréal, Canada
simon.blanchard@hec.ca
• innovation, measured by an increase in any of the first
three without a decrease in the others.
These measures of quality all focus on an external view of
quality, in as much as they identify
• a local satisfaction with the product by the end-users;
• a general satisfaction with the product by its creators;
and,
• a global view of satisfaction from external judges.
Smart [6] defines three traditional quality dimensions for
technical information that include
• usability;
• understandability; and,
• clarity of organization.
These three measures focus on a traditional, internal view of
quality.
This paper examines internal quality arising from the application
of two orthogonal methodologies for producing quality in
documentation and the design of communication, through the
work of Edward Tufte and Christopher Alexander. Individually,
both methodologies are more expansive and process-oriented
than traditional quality dimensions that have been examined in
the delivery of technical information.
Edward Tufte's methodology provides practical advice on ways
to display high-dimensional complex data. The success of such
advice may be thought of as one measure of quality. Tufte takes
the approach of providing organization and structure to produce
a quality presentation. The wholeness that Christopher
Alexander works to define through the Properties has been
shown to provide a view of quality on the Web. [3] Alexander
takes an approach of reducing structures to fundamental
components to produce a quality structure (with structure
actually being used as a metaphor for a variety of entities such
as buildings, objects of art, and groups of people). While both
methodologies promote internal quality on one axis, they differ
by attending to different aspects; orthogonality arises from
Tufte’s emphasis on organization on one axis compared to
Alexcander’s emphasis on structure on another axis.
Using a 2x2 Matrix, we can see the following relationships
between the internal/external component of the design of
communication and the macro/micro view (Figure 1):
We first analyze four of Tufte’s Principles to determine
similarities and differences between them. Next, we describe
Tufte’s Principles of Information Design in terms of
Alexander’s Fifteen Properties, finding similarities between the
two philosophies. The framework of comparison is a Pattern
Language, the structure of which may be attributed to
Christopher Alexander. By describing each methodology in
terms of the other, we hope to provide insight as to how both
methodologies may be applied simultaneously.
MACRO MICRO
Alexander: Tufte:
Focus on Attention
INTERNAL
unification and to detail and
wholeness comparison
- Usability - Correctness
EXTERNAL
- Clarity of - Spatial
Structure Relationships
Figure 1
2. TUFTE AND ALEXANDER
2.1 Principles and Properties
Edward Tufte argues that his Principles of Information Design
are “universal, like mathematics, and are not tied to unique
features of a particular language or culture.” [2] Zimmerman [7]
finds that Tufte’s Principles are in alignment with a number of
practical web development guidelines to create effective
webpages. We now describe Edward Tufte’s four main
Principles of Design:
• Micro/Macro Readings provide both local (smaller)
and global (overall) comparisons in the same context.
As an example, we think if using important data or
content to fill in empty space in a larger design. [2, p.
51]
• Layering and Separation reduce noise and enrich the
content of displays, by the visual stratification of
different facets of information. [2, p. 53]
• Small Multiples (small, multiple designs) visually
represent similarities and differences in data. [2, p. 67]
• Color and Information, or the effective use of color,
can provide emphasis to important data and
information, while providing a muted tone for support
information and background grids. [2, pp. 81-82]
The purpose of these Principles is to guide the presentation of
information that best represents the data.
Pattern languages have become an important area of study in
computer science. The first collection of patterns was written by
the Gang of Four (GOF) in 1995 [8], “Design Patterns.” The
now-famous twenty-three patterns describe reusable solutions to
common problems in object-oriented programming. The current
object-oriented pattern language community, the Portland
Pattern Repository, may be found at http://www.hillside.net/.
Stamey and Honeycutt [3] developed a pattern language from
Alexander’s Fifteen Properties that described a framework of
quality for websites. This framework was validated by a survey
of website users [4], with all Fifteen Properties found to be
statically significant indicators of website quality.
19
2.2 Analyzing Tufte’s Principles
We use a 2x2 matrix to provides an analysis of Tufte’s
Principles. Designed according to the technique of Lowey &
Hood [9], we first define and describe the X and Y axis so that
we may understand the creative tension that exists between
them. [7, pp. 29-30] Creative tension between the axes is
necessary for a meaningful 2x2 matrix problem representation.
Here, the X axis represents two ways in which entities may be
compared – based on their proximity to each other (Spatial
Relationship), and based on their appearance (Contrast). The Y
axis represents two ways in which entities can be viewed –
either as an ensemble (Viewed Together) or individually (Viewed
Separately). Creative tension is then formed between the set of
informational entities (described by the X axis), and the way in
which they are viewed (described by the Y axis). We now
describe the labels of the X and Y axis in more detail.
• Spatial Relationships describes the placement of
design elements (centers). Micro/Macro Readings
have centers nested within each other. Small Multiples
display centers separately so they may be compared.
• Contrast describes the way centers are separated
through color. Color and Information suggest darker,
more vivid colors to accentuate certain information.
Layering and Separation describes a partition of
information into different colors to create a distinction
between different centers.
• Viewed Together suggests that all centers are
configured and colored so they present the data in one
unified picture.
• Viewed Separate suggests that centers are also
separated so that distinctions can be better understood.
Figure 2 presents a formal 2x2 Matrix representing the
relationship and our interpretation of Tufte’s Four Principles of
Information Display.
Spatial Relationships Contrast
Viewed Micro/Macro Color and
Together Readings Information
Viewed Small Layering and
Separate Multiples Separation
Figure 2
2.3 Alexander’s Original Pattern
In the subsequent section, we examine Tufte’s four Principles of
Information Design as described in Envisioning Information, 2nd
Edition. [2] The pattern we use is based on the one developed by
Christopher Alexander [8, 9] The four patterns created from the
four Principles form a Pattern Language, similar to the one
found in Alexander’s A Pattern Language [11] that describes the
fundamental building blocks of towns, cities, and buildings. The
pattern we use is described Tufte’s Principles is:
PATTERN NAME: Name of the Pattern and its sequential order
in the Pattern Language CONTEXT: Introductory remarks
stating the typical domain in which the problem naturally
resides; we set the stage.
ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM: The essence of the problem is
stated in one or two sentences; less is more.
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM:
 • Evidence of the pattern existing “everywhere”
• Examples of the pattern manifesting
SOLUTION: The solution (text and diagram) to the problem in
its context, stated as a series of instructions. There are times
when an example may be used, with a brief
summary at the end of the example. However, care needs to be
taken when using the dreaded “proof by example,” a sometimes
necessary evil in qualitative arguments.
3. A PATTERN LANGUAGE OF
PRINCIPLES
3.1 Micro/Macro Readings
PATTERN NAME: Micro/Macro Readings CONTEXT: You
have a large area or structure to represent. How can this
representation work at different levels of observation (from afar,
getting closer, up-close)?
ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM: Micro/Macro readings refers to
the different information that can be understood by looking at
data at different level of detail. Sufficient data is important to
convey the intended message. Having plenty of data is never a
problem, if presented correctly, as detail should converge into
large structures. Tufte summarized it with “To clarify, add
detail” [2, p. 37] However, having different level of aggregation
also allows to serve different purposes.
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM: Data has different levels
and degrees of abstraction. Each level/degree needs its own
separate view, lest the viewer become confused.
SOLUTION: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial, located in
Washington D.C., is a collection of the names of more than
58,000 men and women who gave their life or went missing in
the Vietnam War. The architecture of the structure consists of
two 246 foot walls, joined at one end to form a V. Standing
more than one hundred feet from the memorial, one sees the flat
panels of the monument. The overall structure of the “V” is the
central focus at this distance. As one gets closer, the texture of
the walls changes. First is the appearance of a slight roughness
in texture. This roughness becomes more pronounced, the close
one gets to the monument. Finally, within a few feet of the
memorial, the rough texture turns into the names of those
memorialized, as well as information about the purpose of the
memorial. What once was invisible has now materialized, the
memorial working on at least three levels (distances). Such
exemplifies the macro/micro view of this work of art.
3.2 Layering and Separation
PATTERN NAME: Layering and Separation CONTEXT: A
dense collection of data is sometimes difficult to interpret. A
separation of form from content must occur.
ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM: Undifferentiated data, can
become blurry, jumbled up, incoherent, and chaotic. [2, p. 58]
Information should be separated from the graphics and terms
used to label the information.
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM: Decomposing
information into content and form (labels and graphics) can pose
a problem. Josef Albers describes the interaction of sets of
information, whereby the interaction actually creates additional
information. He likens this to 1 + 1 = 3 (or more) [12].
Information must be partitioned so that, when recomposed, it
20
does not create additional or unwanted information.
SOLUTION: Color to a greater extent, and a reduction of the
intensity of the background to a lesser extent, provide effective
differentiation between information (data) and its annotation.
Color is an excellent way to achieve separation. A toning-down
of background grids, etc. is another good way to achieve
separation.
3.3 Small Multiples
PATTERN NAME: Small Multiples
CONTEXT: At the heart of quantitative reasoning is the nature
of comparisons that we are trying to make in our presentations.
What is the best way to visualize and compare sets?
ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM: We wish to visually understand
the difference of two or more sets, or we wish to gain greater
understanding of one set. Small icons, representing the data, can
be a good form of representation. BACKGROUND OF THE
PROBLEM: For hundreds of years, comparisons have been
made between sets. An example of this is an illustration by
Huygens [2, p. 67], comparing the orbits of the Earth and
Saturn. Slight changes in both the Earth/Moon position and the
position of Saturn’s rings make the many small images of these
planets necessary in an accurate representation of the
information.
SOLUTION: The following ideas lend themselves to successful
representation of data in small multiples
1. One or more sets to be compared
2. Drawings (small) that enumerate various states of
members of each set
3. Close proximity of one set to the other for meaningful
comparison
3.4 Color and Information
PATTERN NAME: Color and Information CONTEXT: “Color is
a natural quantifier.” [2, p. 91] We need a way to focus attention
on certain areas (or, centers) of visual information so that the
viewer can easily differentiate important centers from the rest of
the information.
ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM: Color is a powerful way to
enhance the presentation of information. The essential rule is to
“do no harm” when using color. [2, page 81]
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM: “In representing and
communicating information, how are we to benefit from color’s
great dominion?” [2, p. 81] After 20-30 colors, the
differentiation we see begins to diminish.
SOLUTION: Imhoff's first two principles (from Eduard Imhoff,
“Cartographic Relief Presentation”) provide rules for the
application of color. [2, p. 82] These rules are: (1) limit strong,
heavy, rich, and solid colors to small areas of extremes to
achieve expressive and beautiful patterns (Tufte's corollary:
“color spots against a light gray or muted field highlight and
italicize data, and also help to weave an overall harmony”); and,
(2) “the placing of light, bright colors mixed with white next to
each other usually produces unpleasant results”.
4. GENERAL PROPERTIES AND
PRINCIPLES
An examination of Alexander’s Fifteen Properties reveals two
distinct categories that may be used to analyze Tufte’s
Principles. Five of Alexander’s Properties, we will term General
Properties, are found in each of the four Design Principles.
These include:
• Strong Centers
• Boundaries
• Good Shape
• Positive Space
• Simplicity
The remaining ten Properties describe how centers interact with
each other. We term these to be Relational Properties. These
tem Properties may be divided into three distinct groups. Seven
Properties describe how centers may be compared to each other:
• Levels of Scale
• Gradients
• Echoes
• Ambiguity
• Contrast
• Roughness
• The Void
Two Properties describe how groups, or aggregations, of centers
interact:
• Local Symmetry
• Alternating Repetition
Finally, one Property describes how all centers (and
aggregations of centers) work together to form a unified living
structure is:
• Non-Separateness
We now examine the five Global Properties that apply to each of
Tufte’s Four Principles.
4.1 Strong Centers
For Alexander, centers [1, pp. 151-157] are points of attention
and focus; centers are “on the way” from one area of a structure
to all others. Strong centers provide support for other centers; in
fact, centers are composed of other (smaller and weaker)
centers. Tufte makes an important point that “to clarify, add
detail.” [2, p. 37] We can extrapolate this comment to mean that
smaller and weaker centers can be used to compose other, larger
centers.
Micro/Macro Readings. An example of adding detail to clarify
would be the use of smaller buildings (centers themselves, and
providing detail) aggregated to create larger centers, such as
entire city blocks (Turgot /Bretz “Plan de Paris,” [2, p. 37])
Layering and Separation. Color differentiates between the
annotated and the annotation. [2, p. 54] We can see that both the
annotated and the annotation form smaller, sometimes weaker,
centers. However, when combined, centers of different colors
support each other and create a whole that is much larger (and
21
stronger) than the parts. This behavior is described by Josef
Albers “1 + 1 = 3 or more, when two elements in conjunction
form a third, or even fourth, element.[2, p. 61]
Small Multiples. Throughout his discussion of small multiples,
Tufte is actually describing many small centers that, together,
form a larger and stronger unit. This is best illustrated by
Lichtenstein’s Mural with Blue Brushstroke, where Lichtenstein
combines small elements of over twenty of his paintings and
other artifacts to produce one cohesive and strong masterpiece.
[2, pp. 70-71]
Color and Information. Tufte uses Edward Imhof’s rules from
the classic tome Cartographic Relief Presentation (describing
the design practices for the beautiful Swiss maps) as a good rule
to create strong centers: “if one limits strong heavy, bright and
solid colors to small areas of extremes, then expressive and
beautiful patterns occur.” [2, p. 84] These expressive, beautiful
patterns are none other than strong centers, as evidenced by the
Pythagorean Theorem redrawing by Oliver Byrne [2, pp. 84-85]
4.2 Boundaries
Alexander views of boundaries [1, pp. 158-164] as providing
encapsulation for centers, as well as providing a mechanism for
connecting centers to other centers. We also see the duality of
boundaries present in Tufte’s design principles.
Micro/Macro Readings. Detail can lead to complexity. This
complexity is managed by multiple and (often) hierarchical
layers of contextual reading. [2, p. 38] Boundaries are important
in separating these multiple layers.
Layering and Separation. Alexander’s two views of boundaries
are also shared by Tufte, who states: boundaries can not be too
prominent as to obscure the centers within, [Tufte. P. 63];
furthermore, lighter colors for edges can minimize incidental
clutter and providing a connecting, unifying effect. [2, p. 62]
Small Multiples. Care must be taken in the construction of
boundaries. In an example of displaying a number of cross-
sections of the brain, dark colors surrounding the images
generate disruptive white stripes that have no real purpose; yet,
detracting noise has developed (reminiscent of Albers’ 1 + 1 = 3
or more). [2, p. 78] Boundaries can be invisible (or, “nearly
silent” [Tufte p. 78]), yet implicit and effective.
Color and Information. Implicit boundaries created by color can
be used to separate (distinguish), and indicate measurement –
another form of separation (by the presence or lack of color). [2,
p. 81] Boundaries can help color “make its point” by effectively
separating areas and their associated colorings. [2, p. 95]
4.3 Good Shape and Positive Space
At the most elemental level, good shapes [1, pp. 179-185] are
traditional and regular in their context. In the context of
geometry, we think of the regular shapes such as rectangles,
squares, and circles. Positive space [1, pp. 173-178], a closely
related Property, is achieved when there is no waste of space in
design or configuration. We see elements of these two important
properties of Alexander’s frequently appearing together in
Tufte’s Principles.
Micro/Macro Readings. Stem-and-leaf plots from statistics
feature data points that have two simultaneous purposes: stating
a value and filling a space. The regularity of the shape (Arabic
numeral) combined with their wide-spread tradition of use in
many cultures is a fundamental example of gaining macro-level
perspective from a micro-level graphical object with meaning
(the individual numerals). [2, p. 46] Another example is comply
the concept of using data or information to fill spaces in larger
designs. Here, absolutely no space is wasted (adhering to
Positive Space). [2, p. 50]
Layering and Separation. Extreme care must be taken when
combining good shapes. Alber’s Rule of 1 + 1 = 3 or more can
cause harm when the relationships are not exact. Two
perpendicular lines or two crossed lines (Figure 1 extending
Tufte [2, p. 61]), drawn without appropriate care, can produce
widely different effects.
Small Multiples. Small multiples are exemplified by
representing 5,000 books sold with five small books configured
as a bar graph, with units set to thousands. Tufte comments that
a consistency in image design emphasizes the data. [2, p. 67]
Changes in images representing cardinal data could violate
uniformity (as well as good shape), and could lead to confusion
(akin to waste) in the presentation.
Color and Information. The sparing use of vivid color to
emphasize portions of a field draws attention to a particular area
of the field. Tufte [2, p. 91] provides an example where the Sea
of Japan, with depths represented in varying degrees of aqua
blue, positively fills space on a map not occupied by the
perimeter of several Japanese islands. The rugged islands,
etched over time, show the strength of the remaining land
formation against the tides and currents of the sea.
4.4 Simplicity and Inner Calm
Fewer and necessary centers combine to provide a whole with
greater strength. Simplicity and Inner Calm [1, pp. 226-229]
embodies the ideal that “less is more.”
Micro/Macro Readings. The Vietnam Memorial is an excellent
example of this Principle. The surface of the memorial is related
to the viewer’s distance from the memorial. From a distance, the
size and majesty of the Memorial are enough to hold attention.
Up-close, the expanse of the Memorial is overwhelmed by the
power of the names of the individuals whose names are
inscribed on the surface of the Memorial. The vastness of size is
replaced by the power and expressiveness of the individual
names
Layering and Separation. Tufte presents a number of examples
where data is difficult to read based on Frequently, the
simplicity of a chart, graph, or language (in the case of music) is
harmed by a background that is too bold or too busy. [2, p. 59]
The clarity of data is frequently a function of a background with
delicate lines, where the lines only serve to promote accurate
reading of the information.
Small Multiples. Using the one (or related) graphics to represent
each element to be compared takes emphasis off of the images
and places the image on the comparison of the data. [2, p. 67,
68, 77] This approach emphasizes simplicity by maintaining
context and enforcement of comparison. [2, p. 76]
22
Color and Information. In commenting on the 1909 Plan of
Chicago, [2, p. 83], we yield to Edward Tufte. “The vitality of
small color spots on large muted backgrounds: coherent, vivid,
and textured but without clutter, the right color in the right
place.” This is a perfectly stated rule for obtaining Simplicity
and Inner Calm through color and display of information.
5. RELATIVE PROPERTIES AND
PRINCIPLES
Seven of the ten Relative Properties describe how data
representations (centers) individually adhere to one of Tufte’s
Principles. Two of the Properties, Local Symmetry and
Alternating Repetition, describe how multiple data
representations (multiple centers) interact, or relate, to each
other. The Property of “Non-Separateness” describes how all of
the data representations (all centers) relate to each other.
5.1 Properties: Micro/Macro Readings
Levels of Scale: Levels of scale are not simply differences in
size. Neither extreme jumps in size or lack of differentiation in
size produces life. Deliberate even jumps of scale such as 1:2,
1:3 and 1:4 can give a structure powerful life. [1, pp. 145-150]
Like the distance from which an object is observed, the levels of
scale change. In the instance of the Vietnam Memorial, there is a
2:1 level of scale from a distance. As the observer moves closer,
the texture changes; once the observer is directly in front of the
Memorial, there is a level of scale of the number of separate
names seen at a time to one.
Contrast: Life results from strong, adjacent, and distinct centers,
the distinction of different centers magnifying each other. [1, pp.
200-204] The view of the Memorial from a different distance
(or, perhaps, from a different perspective) has quite a different
look. From afar, the texture is smooth. Closer, the texture is
rough. Directly in front, the texture is again smooth juxtaposed
with the clear and sharp edges of the names as they are engraved
on the stone.
Roughness: Adaptation at all levels, especially the smallest and
largest, help us to avoid artificiality in design. This property
allows for space to be filled as needed, without forcing grand
overall symmetry. [1, pp. 210-217] In the mid-range, the
memorial seems to have texture; this texture comes from the
blending-together of the names when they are not distinct
enough to be viewed separately. The texture is space-filling, yet
does not have any pre-defined pattern to it. .In examining the
Vietnam Memorial, we find a useful equation of Tufte’s that
applies here: simplicity of data and design DOES NOT EQUAL
clarity of reading; simplicity is an aesthetic preference, not an
information display strategy or a guide to clarity. So, the rich
texture of the text on the wall is exactly that – a texturing. The
abundance of the text at the intermediate viewing level is for
aesthetics
Gradients. As centers evolve from smaller to larger (or
conversely), their level of detail changes. [1, pp. 205-209]
Anderson’s map of midtown New York and the Turgot/Bretzer
Plan de Paris (1739) [2, p. 37] is an excellent example of the
size of detail (and information) changing as one’s view of the
map moves from localized and detailed to global and general.
5.2 Layering and Separation
Echoes: Centers unified through similarity of angles and
proportion, form even stronger centers. Properly separated, the
sets fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. [1, 218-221] The maroon
annotation of the bold, black brushstrokes of calligraphy form a
crisp commentary that is different, yet reminiscent, of the
expressive black pen. [2, p. 53]
Deep Interlock: Centers can have such a high degree of unity
throughout a structure that it is difficult to tell where one center
ends and another begins. Interlocked and closely related centers
derive strength from their proximity to each other. None of the
layers could be eliminated and keep the wholeness of the entity.
[1, pp. 195-199] The redesign of the New Jersey Transit
Northeastern Corridor Timetable [2, p. 55] shows all the times
or the original interlocked together, with certain routes separated
by subtle color.
Local Symmetry: Overall (artificial) symmetry in design and
layout is not a strong source of life. [1, pp. 186-194] The
explanation of a hospital patient’s bill in The Slow, Costly Death
of Mrs. K [2, pp. 56-57] naturally groups line-item costs with
explanation and commentary on their justification.
5.3 Small Multiples
Alternating Repetition. Strength and life come from a collection
of centers that continually alternate and repeat. Headings and
subheadings make the path through web documents easier to
follow. [1, 165-172] In each of the examples in Chapter 4 [2, pp.
66-79], small centers – sometimes identical, other times nearly
identical, repeat as often as necessary to tell their story, be it a
comparison or a contrast.
5.4 Color and Information
The Void. To amplify the strength of a center, a complimentary
void center is placed adjacent. Splash pages provide this effect
for webpages, isolating graphics and text as a prelude to the
general website. [1, pp. 230-235] The use of strong color spots
against a light gray or muted field [2, p. 83] the muted fields are
examples of the void giving greater emphasis to the colored
centers.
5.5 Unification
Non-Separateness. Centers are always connected with other
centers, never cut off, isolated or separated from their
surroundings. [1, pp. 230-232] Alexander points out several
assertions about centers and their relation to the wholeness
created by them. [1, p. 122] These assertions are:
1. Centers are created by a configuration of other centers
2. Each center has a certain life and intensity
3. The life of once center is changed according to the
position and intensity of other, nearby, centers
4. Centers are fundamental elements of wholeness
Each of these assertions about centers is immediately applicable
to Tufte’s Principles[2]:
• Micro/Macro Readings support the construction of
larger centers from smaller centers, smaller centers.
This “recursive” building process connects centers
23
with other centers promoting Non-separateness;
furthermore, Assertion #1 about centers is promoted.
• Layering and Separation supports a division of
centers, such as separation of information and
annotation. Layers are thus not cut off or isolated from
each other, promoting Non-separateness; furthermore,
Assertion #2 about centers is promoted.
• Small Multiples support many small centers
aggregated to tell a story about information. The
multiple centers are not separated from each other,
promoting Non-separateness; furthermore, Assertion
#3 about centers is promoted.
• Centers represented by Color in the display of
Information are fundamental elements of the ensemble
of data (the “whole picture”). Colors (strong centers
and weaker centers) support each other, promoting
wholeness and Non-separateness; furthermore,
Assertion #4 about centers is promoted.
We may then reasonably conclude that a unification of
wholeness and centers, Non-separateness, Alexander’s
Properties and Tufte’s Principles has been reached.
6. CONCLUSIONS
We have taken a first step in examining the Design Principles
found in Edward Tufte’s Envisioning Information, 2nd Edition
[2] as they relate to the Fifteen Properties of Living Structures
found in Christopher Alexander’s Nature of Order, Volume 1.[1]
The two major works we have used by Tufte and by Alexander,
however, are only a part of multi-volume sets. Future research
will involve an examination of Tufte’s ideas about the visual
display of quantitative data to determine the relationships that
exist with Alexander’s Fifteen Properties.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Jean-Louis Lassez for his
encouragement and support in this research, Bryan T. Saunders
for his editorial assistance, and the referees for their insightful
comments.
8. REFERENCES
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[3] Stamey, J.W. & Honeycutt, T.L., Christopher Alexander’s
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[10] Alexander, C. The Timeless Way of Building. Oxford
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[12] Albers, Josef. “One Plus One Equals Three or More:
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