International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I:

Dynamic modeling and experimental validation
Juan Catano a,⇑, Tiejun Zhang b, John T. Wen c,d,e, Michael K. Jensen c, Yoav Peles c
a
Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc., 1675 West Campbell Road, Sidney, OH 45365, USA
b
Mechanical Engineering Program, Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 54224, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
c
Dept. of Mechanical, Aerospace, & Nuclear Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, USA
d
Dept. of Electrical, Computer, & Systems Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, USA
e
Center for Automation Technologies and Systems, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a first-principle lumped-parameter dynamic model and experimental validation of
Available online xxxx vapor compression cycles for electronics cooling. The model couples the dynamics of the heat exchangers
with static empirical models for compressor and expansion valve. In contrast to past work on systems
Keywords: level modeling of refrigeration cycles, this paper focuses on imposed heat flux boundary condition, and
Vapor compression cycle the associated critical heat flux and critical vapor quality, in the evaporator. Using our vapor compression
Electronics cooling cycle testbed, we verify that the model prediction of the evaporator exit temperature and critical heat
Critical heat flux
flux matches well with experimental measurements. The model is also used to search for operating con-
Dynamic modeling
Critical heat flux enhancement
ditions to enhance the critical heat flux. Experimental results show that at an undesired operating con-
dition, even a small 5% change of heat flux could cause a wall temperature spike of over 100 °C, in
contrast to 15 °C at a more advantageous operating conditions. For large heat flux transients, the onset
of critical heat flux condition may be delayed, but its avoidance may require active refrigerant flow
control.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction imposed heat flux as the boundary condition at the evaporator in

With the proliferation of high power photonic devices such as
light emitting diodes and laser diodes and increasing density of
electronics, there is a significant need for thermal management
solutions to achieve efficient heat removal at the device level and
energy efficiency at systems level [1]. This need is especially evi-
dent in new military vehicles, such as all-electric ships, hybrid
ground vehicles, and high maneuverability aircrafts. In the concep-
tual design of electric ships, up to 28 MW of waste heat has to be
dissipated from various sources, including high-power radars, elec-
tric weapons, and advanced fuel cells. Advanced thermal manage-
ment is critical for achieving high power densities and reliability in
such systems [2,3]. Vapor compression cycle (VCC) has emerged as
a promising candidate technology [4,5], combining high heat trans-
fer coefficients at device level and potentially high cycle efficiency.
Furthermore, VCCs can be used to cool multiple heat sources using
the same main refrigeration loop, increasing the overall efficiency
of the system [6].
VCC for high power electronics cooling differs from traditional
refrigeration cycles in two significant aspects: (1) There is an
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 937 494 7734; fax: +1 937 498 3342.
E-mail address: juan.catanomontoya@emerson.com (J. Catano).
contrast to an imposed inlet temperature difference. (2) There
are large and rapid transients in heat loads versus mostly constant
heat load [7]. In traditional VCC, the boundary condition at the
evaporator is a temperature difference; changes in heat load are
slower due to the convection process inherent in the fluid to fluid
heat exchangers. Large transients are only expected during system
start-up or shut-down operations [8]. In electronics cooling, dry
out condition may be encountered during transient heat load.
When the critical heat flux (CHF) is reached, temperature could rise
sharply leading to burnout of the electronic device.
Critical heat flux is defined as the heat flux that for specific
operating conditions (geometry, mass flow rate, and pressure) will
cause heat transport deficiency at the boundary of the heated wall,
resulting in sudden and rapid increase in the surface temperature
[9,10]. In systems with a prescribed temperature difference bound-
ary condition, such as refrigerators or air conditioning systems, the
drop in heat transfer coefficient produces a drop in the total heat
being transferred at the evaporator. It would reduce the cycle effi-
ciency, without inflicting damage to the system. In traditional VCC,
the exit of the evaporator is always superheated vapor (Fig. 1(b)).
For VCC in electronics cooling, the exit of the evaporator should
be maintained in the two-phase (liquid–vapor) flow region to
avoid CHF. Hence the addition of an accumulator (Fig. 1(c)) or other

0017-9310/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075

Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
2 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Vapor compression cycle (a) Schematic of system components for traditional VCC (b) thermodynamic cycle of a traditional VCC in a Pressure vs. Enthalpy diagram
where the exit of the evaporator and inlet to the compressor is saturated vapor (c) Schematic of system components for VCC for electronics cooling (d) thermodynamic cycle
of VCC for electronics cooling in a Pressure vs. Enthalpy diagram where the exit of the evaporator is a liquid–vapor mixture.

type of system modification is required to guarantee safe operation
of the compressor (Fig. 1(d)).
This paper develops a comprehensive VCC dynamic model for
systems with imposed heat flux at the evaporators (as in the
cooling of high-power electronics). The heat exchangers, i.e., evap-
orators and condensers, are approximated by their spatially aver-
aged behavior (one-zone model, since the distributed behavior is
approximated by a single set of lumped variables). The dynamic
model includes prediction of the CHF condition by modeling the
vapor quality at the onset of CHF (xcrit). Experimental validation
is performed away and around the CHF condition. The refrigerant
used in the experimental system is R134a and the thermodynamic
properties are obtained from published data by the National Insti-
tute of Standards and Technology (NIST) [11]. The model is also
used to improve the operating condition by increasing CHF or
reducing power consumption. The improved operating condition
is shown to withstand a step heat load change versus a nominal
operating condition which exhibits rapid temperature rise.
2. VCC modeling
Dynamic models for VCCs include four main components: evap-
orator, compressor, condenser and expansion valve [12]. The evap-
orator and condenser are modeled using mass, momentum and
energy conservation equations. Expansion valve and compressor
are modeled using static equations involving empirical parameters
(discharge coefficient, and volumetric and isentropic efficiencies).
The evaporator and condenser are distributed parameter systems
modeled by a set of partial differential equations [13,14]. There
are a number of lumped-parameter approximation approaches
driven by systems level design and control needs [15–17]. The
lumped-parameter model is suitable for analysis and design itera-
tion as it is much less computationally demanding, but also at
much lower accuracy especially during start-up transients [18].
In traditional VCC systems, the evaporator is usually divided
into two regions: a two-phase region from the entrance of the
evaporator until the flow reaches a saturated vapor condition,
and a second region for superheated vapor. Similarly the condenser
is divided into three regions: a superheated vapor region, two-
phase region and a subcooled region. The length of these regions
varies with time and are modeled as additional state variables. This
formulation is referred as the moving-boundary method [19,15].
One challenge of this approach is that during large transients some
of these zones disappear or are created which result in varying
number of dynamic states. In [20], a multi-model approach is
proposed with switching between them as needed. In [21], a
pseudo-quality is used that can be larger than one in the evapora-
tor or lower than zero in the condenser, avoiding the need for mod-
el switching. This formulation is simpler to implement and is
expected to perform well for evaporators operating close to the
saturation condition, hence it is selected in our research.
We impose the following assumptions to simplify the physical
model:
 Two-phase flows in evaporator and condenser are considered
homogeneous and in thermal equilibrium.
 Axial heat conduction in evaporator and condenser is negligible.
 Pressure drop in evaporator and condenser is neglected.
 Dynamics of compressor and expansion valve are much faster
than that of the heat exchangers and are modeled as static
components.
 The complete system is perfectly insulated (no heat losses or
heat gains from the ambient).

Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 3

As a result of these assumptions, the one-zone approximation of dqe 1

Le ¼ ðm_ im
_ o Þ; ð4Þ
the heat exchangers is used. For the evaporator, the approximation dt Ae
is a reasonable one, since at the exit the fluid is expected to be in
the two-phase regime. For the condenser, the input is saturated dðqe he  Pe Þ 1 1
Le ¼ ðm_ i hi  m
_ o ho Þ þ He Ase ðT we  T e Þ; ð5Þ
vapor and the output is subcooled liquid. In this case, a multi-zone dt Ae Ae
model would be much more accurate. However, the inlet vapor
zone and exit liquid zone within the condenser are usually shorter dT we
cpwe qwe V we ¼ qe  He Ase ðT we  T e Þ; ð6Þ
than the two-phase zone. For control purposes, our single two- dt
phase zone model is enough to capture the main dynamics. This where qe,he,Pe,Twe,Te are the average refrigerant density, enthalpy,
paper focuses on capturing the overall trend of the system with a pressure, wall temperature, refrigerant temperature over the entire
model suitable for control analysis, and will use the one-zone evaporator. Ase is the heated surface area at the evaporator. The spa-
approximation. The multi-zone extension will be addressed in tial integral of products such as qehe is approximated by the product
our future work. Table 1 presents a comparison with two con- of their respective averaged values multiplied by the evaporator
trol-oriented models for VCC developed in [16,17]. This compari- length. The subscript i denotes the evaporator inlet quantity and
son only focuses on the evaporator model which is the subscript o denotes the output.
component that differs the most between traditional VCC and Denote the average evaporator vapor quality as xe. We choose
VCC for electronics cooling. (Pe,Twe,xe) as the state variables for the evaporator. Instead of xe,
we could also use qe,he, or void fraction, ce, as the state variable.
2.1. Evaporator model We have chosen xe as it is directly related to the CHF estimation.
Void fraction ce is traditionally used for systems with complete
The evaporator is assumed to be a single two-phase flow region. boiling (the exit of the evaporator is either saturated or
For VCC, it is typical to have a low quality two-phase flow at the superheated vapor) [19]; which is not the case in the present
evaporator inlet. In the case of electronics cooling, the evaporator work.
exit is expected to have moderate to high quality two-phase flow. The two-phase flow properties may be calculated from xe by
The dynamic equations used to model the evaporator are using mass average:
[15,16,22]:
qg qf
Mass balance qe ¼ ; ð7Þ
qg þ xe ðqf  qg Þ
@q 1 @m
_
þ ¼ 0: ð1Þ
@t A @z he ¼ hf þ xe ðhg  hf Þ; ð8Þ
Refrigerant energy balance where qg and qf are the densities for saturated vapor and saturated
@ðqh  PÞ 1 @ mh
_ 1 liquid respectively, calculated at Pe. Similarly, hg and hf are the sat-
þ ¼ HpðT w  TÞ: ð2Þ urated vapor and saturated liquid enthalpies.
@t A @z A
We use two correlations to model the heat transfer coefficient.
Wall energy balance
For the wet boundary condition (pre-CHF), we fit experimental
@T w @qe data based on the Kandlikar correlation (with Convective number
c p q w Aw ¼  HpðT w  TÞ: ð3Þ
@t @z (Co) smaller than 0.65) [9]
where q is the refrigerant density, m _ the mass flow rate, h the en- Hewet ¼ 2:5Hl ð1:136Co0:9 þ 667:2Bo0:7 1:2Þ; ð9Þ
thalpy, P the pressure, T the refrigerant temperature, Tw the wall
temperature, A the cross-sectional area, p the perimeter length of where
the heated wall, H is the coefficient of heat transfer across the wall,  0:8 !
1  xe qg
qe the evaporator heat load, (cp,qw,Aw) the wall heat capacity, den- Co ¼ ; ð10Þ
sity, and cross-sectional area, respectively. Note that the momen-
xe qf
tum equation is not considered due to the assumption that
qe
pressure drop is negligible. Bo ¼ : ð11Þ
_ g  hf Þ
mðh
Integrating both sides of (1)–(3) over the evaporator length, we
obtain a set of ordinary differential equations governing the aver- For the dry boundary condition (post-CHF), we use the Dittus-Boel-
aged behavior of the evaporator (the subscript e denotes ter correlation [9]
evaporator):

Table 1
Comparison of evaporator modeling for control-oriented models of vapor compression cycles.

Model Assumptions States CHF Application

Rasmussen, B. P. et. al. (2004) – Superheated vapor at exit – Length of two-phase region Not considered HVAC
– Negligible pressure drop – Pressure
– Lumped model – Exit enthalpy
– Two wall temperatures
Hewlett, P. T. et. al. (2010) - Saturated vapor at the exit - Liquid level Not considered HVAC
- Stratified flow - Static fluid properties
- Static exit pressure
Present work - Two-phase flow at the exit - Exit vapor quality Considered Electronics cooling
- Negligible pressure drop - Pressure
- Lumped model - Wall temperature
- Imposed heat flux

Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
4 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

kg hms  ha
Hedry ¼ 0:023Re0:8 0:4
g Pr g ; ð12Þ hm ¼ ha þ ; ð20Þ
De gs
where Pr is the Prandtl number and Re is the Reynolds number de- where gv and gs are given by the following correlations:
fined as
 b3
cp lg Po
Pr ¼ g ; ð13Þ gv ¼ b1 þ b2 ; ð21Þ
kg Pi
       
_ e
mD 1 Po 1 1
Reg ¼ : ð14Þ gs ¼ c1 þ c2 þ c3 þ c4 þ c5 ðqi  qsat Þ: ð22Þ
lg x Pi Pi _
m

The selection between the correlations is determined by xcrit: The constant parameters in (21) and (22) are identified using exper-
( imental data. The details may be found in [25].
Hewet if xe < xcrit ;
He ¼ ð15Þ
Hedry if xe P xcrit : 2.4. Condenser

The correlation to predict xcrit is presented in Section 4.2. A more The condenser is typically modeled as two or three zones, but
complete model for He would include multiple segments, e.g., sep- for simplicity we use only one zone for the model. As the evapora-
arately for dryout inception and dryout completion as in [23,24]. tor, the condenser is modeled using mass balance, refrigerant en-
We choose the simplified form here for the ease of stability analysis ergy balance, and wall energy balance. After integrating over the
and control design. length of the condenser, we obtain the lumped-parameter
Putting the state equations together, the final lumped-parame- approximation:
ter model for the evaporator is given by:
2 3 2 _ o Þqf qg =ðAcs Lqe Þ
_ im 3 dqc 1
x_ e ðm Lc ¼ ðm_ im
_ o Þ; ð23Þ
6 7 6 7 dt Ac
Ze6 _ 7 6 _ o he Þ=ðAc Lqe Þ 7
_ i hv  m
4 Pe 5 ¼ 4 ðHe Ase ðT we  T e Þ þ m 5; ð16Þ
_T we ðqe  He Ase ðT we  T e ÞÞ=ðcp V qÞ dðqc hc  Pc Þ 1 1
w Lc ¼ ðm_ i hi  m
_ o ho Þ þ Hc Asc ðT wc  T c Þ; ð24Þ
dt Ac Ac
where the matrix Ze is given by Table 2.
dT wc
2.2. Accumulator cpwc qwc V wc ¼ Hc Asc ðT wc  T c Þ  Hcool Ascool ðT wc  T cool Þ: ð25Þ
dt

The accumulator is modeled as a static heat exchanger using The two-phase flow properties are calculated as in (7) and (8) with
refrigerant energy balance and assuming that the pressure drop (xe,Pe) replaced by (xc,Pc). The heat transfer coefficients for the
is negligible: refrigerant and cooling side are model as:

qa _ o þ 246:3;
Hc ¼ 122108m ð26Þ
ha ¼ he þ ; ð17Þ
m_
kcool
Pa ¼ Pe : ð18Þ Hcool ¼ 0:023Re0:8 0:4
cool Pr cool ; ð27Þ
Dcool
We have ignored the dynamics of the accumulator in this paper,
where the constant parameters in (26) have been obtained by fit-
which would account for some of the mismatch in the pressure pre-
ting the experimental data [25]. The overall lumped-parameter
dictions. This dynamics will be addressed in our future work.
model for the condenser in matrix form is
2 3 2 3
2.3. Compressor x_ c ðm_ im _ o Þqf qg =ðAcsc Lqc Þ
6 7 6 7
Z c 4 P_ c 5 ¼ 4 ðHc Asc ðT wc  T c Þ þ m _ i hv  m_ o hc Þ=ðAc Lqc Þ 5;
Because the dynamics of the compressor are expected to be
much faster than that of the heat exchangers in the system T_ wc ðHc Asc ðT c  T wc Þ  Hcool As ðT wc  T col ÞÞ=ðcp V qÞ
cool w

[15,16], the compressor is modeled as an static component. The ð28Þ

governing equations to model the compressor are
the matrix Zc is given in Table 3.
_ m ¼ qa V m xgv ;
m ð19Þ
2.5. Electronic expansion valve

The electronic expansion valve (EEV) is modeled using the ori-

Table 2 fice equation assuming isenthalpic process:
Values of Matrix Ze for the evaporator model.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Ze(1,1) qe(qf  qg)
  dq
_ ¼ kv Av
m qi ðPi  Po Þ; ð29Þ
Ze(1,2) dq
qf  qe ð1  xÞ dPg þ ðqg  xqe Þ dPf
Ze(1,3) 0
Ze(2,1)
ho ¼ hi ; ð30Þ
hg  hf  qe ðqf  qg Þ qhqe
f g
 
Ze(2,2) he dqf dqg dhf dhg 1
qf qg ðqg  xqe Þ dP þ ðqf  qe ð1  xÞÞ dP þ ð1  xÞ dP þ x dP  qe a1 a3
Ze(2,3) 0 kv ¼ þ a2 qi þ þ a4 DP þ a5 : ð31Þ
Aeff m_
Ze(3,1) 0
Ze(3,2) 0
The constant parameters in (31) are identified using experimental
Ze(3,3) 1
data; the details may be found in [25].

Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 5

2 3
Table 3 x_ e
Values of Matrix Zc for the condenser model. 6 P_ 7
6 e 7
 6 7
Zc(1,1) ðA Lq Þ
qc ðqf  qg Þ qc q c Z e 0 6 T_ we 7
 f g
 dq  6 7
Zc(1,2) q
qf  qc ð1  xÞ dPcg þ ðqg  xqc Þ dPfc ðAqc Lqqc Þ 0 Z c 6 x_ c 7
6
7
f g
6 _ 7
Zc(1,3) 0
 
4 Pc 5
Zc(2,1) ðhg  hf Þqf qg  hc qc ðqf  qg Þ ðAqc Lqqc Þ
   f g 
T_ wc
Zc(2,2) dhf
qf qg ð1  xÞ dP dh dq dq
þ x dPgc þ q1 þ hc ðqg  xqc Þ dPcf þ ðqf  qc ð1  xÞÞ dPcg 2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
c c ðkv Av qc ðPc  Pe Þ  qa V m xgv Þqf qg =ðAcs Lqe Þ
ðAc Lqc Þ 6 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 7
qf qg 6 ðHe As ðT we  T e Þ þ kv Av qc ðPc  Pe Þhv  qa V m xgv he Þ=ðAc Lqe Þ 7
Zc(2,3) 0 6 7
6 ðqe  He As ðT we  T e ÞÞ=ðcp V qÞw 7
Zc(3,1) 0 6 7
¼6 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 7:
Zc(3,2) 0 6 ð q V xg  k v A v q ðP  P Þ Þ 7
Zc(3,3) 1 6 a m v c c e
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 7
6 7
4 Hc Asc ðT c  T wc Þ þ qa V m xgv hm  kv Av qc ðPc  Pe Þhc 5
Hc Asc ðT c  T wc Þ  Hcool Ascool ðT wc  T cool Þ
ð32Þ
2.6. Complete dynamic model
3. Experimental setup
The complete lumped-parameter model of the VCC is given by
the nonlinear differential equation below with 6 states (xe,Pe,Twe,-
Fig. 2(a) presents the experimental system designed and con-
xc,Pc,Twc) and 4 inputs (qe,qa,x,Av):
structed to validate the mathematical models and demonstrate
the control algorithms. It consists of three cartridge heaters im-

Fig. 2. Experimental setup (a) Picture of multiple-evaporator vapor compression refrigeration cycle experimental setup for electronics cooling (b) Schematic of experimental
setup.

Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
6 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. Experimental data used for model identification, (a) Pulses in Av and x with
constant qe and measured and calculated mass flow rate (b) Measured and
simulated values at the exit of the condenser and evaporator.
mersed in the refrigeration loop that act as evaporators, an elec-
tronic expansion valve for each evaporator, a heated accumulator,
which allows for low quality at the evaporators outlets, two com-
pressors with a variable frequency drive (VFD) (only one compres-
sor is active at a time), a condenser, and a subcooler connected to a
chiller (not shown in the figure). The testbed is instrumented with
three absolute pressure transducers, five differential pressure
transducers, 20 type-T thermocouples (15 immersed in the flow
and five attached to the cartridge heaters), and four Coriolis mass
flow sensors (shown in Fig. 2(b)). The sensors allow measurements
of absolute pressure and temperature at the inlet and outlet of each
main component (compressor, condenser, expansion valves, and
evaporators).
The controllable parameters are the compressor frequency (x),
expansion valve opening (Av), evaporator heat load (qe), and accu-
mulator heat load (qa) which are controlled from a computer using
National Instruments (NI) LabVIEW and input and output data
acquisition modules. In addition, the mass flow rate of the cooling
water in the condenser and the temperature of the chiller can be
manually regulated. The use of either of the two compressors al-
lows for a large range of operating conditions from 0.7 kW (small
Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
compressor) to 6 kW (medium compressor). Each evaporator can
provide up to 2.5 kW of power. The accuracy of the temperature,
pressure, and mass flow rate are ±0.3 °C, ±0.3% full scale, ±2% of
measurement, respectively. Additional details may be found in
[25].
4. Dynamic VCC model validation
The validation of dynamic VCC model is conducted under two
operating scenarios: far from and close to the CHF condition. For
the nominal operation, the model states are compared with mea-
sured variables during transients. The CHF validation is conducted
with step changes in qe until CHF is reached.
4.1. Validation pre-CHF condition
To validate the model away from the CHF condition, step pulses
with varying amplitudes are imposed in x and Av, starting from a
steady state condition. Fig. 3 shows the dataset used for parameter
identification of system constants such as diameters and lengths of
the heat exchangers (geometry details are not provided by the con-
denser manufacturer). Fig. 3(a) shows multiple simultaneous ran-
dom pulses for x and Av with a constant heat load and the
measured and simulated mass flow rate. Fig. 3(b) shows the mod-
eled variables at the exit of the condenser and at the exit of the
evaporator. Fig. 4 shows additional datasets not used for identifica-
tion. The model is capable of capturing the overall trends for most
of the system dynamics. And is sufficient for its main purpose of
feedback control design and operating condition selection. The
modeling errors are attributed to the simplifications made to the
condenser (one-zone) and accumulator (static component).
4.2. Validation during CHF condition
The system dynamics changes drastically near the CHF condi-
tion; Twe could rise suddenly and sharply if the boundary between
the heat wall and the refrigerant becomes vapor. After the CHF
condition is reached, the dry boundary condition is not immedi-
ately wetted after the system is returned to the operating condi-
tions prior to CHF. This hysteresis phenomena is shown
experimentally in Fig. 5 where increments of 50 W in qe are im-
posed starting from a steady-state condition with wetted boundary
condition. The increments continue until CHF is reached which is
determined by a sharp temperature increase (approximately
85 °C). Then qe is decreased by steps of 50 W until the system re-
turns to the original steady-state. Note that qe has to be decreased
250 W to re-wet the surface. This type of hysteresis behavior is dif-
ficult to model accurately. It highlights the need to choose operat-
ing conditions and control design to avoid CHF.
CHF can be divided into two types: departure from nucleate
boiling (DNB) or dryout [9]. For the current configuration of the
experimental testbed, CHF is expected to occur due to dryout, at
moderate to high vapor qualities. Dryout is predominately a func-
tion of pressure level, mass flow rate and vapor quality. The CHF
condition may be predicted using a correlation for xcrit as proposed
in [9]:
   2  3 !
0:15 P P P
xcrit ¼ ð8=DÞ 0:39 þ 1:57  2:04 þ 0:68
98 98 98
 0:5
G
 : ð33Þ
1000
This correlation was developed for water in vertical circular chan-
nels. To account for the different fluid and geometry of the current
system, new constants for (33) have been identified based on exper-
 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx
Fig. 4. Experimental data used for model prediction, (a) Pulses in x with constant
qe and Av and measured and calculated mass flow rate (b) Measured and simulated
values at the exit of condenser and evaporator.
Fig. 5. Experimental boiling curve around the critical heat flux, the red line
indicating the conditions obtained during increasing qe and the black line shows the
path of decreasing qe.
imental measurements as shown in Fig. 6(a). The identified equa-
tion for our refrigeration system is
Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
7
Fig. 6. Validation of critical quality calculation from Eq. (33) (a) Critical quality
identification (b) Critical quality prediction measurements not used for the
identification.
   2  3 !
P P P
xcrit ¼ ð8=DÞ0:15 0:55  0:642 þ 0:356  0:0637
98 98 98
 0:5
G
 : ð34Þ
1000
Note that most of the coefficients in (34) have different signs. This is
not surprising due to the different fluid properties and geometry
used to fit the empirical correlation.
The experiments to estimate xcrit are performed at different
operating conditions by varying Av,x,qe, and qa. This procedure al-
lows for a reasonable range in m,_ and Pe (3–7 kg min1 and 158–
230 kPa). However, due to the coupling dynamics of the cycle,
other system variables, such as the inlet quality to the evaporator,
vary as well, making a complete parametric study impractical with
the current experimental setup. From the experimental data xcrit is
2
estimated at the onset of the temperature spike, that is when d dtT2we
is at a maximum. The correlation (34) is used to predict data not
used in the identification as shown in Fig. 6(b) and the predicted
values agree well with measurements.
To validate the response of the dynamic model (32) near CHF,
the heat load qe is increased until CHF is reached as shown in
Fig. 7(a). The response of the system at the exit of the evaporator
is presented in Fig. 7(b). The model is capable of predicting the on-
set of CHF and the magnitude of the temperature rise. However,
the model shows an instantaneous drop in Pe and xe that does
not corresponds to the actual physics of the system. The drop in
both variables is due to the drop in heat transfer coefficient once
the CHF condition is reached. In the physical system this drop is
8 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx
Fig. 7. Identification of critical heat flux model (a) Steps in qe for dynamic model
validation of CHF prediction (b) Dynamic response at the exit of evaporator during
CHF with xcrit = 0.894.
not present since CHF is a local phenomena that only affects the lo-
cal wall temperature, with small effect on Pe and xe. This effect
could be avoided by using a distributed model or by incorporating
an additional state in the evaporator which would model the local
wall temperature, which couples to the remaining states of the
evaporator in only one direction. In this formulation changes in
Pe and xe would affect the new state however changes in the new
state would not affect Pe or xe. Additional experiments have been
conducted for model validation as shown in Figs. 8(a) and 8(b).
The model is not capable of predicting both transitions in heat
transfer coefficient present in the experimental data. However,
for controller design, the modeled dryout condition is sufficiently
close to the dryout inception.
4.3. Critical heat flux enhancement
From the experimental data near CHF as shown in Fig. 9, we
make the following observations of CHF in a VCC with imposed
heat flux:
1. Decreasing evaporator inlet flow quality, xv, increases CHF.
2. Increasing Pe increases CHF.
3. Increasing m_ increases CHF.
Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
Fig. 8. Prediction of critical heat flux model with data not used for model
identification (a) System inputs (b) Dynamic response at the exit of evaporator
during CHF prediction.
The effect of xv is as expected where a lower value represents
more liquid in the two-phase region and lower xe for a fixed value
of qe. The effect of Pe is not as expected [9], since from (34) an in-
crease in Pe decreases xcrit. However, higher Pe usually results in a
higher Pc, hence a higher temperature difference between the
refrigerant and the heat sink. At this new operating condition the
exit of the condenser can have a higher degree of subcooling,
decreasing hc and xv at the evaporator inlet. Similarly, the effect
of m_ is not straightforward, where higher m _ decreases xcrit by
increasing the liquid droplets entrapped in the vapor core, at the
same time it decrease xe for a fixed qe. This trends are presented
in Figs. 9(a), 9(b) and 9(c).
The closed cycle structure of the system means changes in
operating conditions affect both the exit and inlet conditions at
the evaporator. For example, an input change can have a detri-
mental effect on the exit conditions, such as a decrease in xcrit,
coupled with an positive effect on the inlet conditions which
can improve the overall CHF of the cycle. The CHF condition is
also directly related to qa, since increasing qa means more active
charge in the VCC, leading to rising Pe and Pc. Experimentally, an
 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 9

(a) 7.5
700
800
7 680
CHF (W/cm )

700 660

Wm (W)
2

6.5
640
600
620
6
500
4 600
6
5.5 40 580
8 50
10 60 560
Av (%) 70
5
0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.3 0.31 12 80 ω (Hz)
xv
(a)
(b) 7.5 0.1
0.12
0.09
0.1
7 0.08
0.08

Xavail
CHF (W/cm2)

0.06 0.07
6.5
0.04 0.06

0.02
4 0.05
6 6 40
8 50
60 0.04
10 70
A (%) 12 80 ω (Hz)
v
5.5

(b)
5
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
5 Fig. 10. Modeled system response for different operating conditions with
Evaporator Pressure (Pa) x 10
qe = 900 W and qa = 300 W (a) Compressor power (b) Available quality.

(c) 7.5

850
7
900
CHF (W/cm2)

W (W )

800
6.5 800

700
m

750
6 600
4
40 700
6
5.5 50
8 60
Av ( %) 70 650
10 80
ω (Hz)
5
0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014
Mass flow rate (kg/s) (a)
Fig. 9. Effect of various VCC operating conditions on CHF (a) Effect of xv (b) Effect of −3
−3 x 10
_
Pe (c) Effect of m. x 10
20
15
15
increase of 250 W in qa, with fixed values of Av and x, increased 10
xavail

CHF by 22.7%. 10
5

0
5
−5
5. VCC performance optimization 4
40
6 50
8 60
70 0
We use the lumped-parameter model to predict important sys- A ( %) 10 80
v ω (hz)
tem metrics for different operating conditions such as compressor
power consumption and available quality defined as (b)
Fig. 11. Modeled system response for different operating conditions with
xav ail ¼ xcrit  xe : ð35Þ
qe = 1100 W and qa = 300 W (a) Compressor power (b) Available quality.

CHF and compressor power are conflicting objectives (both cannot

be optimized simultaneously) [22]. Figs. 10(a) and 10(b) show com-
pressor power and xavail for qe = 900 W and qa = 300 W, for
Figs. 11(a) and 11(b) the heat load was increased to 1100 W. These
plots give an indication of the trade-offs in different operating re-
gions under various heat loads.
In both Figs. 10(a) and 10(b), the compressor power Wm shows
similar trends: lower x always decreases power consumption, but
Wm shows a global minimum as a function of Av. For a fixed value
of x, the optimal Av corresponds to low degree of superheated va-
por at the inlet to the compressor. Further increasing Av does not

Please cite this article in press as: J. Catano et al., Vapor compression refrigeration cycle for electronics cooling – Part I: Dynamic modeling and experimen-
tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
10 J. Catano et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

1200 x = 45 Hz and qa = 300 W) and the results are presented in

Fig. 12, showing the clear advantage of using the optimal operating
qe (W)

1100 conditions. A temperature spike of more than 100 °C is avoided

using model based optimization for operation near CHF. Away
1000
from CHF, the optimal operating condition could be set for Wm
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 minimization. This optimal operating condition in xavail is not opti-
mal in compressor power consumption and, as described in [25], a
150
control strategy can be used to minimize compressor power when
Twe (°C)

Optimal
100 the systems is away from CHF and avoid or delay CHF for operating
Nominal conditions with high heat loads.
50
However, this steady-state optimization is only useful from
0 small disturbances around the selected operating point. Large dis-
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (s) turbances cause the system to deviate from the desired operating
condition and can lead to CHF as shown experimentally in
Fig. 12. Comparison between a nominal operating condition (ARI) and an operating Fig. 13. In this case, larger changes in qe are imposed to the maxi-
condition with maximum xavail. mum xavail operating condition at qe = 1000 W (Av = 4.5%, x = 45 Hz
and qa = 300 W). In Fig. 13, two step changes in qe are imposed
from steady-state condition. First qe is decrease to 700 W which
1500 decreases Twe accordingly. From the new steady-state condition
at qe = 700 W, a large step change is imposed to qe = 1330 W, rep-
q (W)

1000 resenting a 90% increase from the steady-state value. For this large
e

step the system reaches CHF almost immediately. For such large
500 changes in heat load, closed-loop control may be able to avoid or
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
delay the onset of the CHF condition. This will be described in a
companion paper.
150
Twe (°C)

100
6. Conclusions
50

0 A lumped-parameter first-principle dynamic model has been

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Time (s)
Fig. 13. Optimal operating condition at qe = 1000 W subjected to large disturbances
in qe causing CHF.
significantly improves Wm. At higher Av the exit condition at the
condenser becomes saturated or low quality two-phase at rela-
tively low Pc, a condition that is typically followed by choked mass
flow at the expansion valve. Experimentally, it was determined
that for practical operating conditions of the current testbed
(45 6 x 6 75 Hz, qa 6 400 W, and qe 6 1500 W) choked flow will
be present for Av P 15%.
At low heat loads (Fig. 10(b)) the CHF condition is not imminent
and xavail is larger than zero for all simulated conditions. The opti-
mal condition at low heat loads corresponds to low x and low Av.
At this condition, the mass flow rate is low and the pressure differ-
ence between Pc and Pe is high, which represents high Pc and high
DTsub. Low m _ produces less liquid entrapment in the two-phase re-
gion and therefore increases xcrit. Whereas high DTsub produces low
xv and low xe for a fixed value of qe, therefore, maximizes xavail. At
higher heat loads (Fig. 11(b)), CHF could be reached and m _ and
DTsub (xv) need to be balance to obtain an optimum xavail. At inter-
mediate values of Av and x; m _ is large enough to reduce xe while
maintaining a relatively high xcrit.
To illustrate the importance of VCC operating conditions for im-
posed heat flux, a nominal operating condition is compared to an
optimal operating condition based on simulations. The nominal
operating condition is based on the Heating Air-Conditioning and
Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) recommendation with DTsub = 8.3 °C
and DTsup = 10.1 °C [26]. For qe = 1050 W and x = 60 Hz (VCC with
no control), Av, and qa were adjusted until the AHRI conditions
were met (Av = 4.7% and qa = 50 W). After steady-state was reached
disturbances to the heat load were imposed. The same distur-
bances in heat load were given to the VCC operating at maximum
xavail at qe = 1050 W (determined experimentally at Av = 4.5%,
7000 8000 9000 developed for a VCC with imposed heat flux at the evaporator.
The model is compared with the experiment at multiple operating
conditions including around CHF. The simple lumped-parameter
model captures the main dynamics of the system and is a useful
tool for system design and selection of operating conditions for
known heat loads. We have also shown that the CHF may be im-
proved by increasing the mass flow rate, increasing the evaporator
pressure level, or by decreasing the evaporator inlet quality. The
effects of pressure and mass flow rate are not expected and are
attributed to the coupled nature of the cycle. In addition, increas-
ing accumulator heat load also increases CHF by decreasing the
inlet quality to the evaporator. In conclusion, the lumped-parame-
ter model captures the essential behavior of the system, and the
model may be used to select operating conditions to increase the
CHF. In the companion paper, the model will be used for closed
loop control design.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported primarily by the Office of Naval
Research (ONR) under the Multidisciplinary University Research
Initiative (MURI) award N00014–07-1–0723 ‘‘System-Level Ap-
proach for Multi-Phase, Nanotechnology-Enhanced Cooling of
High-Power Microelectronic Systems’’, and in part by ONR Award
N00014–13-1–0189, the National Science Foundation (NSF) Smart
Lighting Engineering Research Center (EEC-0812056), and the Cen-
ter for Automation Technologies and Systems (CATS) under a block
grant from the New York State Empire State Development Division
of Science, Technology and Innovation (NYSTAR).
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tal validation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.075
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