6.3. Capacitive Sensors—Displacement Halit Eren and Wei Ling Kong Capacitive sensors are extensively used in industrial and scientific applications. They ae based on changes in capacitance in response to physical variations. These sensors find many diverse applications — from. humidity and moisture measurements to displacement sensing. Ia some cases, the basic operational and sensing principles are common in dissimilar applications; and in other cases, different principles can be used for the same applications. For example, capacitive microphones are based on variations of spacing between plates in response to acoustical pressure, thus turning audio signals to variations in capacitance ‘On the other hand, a capacitive level indicator makes use of the changes in the relative permittivity between the plates. However, capacitive sensors are best known to be associated with displacement ‘measurements for rotational or translational motions, as will be described next, Other applications of ‘capacitance sensors such as humidity and moisture will be discussed. Capacitive Displacement Sensors ‘The measurement of distances or displacements is an important aspect of many industrial, scientific, and engineering systems, The displacement is basically the vector representing a change in position of a body or point with respect to a reference point, Capacitive displacement sensors satisfy the requirements ‘of applications where high linearity and wide ranges ({rom a few centimeters to a couple of nanometers) are needed. “The basic sensing element of a typical displacement sensor consists of two simple electrodes with ‘capacitance C. The capacitance is a function of the distance d (cm) between the electrodes of a structure, the surface area A (em) of the electrodes, and the permitivity € (8.85 x 10- Fm for air) of the dielectric between the electrodes; therefore: aa) (622 ‘There are three basic methods for realizing a capacitive displacement sensor: by varying dy A, or &, as discussed below. ‘Variable Distance Displacement Sensors A capacitor displacement sensor, made from two fat coplanar plates with a variable distance x apart, is illustrated in Figure 6.23. Ignoring fringe effets, the capacitance of this arrangement can be expressed by: FIGURE6.23 A variable distance capacitive displacement sensor. One of the pats of the capacitor moves to vary the dstance etwsen plates in response to changes ina physical variable. The outputs ofthese transducers are nonlinear with respect to distance x having 2 hyperbolic transfer function characteristic, Appropriate signal processing must be employed for linearization.s}=ea/x=e,e, als (623) here © = the diclectric constant or permittivity «, = the relative dielectric constant (in air and vacuum €, = 1) {854188 x 10” Fim the dielectric constant of vacuum the distance ofthe plates in m the effective arca ofthe plates in m? ‘The capacitance of this transducer is nonlinear with respect to distance x, having a hyperbolic transfer function characteristic, The sensitivity of capacitance to changes in plate separation is dcjdx=-e,e,a/x* Equation 6.24 indicates thatthe sensitivity increases as x decreases. Nevertheless, from Equat and 6.24, it follows thatthe percent change in C is proportional to the percent change in x. This can be expressed as: dcic=-dx)x (6.25) ‘This type of sensor is often used for measuring small incremental displacements without making contact with the object. Variable Area Displacement Sensors Alternatively the displacements may be sensed by varying the surface area of the electrodes ofa flat plate ‘capacitor, as illustrated in Figure 6.24 In this case, the capacitance would be: e,(4-ws a (626) where w = the width ‘wx = the reduction in the area due to movement ofthe plate ‘Then, the transducer output is linear with displacement x. This type of sensor is normally implemented as.a rotating capacitor for measuring angular displacement. The rotating capacitor structures are also ‘used as an output transducer for measuring clectric voltages as capacitive voltmeters. re moving plate ‘a t. fixed plate FIGURE 6.24 A variable aes capacitive displacement sensor. The sensor operates onthe variation inthe effective area between plates of a flat-plate capacitor. The transducer output i linear with respect to displacement x This type ‘of sensor is normally implemented as rotating capacitor for measuring angular displacement.bA area A- AA ix dielectric <—___} ——_> variable length FIGURE625 A variable dicetic capacitive displacement sensor The dct material between the two pail plate capacitors moves, varying the effective dielectric constant. The output ofthe sensor is linea Variable Dielectric Displacement Sensors In some cases the displacement may be sensed by the relative movement of the dielectric material between the plates, as shown in Figure 6.25. The corresponding equations would be: o=e,wfesr-(e.-8) >] (620 where €, = the relative permittivity of the dielectric mater = the permittivity of the displacing material (eg, liquid) In this case, the output of the transducer is also linear. This type of transducer is predominantly used in the form of two concentric cylinders for measuring the level of fluids in tanks. A nonconducting fluid forms the dielectric material, Further discussion will be included in the level measurements section, Differential Capacitive Sensors Some of the nonlinearity in capacitive sensors can be eliminated using differential capacitive arrange- ments. These sensors are basicaly three-terminal capacitors, as shown in Figure 6.26. Slight variations in the construction of these sensors find many different applications, including differential pressure measurements. In some versions, the central plate moves in response to physical variables with respect, to the fixed plates. In others, the central plate is fixed and outer plates are allowed to move. The output from the center plate is zero at the central position and increases as it moves left or right. The range is ‘equal to twice the separation d. For a displacement done obtains: 28C= C.-C, =€,e,)n/(d-Ba (6.28) and CHG fal (d Ba) + €,e,h/ (d+ 8d)=2e eg hd (a 450°) (6.29) Giving epproximately: Bdfd (6.30)fixed centre plate movable plate FIGURE6.26 A ciffrenil cspacive sensor. They are essentially throe terminal capacitors with one fixed center plate and two outer pats. Th response to physical variables is linear In some versions, the central plate moves in response to physical variable with respect to two outer plates, and in the others, the centel plate is fixed and outer plates ae allowed to move. ‘This indicates that the response of the device is more linear than the response of the two plate types. However, in practice some nonlinearity i stil observed due to defects in the structure. Therefore, the ‘outputs of these type of sensors still need to be processed carefully as explained in the signal processing section. In some differential capacitive sensors the two spherical depressions are ground into glass disks; then, ‘these are gold-plated to form the fixed plates ofa differential capacitor. A thin, stainless-steel diaphragm, is clamped between the disks and serves as a movable plate. With equal pressure applied to both ports, ‘the diaphragm is then in neutral position and the output is balanced at a corresponding bridge. If one pressure is greater than the other, the diaphragm deflects proportionally, giving an output due to the frame }—> fixed centre plate FIGURE6.29 A differential capacitive pressure sensor. The capacitances C, and C, of the sensor changes due to -fixed plate Eocte FD movable plate (proof mass) silicon base terminals. FIGURE6.30 A capacitive force transducer. A typical capacitive micromachined acelerometer has one ofthe plates asthe proof mas. The other plat is fixed, thus forming the bas. When the sensor is accelerated, the proof mass tends to move, thus varying the distance between the plates and altering the voltage across the capacitor. This change in voltage is made to be directly proportional wo the applied aeceration. Also, (av)-aavevag (6.42) If the supply voltage V across the capacitor is kept constant, i follows that dV= 0, Since Q Coulomb force is given by: (Ola) the {x)= 2) (649) ‘Thus, if the movable electrode has complete freedom of motion, it will have assumed a position in which the capacitance is maximal; also, if Cis a linear function of x, the force F(x) becomes independent of x Capacitive silicon accelerometers are available in a wide range of specifications. A typical lightweight sensor will havea frequency range of 0 to 1000 Hz, and a dynamic range of acceleration of +2 g 0 +500 g Capacitive Liquid Level Measurement ‘The level ofa nonconducting liquid can be determined by capacitive techniques. The method is generally based on the difference between the dielectric constant of the liquid and that ofthe gas or air above it. ‘wo concentric metal cylinders are used for capacitance, as shown in Figure 6.31. The height ofthe liquid, his measured relative to the total height, L Appropriate provision is made to ensure that the space between the cylindrical electrodes is fled by the liquid to the same height as the rest of the container, ‘The usual operational conditions dictate thatthe spacing between the electrodes, $= 15 fy should be ‘much less than the radius of the inner electrode, r, Furthermore, the tank height should be much greater ‘than 1, When these concitions apply, the capacitance is approximated by: a(ijee,(#-1) “eas “oighi-(FIGURE631 A capacitive liquid level sensor. Two concentric metal lindes are used a lestodes of «capacitor. The ‘value ofthe capacitance depends onthe permittivity ofthe liquid and that ofthe gas or airaboveit‘Te total permitivity changes depending onthe igi level. These devies ae wstlly applied in nonconducting liquid applications ‘where ¢, and €, are the dielectric constants of the liquid and gas (or air), respectively. The denominator ‘of the above equation contains only terms that relate to the fixed system, Therefore they become a single ‘constant. A typical application is the measurement of the amount of gasoline ina tank in airplanes. The dielectric constant for most compounds commonly found in gasoline is approximately equal to 2, while that of air is approximately unity. A linear change in capacitance with gasoline level is expected for this situation. Quite high accuracy can be achieved if the denominator is kept quite small, thus accentuating the level dil ferences. These sensors often incorporate an ac deflection bridge. Capacitive Humidity and Moisture Sensors ‘The permittivities of atmospheric ar, of some gases, and of many solid materials are functions of moisture content and temperature. Capacitive humidity devices are based on the changes in the permittivity of the dielectric material between plates of capacitors, The main disadvantage of this type sensor is that a relatively small change in humidity results in a capacitance large enough for a sensitive detection, Capacitive humidity sensors enjoy wide dynamie ranges, from 0.1 ppm to saturation points. They can function in saturated environments for long periods of time, a characteristic that would adversely affect many other humidity sensors. Their ability to function accurately and reliably extends over a wide range ‘of temperatures and pressures. Capacitive humidity sensors also exhibit low hysteresis and high stability ‘with minimal maintenance requirements. These features make capacitive humidity sensors viable for many specific operating conditions and ideally suitable fora system where uncertainty of unaccounted conditions exists during operations.