 SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS: An error is a measure of the range of values within

which the desired value x lies with a certain probability. For example, if x lies between x 1 + x and x1
- x then x = x1 with an error of x, usually written as x = x1 ± x. Please note that x is considered a
positive value. x is the absolute error and has the same units as x. At times, the error is expressed
as a ratio between the absolute error and the actual value, x/x. This is the relative error in x. The
relative error is always a positive value (we calculate in effect |x/x|). It is dimensionless and often
expressed as a percentage.

Consider one wants to find the value of x by measuring values a,b,c,… This relationship can be
described by x = f(a,b,c,…), or x is some function of a,b,c,… Since a,b,c,… are measured values,
with errors a,b,c,… respectively, x will also have an error, namely x. If a, b, c, … are
independent we can write:

x = f/a a + f/b b + f/c c + … (1)

where f/a is the partial derivative of f with respect to a.

The maximum possible error in x is obtained when all terms in (1) are positive, or

x = |f/a a| + |f/b b| + |f/c c| + … (2)

Or, given that a, b, c, … are positive,

x = |f/a| a + |f/b| b + |f/c| c + … (3)

Given a and b are measured values where a = 30.6 ± 0.2 and b = 18.6 ± 0.1. Calculate x, where:

1. x = a + b. x = (30.6 ± 0.2) + (18.6 ± 0.1) = 49.2 ± 0.3. The relative error is 0.3/49.1 = 0.00611,
which we should write as 0.006 or 0.6%.

2. x = a - b. x = (30.6 ± 0.2) - (18.6 ± 0.1) = 12 ± 0.3. We have to rewrite this as x = 12.0 ± 0.3.
The relative error is 0.3/12.0 = 0.025 or 2.5%, which we could leave as is or write as 0.03 or
3%.

3. x = a b. x = (30.6 ± 0.2) * (18.6 ± 0.1) = 30.6 * 18.6 ± (0.1 * 30.6 + 0.2 * 18.6) = 569.16 ±
6.78. We have to rewrite this as x = 569 ± 7. The relative error is 7/569 = 0.0123, which we
should write as 0.012 or 1.2%. Another way to calculate the absolute error is to first calculate
the relative error, using equation (6). Thus, the relative error is 0.2/30.6 + 0.1/18.6 = 0.0065 +
0.0054 = 0.0119, which we should write as 0.012 or 1.2%. The absolute error is 0.012 * 569
= 6.828, which we should write as 7.

4. x = a2.2. x = 30.62.2 = 1856.04. Since our original measurement a has three significant digits,
we probably cannot have more than that in our calculation for x. Using equation (8) we find
the that the relative error is 2.2 (0.2/30.6) = 2.2 * 0.0065 = 0.014 or 1.4%. That means an
absolute error of 0.014 * 1856 = 25.98. Although we may want to write x = 1856 ± 26, the
correct answer is 186 * 101 ± 3 * 101.