REGULATED RIVERS: RESEARCH & MANAGEMENT, VOL.

6,75-86 (1991)

THE FLOOD PULSE ADVANTAGE AND THE RESTORATION

OF RIVER-FLOODPLAIN SYSTEMS
PETER B. BAYLEY
Illinois Natural History Survey, 607 East Peabody Drive, Champaign, Illinois 61820, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
The ‘flood pulse advantage’ is the amount by which fish yield per unit mean water area is increased by a natural,
predictable flood pulse. Evidence for this increase is presented from tropical and temperate fisheries. It is argued that
increasing multispecies fish yield by restoring the natural hydrological regime is consistent with increasing production of
other trophic levels and with restoration from ecological and aesthetic viewpoints. When applied to a river-floodplain
system, this restoration would provide a large, self-sustainingpotential for recreation, commercial exploitation, and flood
control. An interim ‘natural flood pulse’ restoration approach is proposed for systems modified for navigation. This
approach approximates the natural hydrological regime in a river reach and is intended as a first step in the long process
of restoring the watershed.

KEY WORDS Fish yield Production Hydrology Wetlands Flooding Inundation Dewatering Drawdown Waterfowl
Mississippi

INTRODUCTION
Large river-floodplain systems in developing countries generally differ from those in so-called developed
countries, principally because human activities have radically altered systems in developed countries through
increased drainage rates (Little, 1973), removal of a large proportion of floodplain from aquatic influence,
direct hydrological changes, such as permanent impoundment due to navigation or hydroelectric schemes
(Petts, 1984), and pollution. Most of these changes have occurred since the early 19th century in North
America and Europe (Yon and Tendron, 1981; Brooks, 1988), whereas most ecological or resource-
management studies have with few exceptions (Richardson, 1921; Forbes, 1925; Antipa, 1928) occurred only
during the past fifty years.
The lack of baseline data for large river-floodplain systems in the temperate climates of developed
countries presents an enormous problem to those who would now attempt to restore those systems.
Restoration has been defined as a ‘return to an ecosystem which closely resembles unstressed surrounding
areas’ (Gore, 1985). However, it is almost impossible to find ecological information from large river-
floodplains in developed countries that approximates pristine conditions, because those systems have been so
extensively modified. Consequently, in the absence of a well-defined goal, restoration attempts can result in
expensive, species-oriented projects. Such attempts can fail to take advantage of the adaptations of biota to
the naturally variable but predictable annual hydrological regimes of large river-floodplains.
Nearly a century ago Stephen Forbes recognized the importance of the floodplain when he stated: ‘. . . the
point of direction towards which all our studies shall tend is the effect on the aquatic plant and animal life of a
region produced by the periodic overflow and gradual recession of the waters of great rivers. . .’ (Forbes,
1895, p 47). Unfortunately, this nascent branch of limnology was cut short by the rapid modifications that
affected the hydrology and topography of large river-floodplains even within Forbes’ lifetime.
With the exception of a few scientists like Forbes, the floodplain came to be regarded as an interesting
appendage to the river. More recently, however, Welcomme (1975, 1979) and others working in relatively
unmodified systems in developing tropical countries have again drawn attention to the importance of
floodplains,even to those small parts that remain in developed countries as wetlands or backwaters (Odum,
0886-9375/91/02075- 12$06.00 Received 8 December 1990
0 1991 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Revised 6 May 1991
76 P. B. BAYLEY

1984). The floodplain is now regarded as an essential component of the system without which production is
drastically reduced, and community composition and energy pathways are radically changed (Junk et al.,
1989; Ward, 1989). Junk and his colleagues (1989) attempted to unify the functions of river-floodplains
through the flood pulse concept, but perforce they depended primarily on data from tropical systems.
Although data from temperate systems may be consistent with the flood pulse concept, researchers are forced
to speculate about the conditions of hydrology and sedimentation that existed in pristine systems and
therefore affected adaptations of the biota.
Apart from aesthetic concerns, why should we restore a river-floodplain system? Whether the primary
interest is in production of animal protein or in recreational fishing and hunting, efforts to maximize
production of a wide variety of native, aquatic, and terrestrial taxa at minimal cost is consistent with
restoration and provides a short- and long-term rationale. Junk et al. (1 989) presented evidence that pristine
river-floodplains are highly productive, are kept in a state of early succession, and are dominated by biota
with r-selected traits (sensu Pianka, 1970). Consequently, increasing the production of the biota that
dominated the natural system can be consistent with the process of river-floodplain restoration. However,
maximizing the production of a few selected species that may be of immediate interest is not necessarily
consistent with that process.
This paper focuses on the widely perceived need to restore river-floodplains in developed countries,
primarily in temperate regions, and suggests how our knowledge from relatively unmodified systems in
tropical countries can help this endeavour. It is abundantly clear that a river fishery is significantly improved
by the presence of connected floodplains (Richardson, 1921; Holcik and Bastl, 1976; Welcomme, 1976, 1985;
Risotto and Turner, 1985; Ward, 1989). There is also considerable evidence for the positive influence of
periodic inundation on primary production of higher plants in riverine wetlands and saltmarshes (Birch and
Cooley, 1983; Odum, 1984,1989). What is not obvious is the effect of a change in the hydrograph on yield or
production. The comparative approach in this paper suggests that the restoration of a river-floodplain and
increased production are best achieved by concentrating resources on the restoration of the natural
hydrological regime.

THE FLOOD PULSE ADVANTAGE IN RIVER-FLOODPLAINS

The effect on aquatic production of the flood pulse (Junk et al., 1989) is interpreted graphically in Figure 1
with respect to multispecies fishery yield. Theoretically, production depends on the nature of the flood pulse.
Strong year-classes of fish tend to result from gradually increasing water levels that are accompanied by a
high amplitude flood of long duration (Welcomme, 1979). Typical hydrographs indicate that these

t
ANNUAL FISH
YIELD PER UNIT
MEAN WATER
SURFACE AREA

0 SLOW FAST
RATE OF RISE OF FLOOD PULSE

Figure 1. Schematic of the effect of the rate of increase of water level of a single, seasonal flood pulse on annual multispecies fish yield
based on mean water surface area in a river-floodplain. Upper curve for tropical systems. The ‘flood pulse advantage’ is the
hypothesized increase in yield over that which would result from the same water surface area with no flood pulse for the corresponding
curve (abscissa = 0). A ‘slow’ rate of rise corresponds to a smooth hydrograph that maintains water in the floodplain for a greater part
of the year (right-hand hydrograph in Figure 2C) and is characteristic of unperturbed systems with a slow drainage rate. A ‘fast’ rate
corresponds to a flashy discharge regime (left-hand hydrograph in Figure 2C) is characteristic of perturbed, small, or desert watersheds.
See text under Thejood pulse advantage in river-floodplains for further interpretation
 RESTORATION OF RIVER-FLOODPLAIN SYSTEMS 77

hydrological features are not independent. A high amplitude can only be maintained for a limited period
within the annual cycle if the water level has a slow rate of increase and decrease. A constant high water level
may in any case reduce fish production because of the development of stagnant water conditions (Junk et al.,
1989). In basins with fast drainage rates, a rapid rise is followed quickly by a rapid fall, and there may be no
benefit to aquatic biota associated with the amplitude. The ‘slow’ rate of rise of flood pulse corresponding to
the peaks in Figure 1 corresponds to basins with slow drainage rates that flood land during a greater part of
the year (right-hand hydrograph in Figure 2C). For a given pattern of discharge, the amplitude at that point
in the river, which affects the area flooded, is largely a function of geomorphology (gradient, topography, soil
types). One expects a larger flooded area integrated through the year to produce more fish (Welcomme,
1985). Therefore, the ordinate in Figure 1 is scaled by the mean water surface area to reflect changes in the
shape in the hydrograph rather than the magnitude of flooding.
The ‘flood pulse advantage’ in Figure 1 represents the amount by which annual multispecies fish yield
exceeds that from a system with constant water level. Fish yield can be viewed as equivalent to fish

I
0

4 1 /
FLOODPLAIN
COMPONENT

AQUATIC I
PRODUCTION
PER UNIT
LENGTH
OF RIVER
LeL LOTIC
COMPONENT

0
NATURAL FLOODPLAINAREA d

DEC ?c
ANNUAL HYDROGRAPHSVS. NATURAL FLOODPLAIN AREA

Figure 2. Schematic of hypothesized changes due to an increase in floodplain and concomitant amelioration in the flood pulse of a large
river-floodplain: (A) indicates a change in turbidity in floodplain lentic bodies and a change in quantity of diving duck habitat per unit
length of river; (B) indicates aquatic production per unit length of river in the floodplain (rising curve) and in the lotic channels (lower
curve) as floodplain area increases. The dashed line indicates the hypothesized increase of productivity (flood pulse advantage) in the
floodplain merely due to the expansion of backwater area if the hydrograph was not improved from its modified state. A slight drop in
production in the lotic component (lower curve) may occur due to reduction of main channel border area and possibly more nutrients
and organic matter being retained as the natural floodplain develops; (C) indicates three annual hydrographs (shown with time as the
ordinate and stage as the abscissa). The sequence from left to right corresponds to increasing area of the natural floodplain (abscissa in B
and C) as levees are removed, with concomitant improvements in local water control or watershed restoration
78 P. B. BAYLEY

production for a given system and fishery. In a carbon budget of the partially deforested central Amazon
floodplain, production of aquatic/terrestrial vegetation and forest litter accounted for 69 per cent and 24 per
cent, respectively, of the multispecies fish production (Bayley, 1989). Because fish production integrates a
large part of the energy transfers among the biota of river-floodplain systems, the concept of a flood pulse
advantage could be applied to aquatic production at a lower trophic level, but not necessarily to individual
species. The concept is similar to the ‘subsidy’ to production of higher vegetation due to seasonal flooding of
the riparian zone by Odum (1979). The increased biomass, respiration, litter production, and wood
production of temperate wetland trees in flowing waters compared to standing waters (Brown, 1981; Brown
and Lugo, 1982) and a parallel increase of production in riverine marshes (Brinson et al., 1981) support the
concepts of (Odum, 1979) and (Junk et al., 1989).
Junk ef al. (1989) suggested mechanisms to explain why this increased production would be expected. For
instance, r-selected traits (sensu Pianka, 1970), that select for high production in order to survive in a
changing environment, characterize many fish species in river-floodplain systems. A slow to moderate rate of
increase of the hydrograph increases production to a maximum because fish respond to increased production
of vegetation and associated food and habitat as the moving littoral traverses the aquaticlterrestrial
transition zone (ATTZ). A positive relation between the growth rates of fish and the rate of water level rise,
corresponding to the left-hand limb of Figure 1, provides some evidence for this effect (Bayley, 1988b).
However, in some systems (or years) the flood pulse can rise (and fall) too quickly for these processes to
keep up, and the flood pulse advantage decreases (right-hand limb of Figure 1). Examples include river-
floodplains that have been modified so that peaks occur very suddenly or are badly timed, and some river-
floodplains in small watersheds that are typically subjected t o flashy discharge regimes. In extreme situations
when large parts of the floodplain are scoured and turbid water is constantly moving quickly, production will
probably drop below that of a stable water condition (right-hand limbs crossing dashed lines in Figure 1).
Conversely, a stable water level would correspond to the left extremes of the curves in Figure 1 (no flood
pulse, abscissa = 0) and would result in relatively low or moderate production. It corresponds to a naturally
stable or artificially maintained level, such as in a main-stream impoundment or in a backwater or swamp
separated from the highest floods. Apart from lacking the benefits of a flood pulse, aquatic production can be
limited in such areas due to self-shading of macrophytes, low dissolved oxygen, limited recycling of nutrients
and organic matter held in detritus, or more drastic effects outlined in a later section. Conditions can appear
to improve during the first years of impoundment but subsequently decline (Wood, 1951). Channel border
areas above River Mississippi navigation dams maintain high densities of invertebrates (Grubaugh et al.,
1986), but the physical system is not stable in the long term (Bhowmik et al., 1986).
The superposition of an annual temperature regime on the flood pulse (Junk et al., 1989) may change the
set of conditions which control production and other biotic attributes. For instance, enhanced production
from the moving littoral as the pulse rises depends on sufficient water temperature. Accordingly, I have
drawn a lower peak for temperate systems (Figure 1). When very low temperatures coincide with the flood,
there may be no flood pulse advantage, and ice-scouring in arctic systems may depress production.
A slower retreat of the flood pulse may increase production of moist soil plants, thereby benefitting aquatic
production in following years. Significant aquatic production may also occur during the decline of the flood
pulse due to increased input of nutrients and organic matter from the ATTZ to backwaters. These retreating
moving littoral effects are not explicit in Figure 1, but are expected to be stronger in systems with
hydrological regimes characterized by a slow rate of rise. They may contribute more to annual production
than the advancing littoral in temperate systems where higher temperatures prevail during the drawdown
period. Conversely, rapid drawdown may strand or leave vulnerable to predation much of the aquatic fauna.
Protracted periods of low water can limit the production of higher aquatic fauna as suggested by the fish
model of Welcomme and Hagborg (1977).

Comparisons of fish yield among tropical systems

How productive are natural river-floodplains compared with regulated rivers or lakes? A model
comparing multispecies yields from artisanal fisheries on 3 1 tropical lakes and impoundments and 28
tropical river-floodplains and lagoons (saltwater) indicated unimodal relationships whose maxima corre-
 RESTORATION OF RIVER-FLOODPLAIN SYSTEMS 79

sponded to 'optimal' values of fishing effort (Bayley, 1988a). The predicted maximum yield for lakes was 97
kg ha-' yr-' (95 per cent confidence range 76-122). Natural lakes and impoundments could not be
distinguished at p = 0.05. River-floodplains and lagoons, which had yields that were indistinguishable at
p = 0.05, indicated a maximum of 125 kg ha-' yr-' (95 per cent range 99-153). A maximum of 150 kg ha-'
yr-' (95 per cent range 114-188) was predicted for the 15 river-floodplains alone.
There are two reasons why this comparison underestimates fish yield from river-floodplains. First, river-
floodplain values were based on maximum floodplain areas because they could be conveniently estimated
from topographic maps. The area of the river was included, but this is a small fraction of the total.
Considering that significant peripheral areas are flooded only for days or weeks every year and that
floodplains have value for production of terrestrial animals during the dry phase, it is more sensible from
aquatic production and economic viewpoints to compare lake yields with river-floodplain yields based on
the mean area inundated. Although such area estimates are not available for many systems, values are
usually at least one half to one third of the maximum river-floodplain area. Therefore, using the more
conservative potential of 125 kg per ha of maximum flooded area, tropical river-floodplains have a potential
muhispecies fish yield of about 2.5-4 times that of tropical lakes and impoundments on an annual mean
water surface area basis. These ratios still underestimate the difference, because of a second bias due to the
estimation of yields from river-floodplainfisheries. These fisheries are very dispersed compared with those on
lakes, and most methods have underestimated yields because the multitude of access points for fishermen are
difficult to monitor using traditional methods (Bayley and Petrere, 1989).
If these two underestimates are considered, potential fish yield per unit mean area in river-floodplains
greatly exceeds that of lakes in tropical latitudes. It can be argued that lakes are not equivalent to river-
floodplains at constant water level. However, seven of the lakes were artificially impounded river stretches
whose yields, corrected for effort, were indistinguishable from those of the natural lakes (Bayley, 1988a).
Lakes tend to be deeper than river-floodplains and may therefore be less productive. The morphoedaphic
index (conductivity/meandepth) is primarily influenced by mean depth, but that index explained a negligible
amount of yield variance (Bayley, 1988a). At constant conductivity, a tenfold range in mean depth predicts
only a twofold range in yield per fisherman (Henderson and Welcomme, 1974: Fig. 5). In addition, 11 of 31
lakes analysed here had mean depths of 4 m or less, which is within the approximate range of 0-4 m for
floodplain lakes at low water (Welcomme, 1985).
As the previous discussion suggests, maximum lake or impoundment yields from tropical lakes can be
regarded as closely equivalent to maximum yields from river-floodplains that are maintained at a constant
water level. Therefore, empirical evidence from tropical systems exists for the flood pulse advantage
(Figure 1).

Comparisons of jish yield or biomass in temperate systems

Data for comparative purposes from temperate latitudes are sparse and variable because of the variety and
extent of system modifications. Therefore, data were sought on a smaller scale that permitted comparison of
yields or biomass from floodplain lakes open to the flood pulse of the main river with those from areas
impounded or separated by artificial levtes within each river system.
Kriegsmann (1970 in Lelek, 1989) indicated that regularly inundated backwaters on the upper Rhine river
yielded 115 kg ha-' yr-', whereas backwaters separated from the main channel and impounded reaches on
the river produced commercial yields of only 63-84 and 42 kg ha-' yr-', respectively. On the lower Rhine
river, Lelek (1989) estimated approximate commercial yields of 125-270 kg ha-' yr-' (between 1980 and
1984) from regularly inundated backwaters compared with 45 kg ha-' yr-' reported by Kriegsmann (1970
in Lelek, 1989)) from the main river.
Bryan and Sabins (1978) found that fish biomass in floodplain lakes connected to the Atchafalaya River
(lower Mississippi system) averaged 860 kg ha-' whereas lakes separated for most of the year by artificial
levtes averaged 550 kg ha-', based on mean area inundated. They noted that the biomass densities of lakes
connected to the river were higher than those of virtually all reservoirs in the southeastern U.S. Standing
stock estimates from connected lakes of the lower Atchafalaya River were 15 per cent greater following high-
water years than low-water years (Fremling et al., 1989).
80 P. B. BAYLEY

Conclusions to jish yield comparisons

Although sparse, data from temperate regions indicated that lacustrine areas in floodplains open to the full
flooding amplitude from the main river are more productive than artificially separated or impounded lakes, a
finding that is parallel to the comparison among tropical systems and is consistent with the positive effect of
hydrological indices related the flood pulse on subsequent fish yield within systems (Welcomme, 1985). It
seemed logical (Coker, 1914) to presume that fish yield would be increased if the floodplain were permanently
inundated, such as by raising the height of a navigation dam. These comparisons indicate that such an
alteration will not increase fishery yield in the long-term, even when comparing on a floodplain area basis,
and may even decrease it. In general, these comparisons imply that the yield or production of a large group of
species (in this case fishes) increases as the system approaches pristine hydrological conditions. This finding is
consistent with the graphical representation of the flood pulse concept in Figure 1, but it cannot explain
whether this increase is due to the advancing or retreating moving littoral or to other effects of the flood pulse
(Junk et al., 1989), and does not indicate the optimum rates of rise and fall of water level.
As Welcomme (1985) noted, overlap exists between the multispecies yields of unmodified tropical and
temperate river-floodplain systems. There may be many reasons for this overlap (e.g., the area basis for the
River Rhine data is unclear), but a strong negative effect due to seasonally lower temperatures in temperate
latitudes is not apparent from current data. Tropical river-floodplains undergo a ‘physiological winter’
during the low water period when many fish species live off fat reserves (Junk, 1985; Welcomme, 1985).
Whatever differences may exist between climatic zones, the overall indication of higher fish yields in systems
with relatively protracted, natural floods provides an incentive and direction for restoration.

RESTORATION IN A TEMPERATE RIVER-FLOODPLAIN SYSTEM

Evidence in the preceding section suggests that temperate systems have an excellent productive potential,
provided that a predictable, protracted flood pulse characteristic of an unaltered drainage basin traverses the
floodplain. Most temperate systems, however, have undergone multiple modifications that affect the
hydrograph, topography, and water quality, with subsequent declines in yields (Richardson, 192 1 ; Sparks
and Starrett, 1975; Lelek, 1989; Sparks el al., 1990). How do we approach long-term restoration in order to
satisfy fishermen, duck hunters, naturalists, and navigation interests without incurring high costs? The
following discussion draws on information from the Upper Mississippi River, but the principles are
applicable to most other modified large rivers in temperate regions.
Temperate river modification has followed five stages that are listed here in approximate order of their
initiation from the Mississippi River (Scarpino, 1985; Fremling et al., 1989); these stages mostly overlap,
particularly 2 and 3.

1. Land clearance processes (deforestation of riparian zones of tributaries, channelization, drainage of

wetlands) accelerate watershed drainage and erosion.
2. High, artificial levees remove floodplain habitat and accelerate drainage rates.
3. River-training structures to improve navigation prevent the development of meanders and side channels.
4. Lock and dam systems maintain stipulated depths for water transport and impound long river stretches.
5. Industrial chemical, agricultural, or sewage pollution affects water quality and sediments.

Progress in stage 5 has been significant in many temperate systems during the past 30 years, except for
sustained sediment and subterranean toxicity, and agricultural wastes. This paper does not address this
complex subject (see discussions in (Sparks and Starrett, 1975; Herricks and Osborne, 1985; Scarpino,
1985)), and the following restoration arguments assume that toxic influences will not limit production of
dominant biota.
Land clearance, stage 1, is the principal long-term problem. Although recent legislation is attempting to
confront this problem, it was recognized by the middle 1850s. In an 1852 report by Ellet (in United States
Senate, 1916) on the problems of flooding in the Lower Mississippi, he stated ‘We can protect Louisiana by
simple needs from all natural floods. But the great problem with which we have to cope is to ascertain how to
 RESTORATION OF RIVER-FLOODPLAIN SYSTEMS 81

protect her from the deluge created by the artificial improvements which are accelerating the drainage of the
prairies and diverting the collected waters from their natural course through the lowlands’. In the absence of
expensive water control structures, a smooth flood pulse and moderate flood stages can be achieved
principally through the restoration of tributaries and associated wetlands in the entire watershed.
The large-scale isolation of the floodplain from the river by artificial levees (Fremling et al., 1989) also
negatively affects the flood pulse (Belt, 1977), but has been even more detrimental by preventing the seasonal
inundation to the most productive habitats. Major ecological problems associated with stages 2,3, and 4 are
outlined below. Analysis of these problems in conjunction with general principles of production in river-
floodplains provides a basis for an interim restoration approach.

Degeneration of a river-floodplain due to a stable water level

Bellrose et al. (1979) and Sparks et al. (1990) described an interesting but alarming disturbance in
floodplain lakes of the lower Illinois River. Aquatic plants disappeared over large areas as wind action and
short-term water level fluctuations due to barges and dam operation kept sediments in a flocculent state in
shallow water, thereby preventing the germination, growth, and stabilization of submerged and emergent
plant beds. This degeneration was attributed to an increase of sediment input due to farming changes that
had begun about ten years previously. Although sediment played a major role, I argue that the principal
cause was the absence of a normal flood pulse in the inundated floodplain upstream of the navigation dam.
A natural, smooth flood pulse maintains a heterogeneous, fine-grained landscape in the topographic
(Amoros et al., 1986) and ecological (Junk et al., 1989) sense. Resuspension of sediment is minimized, and
strips (levees, berms, bars) of higher vegetation (including trees) and depressions (pools, oxbows, back-
swamps) are maintained for decades. The smaller expanses of water that characterize a natural floodplain
result in shorter wind fetches, which in turn limit resuspension of sediments. Periods of low water expose and
harden mudflats, which consequently remain much less susceptible to resuspension during subsequent
flooding (Fitzpatrick et al., 1987). Sediment retention is also aided by the germination of moist soil plants.
Smooth flood pulses also reduce scouring of bottom sediments during the rise and sloughing of banks during
the drawdown period.
In the lower navigation pools of the Illinois River, an artificially maintained raised water level
superimposed by short-term fluctuations due to wind, barges, and dam operation prevents vegetation from
being established. As sediment accumulates due to the dams, such uniform aquatic areas will transform to
permanent terrestrial areas or swamps (Bhowmik et al., 1986). Although the increased rate of sedimentation
due to farming practices shortened the time period before the disturbance caused by the establishment of
navigation dams was manifested, increased sedimentation was not the ultimate cause. A similar degeneration
is anticipated on the Upper Mississippi (Grubaugh and Anderson, 1988,1989; Junk et al., 1989) but will be
delayed because of the lower siltation rate and relatively recent construction of navigation dams.
Although navigation dams are operated to allow free flow at high discharge rates, the complete restoration
of a natural flood pulse throughout a river-floodplain is incompatible with the current design and operation
of navigation dams, because of their effect on water levels at low stages and the prevention of downstream
transport of much of the sediment load. As long as barge transport is deemed to be important, the areas
immediately upstream of navigation dams, particularly in low gradient rivers, will limit restoration attempts.

Waterfowl versusJisheries interests

Many restoration projects result in conflict between wildfowl and fishery interests (Boyd and Harber,
1981; Fremling et al., 1989). This conflict is primarily because of differences in preference for water depth
among sport fish (ca. 100-400 cm), diving ducks (ca. 60-350 cm), and dabbling ducks (ca. 5-60 cm) (Stephen
P. Havera, Illinois Natural History Survey, personal communication). Interested parties favour a relatively
constant water level but at different water depths. Unfortunately, this goal is pursued in ignorance of the
longer-term and larger-scale benefits of the flood pulse, which are often overlooked when planners are
preoccupied with the negative effects on fish and wildlife of artificial, short-term fluctuations (Boyd and
Harber, 1981).
Because of limited habitats due to high levies and the unpredictable hydrograph, waterfowl areas for
82 P. B. BAYLEY

dabbling ducks often required artificial levees and pumping systems (Bellrose et al., 1979) to protect them
from the unwanted effects of water-level fluctuations. Suitable areas are sometimes available in floodplains
behind levkes. These artificial areas do not enhance fisheries.
Impoundments to control water levels for diving waterfowl or agricultural interests have been constructed
where floodplain lakes or floodplain forest once existed. Fisheries have often been developed in these
impoundments. Although these impoundments are shielded from wind- and barge-induced resuspension of
sediments and from fresh sediment input from the main channel, they do not benefit from the production
bonus provided by the full amplitude of a flood (Figure 1). In addition, these areas suffer from the problem
general to reservoirs of maintaining fish and controlling plant populations that are not adapted to a stable
water environment. Conversely, the successful practice of seasonal manipulations of water level in
impoundments (Wood, 1951;Bennett, 1954; Groen and Schroeder, 1978) is equivalent to restoring elements
of the natural flood pulse to a floodplain lake.
Defending restricted restoration areas from the vagaries of an unrestored hydrological regime can be
expensive (Schnick et al., 1981) and such projects occupy only a tiny fraction of the floodplain. Restoration
projects that improve the hydrological regime, on the other hand, will reduce this expense on a unit area
basis.

An interim restoration approach: the ‘naturalJiood pulse’

Restoration of the river-floodplain and the hydrological regime of most large temperate systems might well
require 50-100 years of sustained effort in the entire watershed. Any interim approach must be a step in this
direction. In the short term, a restoration approach is needed to

Ameliorate the hydrograph in a section of river to improve overall production,

0 Provide recreational and conservation areas, and
0 Serve as a catalyst to obtain public support for larger restoration projects.

The ‘natural flood pulse’ approach is an attempt to improve the hydrograph throughout as much of a
‘navigation pool’ (the stretch between two navigation dams) as possible.
Some of the enhancement schemes espoused by Schnick et al., (1981) are appropriate in this regard.
However, many attempts at restoration through mitigation or enhancement are piecemeal. Mitigation needs
a reference standard based on unmodified systems for which information from large temperate rivers does
not usually exist. Substituting a standard based on information from a previous, modified state, such as that
existing before navigation dam construction but after drainage alterations and levee construction, can result
in a change to another unnatural state and is not necessarily a step towards whole-system restoration. These
piecemeal attempts do not win broad public support because they are usually small, special interest projects.
In addition, they require more money for upkeep, such as pumping, controlling pen and sluice gate
structures, and artificial bank protection (Schnick et al., 1981), because they are too exposed to the main
channel where artificial fluctuations result from current navigation dam design and operation. Finally, these
localized efforts fail to ameliorate the hydrological regime.
I argue that restoring a larger, contiguous river-floodplain area would be much more cost-effective than
restoring a similar area comprising smaller, disjointed zones along the river. The contiguous approach would
permit at least partial restoration of the hydrological regime. In practice this approach requires purchasing
land, removing artificial levees from a navigation pool in a naturally wide floodplain, and altering design and
operational features on the downstream dam (D. B. Wilcox, US.Army Corps of Engineers, St.Pau1, MN,
personal communication). Cooperation from upstream water control units would further reduce short-term
fluctuations and benefit a larger portion of the navigation pool upstream of the area most affected by the dam.
There would be more habitats farther from the main channel (or major sloughs) that would eventually be
buffered from water level fluctuations and sediment influx from the main channel by the development of
higher vegetation, including trees, that are adapted to seasonal flooding. Conflicts between waterfowl and
fisheries interests would be resolved on a space-time basis. Shallow zones would be appropriate for dabbling
ducks at successively lower elevations as the pulse gradually receded. Wide, natural floodplains tend to have
 RESTORATION OF RIVER-FLOODPLAIN SYSTEMS 83

more swamps near the periphery that are relatively oxygen deficient due to the absence of wind-induced
circulation. These swamps are maintained by natural levees and obtain water by seepage and from the peak
of the spring flood. They retain water for longer periods through the summer so that marsh and wet soil
vegetation can flourish. These swamps are ideal areas for some mammals as well as for dabbling ducks. In
contrast, most fish and diving ducks will prefer the seasonal habitats along the moving littoral (in the ATTZ)
between the extremes of swamp and turbid main channel, where production of various trophic levels is
expected to be maximized.
Restored backswamp lakes distant from the main channel would receive little sediment and would provide
deeper, clear-water habitats for submerged plants, diving ducks (Figure 2A), and certain fish species, such as
centrarchids in North America. These lakes would benefit from the period of high water which would last
longer than in current impoundments. Relatively turbid water bodies receiving the full pulse amplitude
would provide habitat for laterally migrating fish. Emergent and flood-tolerant terrestrial flora would
dominate, providing bank stabilization as well as habitat in the moving littoral.
No single area would have a constant function as is the case in small-scale projects, but, after initial
expenditure on real estate and dam modification, they would be inexpensive to operate (in many cases zero
cost) and would have better long-term stability. No single area in a restored river-floodplain would
necessarily maintain the productivity of birds or fish that could be achieved in a small-scale ‘aquaculture
situation’. Some areas would develop naturally as sedimentation traps to ‘protect’ others subsequently
inundated by the flood pulse, but the productivity per unit of river length would increase at a greater rate
than that expected due to the simple expansion of backwater area (Figure 2B). In addition, the cost per unit
benefit (measured by sports statistics or a variety of aesthetic indices) would be lower than that of most small-
scale projects.
Optimal areas for particular fauna would shift over 10-20 year periods to different parts of the restored
section in response to the accrual of sediments and the creation of natural levees and new sloughs. Such shifts
would result from long-term transfer of sediments or major floods. The overall effect, however, would be
much less movement of sediment than that which occurs in the laterally constricted floodplains of today.
However, the continued presence of the navigation dam will result in accrual of sediments and probable
adverse effects in the lower part of the pool, as described previously.
Although a natural river-floodplain maintains a relatively predictable hydrograph (Figure ZC), hydro-
graphs do vary between years. This variation, equivalent to the ‘pulse stabilization’ events of Baxter and
Glaude (1980), would serve to replenish bordering marshes and scour stagnant backwaters that have become
anaerobic due to poor circulation.
In summary, the potential benefits of the ‘natural flood pulse’ restoration approach are:

1. Short-term water-level fluctuations would be buffered, particularly in areas farther from major channels.
2. More aquatic areas would be protected from excessive turbidity.
3. Pumping costs for wildfowl habitats would be reduced or eliminated.
4. Costs to maintain water in floodplain depressions using dikes and pens would be reduced or eliminated.
5. Fewer conflicts would occur among wildfowl, fishery, and water transport interests.
6. Higher water temperatures farther from the main channel during the critical spring flood would boost
production and possibly reduce annual variability in fish recruitment.
7. A single large project would provide a political catalyst for future restoration projects.
8. If a series of navigation pools was restored, an increase of production should result downstream due to
more predictable discharges and a reduction in short-term fluctuations.

CONCLUSIONS
Gore’s contention (Gore, 1985) that river restoration should be equated to ‘recovery enhancement’ because
it should accelerate the natural process of recovery is applicable to river-floodplains. However, his argument
that restoration must include considerations of hydrologic stability needs qualifications of temporal scale.
Chronic instability of water levels on a scale of days is clearly detrimental to aquatic and terrestrial biota in
84 P. B. BAYLEY

the river-floodplain, whereas a predictable annual flood pulse is essential for the survival of the system.
Variability in the pulse in time scales of years or decades is useful for renovating marginal areas with poor
drainage, such as swamps.
Comparisons with unmodified systems indicate that restoration based on the ‘natural flood pulse’ should
achieve high long-term production of a wide variety of native biota for recreational and commercial use in an
aesthetically pleasing environment at minimum cost. Minimizing the cost and allowing an attractive
environment to develop is consistent with maximizing natural processes in lieu of engineering devices.
However, the proposed restoration in selected river-floodplain segments is only an interim solution, and
larger issues, including improved land- and water-use in tributary watersheds, chronic pollution reduction,
extensive artificial levee removal, and navigation dam removal need to be addressed. These measures will not
only increase recreational benefits and protein supply, but provide a balanced rate of sediment transport and
a cost-effective way to control extreme floods. Nevertheless, the proposed interim restoration would provide
a microcosm of what can be achieved in the long term and serve as a catalyst for future public support.
The hydrograph is the key to river-floodplain restoration and the basis for the interim ‘natural flood pulse’
approach espoused here. It is consistent with many suggestions of Lubinski et al. (this volume), but places a
different emphasis on the usefulness of currently available information and on when new information should
be obtained during the restoration process.
The implementation of ‘natural flood pulse’ restoration to a river-floodplain segment allows for two
approaches. After purchasing land, removing levees, and devising an appropriate water control protocol,
does one speed up the restoration process by effecting changes in the area or allow changes to develop
naturally? Public pressure would often force the former approach, but the problems of ignorance must also
be appreciated (see Introduction). We have a poor idea of how large temperate systems function at the species
or community level in their natural state and of how the landscape is developed. In particular we lack
sufficient understanding of river-floodplain hydrology, which must include sediment transport as an integral
part of model development, and of the ecology of plants preadapted to niches that are currently rare and
difficult to identify because of hydrological modifications. River-floodplain hydrologists and floodplain plant
ecologists should study systems that are unmodified, modified, and under restoration. A significant
investment of time and money will be required for this task, if the restoration process is to be accelerated and
expanded in other areas. Conversely, expenditure on estimating habitat requirements of animal species of
special interest prior to a restoration project (Lubinski et al., this volume) would be better deferred until a
restoration project achieves approximations of the natural hydrograph and seasonally stable vegetation
patterns.
Restoration based on the ‘natural flood pulse’ will permit us to begin to win back the system functions that
provide high productivity, flood control, and an aesthetic setting, with nature paying a much larger
proportion of the bill than taxpayers in the long term.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dan Wilcox provided useful information on the current limitations resulting from navigation dam operation
and the possibilities for improvement, and constructively criticized the manuscript. Information on 19th
Century land-use from John Thompson and on dam operations from Nani Bhowmik is appreciated.
Comments on the manuscript from Stephen P. Havera, Steven L. Kohler, R. Weldon Larimore, Lewis L.
Osborne, and Richard E. Sparks, Audrey S. Hodgins, and two reviewers are appreciated and resulted in an
improved final product.

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