CONTENTS

PREFACE 4
KEY TO PHONEMIC AND OTHER SYMBOLS 5
ACADEMIC THEMATIC SYLLABUS 6
NOTES ON ENGLISH PHONETICS 7
THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 7
ARTICULATION BASIS OF ENGLISH 8
THE ENGLISH VOWEL SYSTEM 8
THE ENGLISH CONSONAT SYSTEM 11
VOWEL REDUCTION 12
ASSIMILATION 14
WORD STRESS 16
ENGLISH INTONATION. ITS COMPONENTS 17
THE SEGMENTS OF THE INTONATION GROUP 18
THE SYSTEM OF SCALES 19
TERMINAL TONES 24
SENTENCE STRESS 27
LOGICAL STRESS 30
SOME RULES OF SYNTAGMATIC DIVISION 30
GRAPHICAL RULES 33
TONGUE TWISTERS 41
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENTS 45
WORD STRESS 45
LINKING OF WORDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH 46
ASSIMILATION 47
RHYTHM AND RHYTHMIC GROUPS 53
SCALES AND TERMINAL TONES 54
WORD PHONETIC ANALYSIS MODEL 58
SENTENCE PHONETIC ANALYSIS MODEL 58
PREPARATORY TESTS 59
PEDAGOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PRONUNCIATION ERRORS 63
PHONETIC AND GRAMMAR TERMS 65
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE 70

3
 Preface

English Pronunciation Made Simple: An Introductory Course for Students of

English is designed to help first-year students acquire correct articulation, practise
rhythm and basic intonation patterns of the English language. The book is an attempt to
fill a real gap in the materials available on practical phonetics.
The bulk of the theoretical material on English practical phonetics presented in
the manual has been used for many years in teaching first-year students and has, in the
authors’ opinion, passed the test of time.
In preparing the manual for publication, the authors have enlarged the original
material by including exercises in practising English articulation and intonation, the list
of tongue twisters, preparatory tests and a list of phonetic and grammar terms with
transcription.
The material presented has been developed for use in the classroom as well for
students working alone.
The manual concentrates on elements of pronunciation which help students to
overcome difficulties in acquiring English pronunciation, understand and be understood
in English as well as develop a competence for effective speaking.

4
 Key to phonemic and other symbols
Vowels
Short vowels Long vowels Diphthongs
/pit, it /i:/ see, eat day, eight
wet, end part, arm  my, eyes
cat, apple saw, always boy, join
run, up too, you low, open
hot, opposite her, early how, out
put, would near, here
hair, where
ago, doctor tourist



Consonants
/b/ bee, about /m/ map, lamp /z/ zoo, loves
/d/ do, side /n/ nose, any /general, age
/f/ fat, safe /p/ pen, sop / hang, hoping
// go, big /r/ red, around /that, other
/h/ hat, behind /s/ soon, us thin, bath
/j/ yet, you /t/ ten, last
ship, push
/k/ key, week /v/ vet, live
measure, usual
/l/ led, allow /w/ wet, swim
chin, catch

Other symbols
/ 
 
 the Low Fall
m the High Fall
m the Low Rise
m the High Rise
↑m Accidental/Special Rise
m the Fall-Rise
m Rise-Fall
m the stressed syllable of the Sliding Scale
m the stressed syllable in the Scandent Scale
5
 Introductory Corrective Course
Academic Thematic Syllabus
№ Topic Areas Hours/
Dates
1. Phonetics. 1st
The Phoneme. The Allophone. week
Transcription.
The Organs of Speech.
The Classification of English Vowel Phonemes.
The Classification of English Consonant Phonemes.
The Articulation Basis of English.
The Rhythmic Group.
The Syntagm.
The Low Fall. The High Fall.
The Regular Descending Stepping Scale.
Intonation of Statements. Imperative.
Intonation of General, Alternative, Special and Disjunctive
Questions.


2. Word Stress. Sentence Stress. Logical Stress. 2nd
Vowel Reduction. week
Reduced forms of the verbs BE, DO and Personal Pronouns.
Intonation of Greetings.
Intonation of Appositions.
The Low Rise.
The Low Pre-Head. The High Pre-Head.
/

3. Intonation of Direct Address. 3rd
The Fall-Rise. week
Intonation of Words of Gratitude.
Intonation of the Word “Please”.
Intonation of Request.
Intonation of Enumeration.


4. Assimilation and its Types. 4th
week

6
 NOTES ON ENGLISH PHONETICS
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics, which deals with the investigation of the
sound means of a certain language from the point of view of their articulation,
acoustic qualities and semantics.
The phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit, which is capable of
differentiating the meaning and grammar forms of words.
Phonemes are elements of language. The number of them is quite definite
for every separate language. In British English there are 44 phonemes: 20 vowel
phonemes and 24 consonant ones. In speech they manifest themselves in the form
of phonemic variants or allophones.
The allophone is a material representation of the phoneme in speech. They
appear in connected speech as a result of assimilation or reduction or due to the
individual speech habits. The number of allophones in a language is unlimited.
Phonetic transcription is a sort of phonetic alphabet, a system of symbols
in which every phoneme is supposed to have its own symbol. It helps in learning a
foreign language.

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

In learning a foreign language as a speciality it is necessary to know in
detail the structure and function of the speech apparatus. The organs of speech
are as follows:
1. The nasal cavity.
2. The mouth cavity.
3. The pharyngal cavity (the pharynx).
4. The tongue: the blade of the tongue with the tip; the front of the tongue;
the back of the tongue; the root of the tongue.
5. The root of the mouth: the alveoli (the teeth ridge); the hard palate; the
soft palate; the uvula.
6. The teeth: the upper teeth; the lower teeth.
7. The lips: the upper lip; the lower lip.
8. The larynx.
9. The vocal cords.
10. The windpipe.
11. The lower jaw.

7
 The movable speech organs are called active, they are as follows: the tongue,
the soft palate with the uvula, the lips, the lower jaw and the vocal cords. The
passive organs of speech are: the teeth, the alveoli, the hard palate.
Articulation Basis of English
The summary of all main principles of articulation of a certain language is
called the articulation basis. The main points of difference between the
articulation basis of English and Ukrainian are as follows:
1. The tongue is tenser and bulkier in English and has a retracted position for
most of the phonemes.
2. The lips are also tenser and less movable than in Ukrainian. They are mostly
spread (with the lower teeth revealed) or neutral (flat articulation).
3. English forelingual consonants (there are 12 of them) are usually apical: they
are articulated with the tongue-tip against the alveoli /t, d; s, z; , ; , ; , l/ or
against the teeth /; /, while the Ukrainian ones are as a rule cacuminal.
4. All English consonants are hard (except for /, / and have no palatalized
oppositions while the Ukrainian ones have (ліс – лис; люк – лук). Palatalisation
in English is a phonetic mistake.
5. The English word-final voiced consonants must not be devocalised, yet they
are weak (bag, sad). The English word-final voiceless consonants are strong
(night, weak, tape).
6. The English plosive voiceless /p, t, k/ are pronounced with aspiration, while
there are no aspirated consonants in the Ukrainian language.
7. The English sonorants /m, n, l/ are tenser and longer than the corresponding
Ukrainian ones and they are syllabic when post-tonic and preceded by a
consonant: /, l/

The English Vowel System

The vowel is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream
coming out of the lungs meets no obstruction on its way.
The English vowel system consists of 20 vowel phonemes, which can be
classified according to the following principles:
1. According to the stability of articulation we distinguish 12 monophthongs
(2 diphthongoids among them) and 8 diphthongs.
8
 2. According to the position of the bulk of the tongue we distinguish:
- front vowels with: the fully front /, , / and the front-retracted //;
- central vowels /, , /;
- back vowels with: the back advanced /, / and the fully back /, ,
/.
3. According to the tongue-height we distinguish:
- high: narrow /, / and broad /, /:
- mid: narrow /, / and broad /, /;
- low: narrow // and broad /, , /
4. According to the duration (length) we distinguish long and short vowel
phonemes.
5. According to the degree of muscular tension we classify them into tense
(all long vowels) and lax (all short vowels).
6. According to the lip position they are distinguished as labialised
(rounded) and non-labialised (unrounded).

The Chart of English Vowel Phonemes

Front Front- Central Back Back

retracted advanced

High narrow  
broad  
Mid narrow  
broad  
Low narrow 
broad   

English Monophthongs

The monophthong is a vowel in the production of which the organs of

speech do not change their position throughout the whole duration of a vowel.
I. All English front vowels have the following features in common.
9
 1. The bulk of the tongue is pushed forward.
2. Its front is raised in the direction of the hard palate.
3. The tongue-tip is placed at the lower teeth.
II. All the back vowels are characterized by the following common features.
1. The bulk of the tongue is pushed backward.
2. Its back is raised in the direction of the soft palate to different heights
(high, mid, low).
3. The tongue-tip is drawn from the teeth /, /.
4. The lips are rounded, except for // and //.
III. The central vowels have the following features in common.
1. The front and the blade of the tongue are equally raised. They are neither
pushed forward nor retracted, occupying an intermediate position.
2. The tongue-tip is at the lower teeth.
3. The lips are spread for // or neutral for //.

English Diphthongs
The diphthong is a monophonemic combination of two vowel elements
with gliding articulation.
The stressed element of a diphthong (which is always the first one in
English) is called the nucleus, the second one is called the glide.
There are eight diphthongs in English. According to the type of nucleus they
fall into three groups:
- front diphthongs /, , , , /;
- central diphthong //;
- back diphthongs /, /.
According to the type of glide they are grouped into:
- // gliding diphthongs: /, , /;
- // gliding diphthongs: /, , /;
- // gliding diphthongs: /, /.
Note. The sequences // and // are biphonemic combination of a diphthong
and the neutral //. The glide in them is very indistinct, e. g. In an hour. The
Tower of London. But the possessive pronoun ‘our’ is monophonemic, e. g. In
our  country.

10
 The English Consonant System
The consonant is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream
coming out of the lungs has to overcome a certain obstruction on its way.
The English consonant system consists of 24 consonant phonemes which can be
classified as follows:
1. According to the type of obstruction (occlusives, constrictives, occlusive-
constrictives, or affricates).
2. According to the articulatory organ (labial, lingual, pharyngal).
3. According to the prevalence of noise over the musical tone (noise consonants
and sonorants).
4. According to the work of the vocal cords (voiced and voiceless).
5. According to the position of the soft palate (oral and nasal).

Chart of English Consonant Phonemes

Labial Lingual

Pharyngal
Media-lingual
Back-lingual
Forelingual
Labio-dental
Bilabial

alveolar

alveolar

alveolar
palato-
apico-
dental

post-

Plosives  t 
Occlusives

(noise  d 
consonants)
Nasal   
sonorants
Fricatives     
(noise    
Constrictives

consonants)
Medial   
Sonorant

Lateral l
s


Occlusive-

constictives
(affricates)
11
 Vowel Reduction
Vowels in unstressed syllables are pronounced less distinctly than those in
stressed syllables. It is possible to speak about three types of vowel reduction:
QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, COMPLETE (ZERO) REDUCTION.
I. Quantitative reduction results in the change of the length (quantity) of a
vowel in an unstressed syllable. It affects long vowels and diphthongs which
become half-long or short, e. g.
We have done it. /:/-long
We have done it. / - half-long
We did it. // - short
Diphthongs become half-long when followed by an unstressed syllable, or
short, when followed by a stressed one, but it is not reflected in transcription, e. g.
I’ve done it.
I have done it.
I did it.
II. Qualitative reduction is connected with the change of the quality of a vowel.
There are two types of it.
1. Qualitative soft reduction, resulting in the // phoneme. The letters “e, i, y”
correspond to it in spelling: expect, cinema, city, service.
2. Qualitative hard reduction, resulting in the neutral vowel //. The letters “a,
o, u” and the suffixes –er, -ar, -or, -ous correspond to it in spelling: famous,
pilot, melody, actor, polar.
III. Complete reduction results in a full disappearance of a vowel in an unstressed
position. It occurs before the syllabic sonorants /m, n, l/ when they are
posttonic and preceded by a consonant: conversation /n/, written /tn/, pencil
/sl/ as well as in different //, history //, I’m //, I’ve //.

Full and Reduced Forms

There are some words in English that retain their full forms even when
they are unstressed:
1. The following words have no weak forms: ON, WELL, WHAT, THEN.
2. The negative particle ‘not’ is never reduced except when met in contracted
forms: can’t, couldn’t etc.: But why not? /nt/. Of course not. /nt/

12
3. Prepositions in sentence-final or sense-group final positions are so slightly
reduced that the quantity of short phonemes is not changed; long vowels
become half-long,
e. g. What are you thinking of? /v/ What have you done it for? /f/
4. “to have” as a principal verb has no weak form though unstressed in
affirmative sentences, e. g. I have a sister. / v  /
List of Full and Reduced Forms
Full forms Reduced Forms Full Forms Reduced Forms
Articles Pronouns
The // //+C, //+V you  
A+C // // he  
A+V // // she  
we  
Prepositions her  
at   us  
from   them  
of   your  
into   V/ some  
for  /f that  
to   V/
Verbs Particles
can   there  
must   to   V/
shall  
do  V/
does  
could  
would   Conjunctions
should   and  
have   but  
has   than  
had   as  
be   or  
been  
am  
are  
was  
were  
13
 Assimilation
Assimilation is a phonetic process by which one sound under the influence
of a sound near it acquires some articulation and acoustic likeness to that of other
sound.
Assimilation results in the appearance of new phonemic variants. Each case
of assimilation must be analysed from the following view points:
1. From the point of view of its direction it can be PROGRESSIVE,
REGRESSIVE, RECIPROCAL, or DOUBLE.
2. From the point of view of its degree it can be COMPLETE, PARTIAL,
INTERMEDIATE.

Directions of Assimilation
Considering its direction it is possible to distinguish 3 types of
assimilation:
1. PROGRESSIVE
2. REGRESSIVE
3. RECIPROCAL, or DOUBLE.
1. In progressive assimilation the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the
preceding one, e. g. programme, frail.
2. In regressive assimilation the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the
phoneme following it, e. g. tall, garden.
3. In reciprocal assimilation the adjacent phonemes influence each other, e.
g. train - /t/ becomes post-alveolar and /r/ becomes partially devoiced.

Degrees of Assimilation
Considering its degree assimilation can be classified into:
1. COMPLETE
2. INTERMEDIATE
3. PARTIAL
1. Assimilation is termed complete when the articulation of the assimilated
phoneme fully coincides with that of the assimilating one, e. g. Does she?
/ /.
2. Assimilation is termed intermediate when the assimilated phoneme
changes into a certain third phoneme, e. g. hand + kerchief =
//.

14
 3. Assimilation is termed partial when the assimilated phoneme acquires
only some features similar to those of the assimilating phoneme.

Types of Partial Assimilation

There are 4 types of partial assimilation. It can affect:
1. the place of articulation
2. the work of the vocal cords
3. the lip-position
4. the manner of producing noise

1. Assimilation affecting the place of articulation results in:

a) the dental allophones of the alveolar /t, d, n, l, s, z/ when followed by
/, /:
shut the door all the doors open the door eighth
hold the door pass the door close the door sixth

b) the post-alveolar allophones of the alveolar /t, d, n, l/ when followed

by the post-alveolar /r/: try, dry, already.

2. Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords results in:

a) partially devoiced allophones of /w, l, r, j, m, n/ when preceded by /p,
t, k, f, , s, /: play, pray, pure, few, threat, friend, quite.
b) looked /k t/, finished / t/, books /k s/, pipes /p s/.

3. Assimilation affecting the lip-position results in labialized allophones of

consonants before such phonemes as /w, u:, /: twenty, twice, tall, quick,
tool.

4. Assimilation affecting the manner of producing noise results in:

a) plosionless allophones of /p b, t d, k g/ (loss of plosion); when they
follow one another either within a word or at the junction of words the
first plosive loses its plosion: actor /k t/, Big Ben /g b/, don’t talk /t t/,
put down /t d/, eight pounds /t p/.
b) When /p b, t d, k g/ are followed by the fricatives or affricates their
plosion becomes fricative (fricative, or incomplete plosion): past five /t
f/, temperate zone /t z/, hot summer /t s/.
15
 c) When /p b, t d, k g/ are followed by the nasal sonorants /m, n/ their
plosion becomes nasal: garden /d n/.
d) When /p b, t d, k g/ are followed by the lateral sonorant /l/ their plosion
becomes lateral: middle /d l/, circle /k l/, good luck /d l/, uncle /k l/,
little /t l/.
Note. When /p, t, k/ are preceded by /s/ they lose their aspiration: skate /s k/,
steak /s t/, space /s p/.

Word Stress
Word stress (word accent) is greater prominence given to one or more
syllables in a word.
Stressed and unstressed syllables differ in quantity (length) and quality.
They are longer when stressed and carry vowels of full formation. When
unstressed, they undergo reduction and become shorter.
Word stress should be considered from the point of view of:
1) its place in a sentence;
2) its degree.
There are two degrees of word stress in English:
1) primary or strong (marked above the syllable);
2) secondary or weak (marked under the syllable).
The place of word stress depends on the quantity of syllables in a word.

Accented types of words

1. Monosyllabic, disyllabic and trisyllabic words are stressed on the first
syllable, e. g. phoneme, palate, prefix, pronoun, family, enemy, imitate,
colony.
Note 1. In three-syllable words the stressed vowel is mostly read according
to the second type of the syllable, e. g. family.
Note 2. In words with inseparable prefixes the stress falls on the syllable
next to the prefix: begin, prepare.
2. Most four-syllable words have the stress laid on the third syllable from
the end, e. g. political, experiment, historical, geology.
3. Compound nouns are stressed on the first component, the second
though unstressed has a vowel of full formation, e. g. blackboard //.
Exceptions: arm-chair, ice-cream, tape-recorder.
16
 4. Polysyllabic words have the primary stress on the third syllable from the
end and the secondary stress on the second pretonic syllable, e. g. university,
assimilation, possibility.
5. The following groups of words have two primary stresses:
- numerals (from 13 to 19): fourteen;
- compound adjectives: well-known, good-looking;
- composite verbs: get up, sit down, put on;
- words with separable prefixes:
a) implying negation: un-, in-, il-, ir-, non-, dis-, e. g. unknown,
inaccurate, irregular, non-aggressive, disbelief, illiterate;
b) prefixes implying assistance: sub-, vice-, e.g. subtitle, vice-minister;
c) prefixes with different meanings: mis- - meaning ‘wrong’
(misunderstand); over- - meaning ‘too much’ (overtired); pre- -
meaning ‘before’ (pre-revolutionary); inter- - meaning ‘among’,
‘between’ (international); anti- - meaning ‘against’ (antiwar).
Note. Words listed under group 5 undergo variations in stress. In utterances they
lose one stress or the other. When they are used attributively, the second stress is
lost; when used predicatively, the first stress is lost:
Attributively Predicatively
Fourteen years. He’s fourteen.
A hard-working boy. The boy is hard-working.
A well-planned house. The house is well-planned.
A well-bred man. The man is well-bred.

English Intonation. Its Components.

The sentence possesses definite phonetic features. Each feature performs a

definite task, and all of them work simultaneously. Thus,
a) Sentences are usually separated from each other by pauses. If necessary, the
sentence is subdivided into shorter word groups according to sense; these are
called sense groups, or syntagms.
b) The pitch of the voice does not stay on the same level while the sentence is
pronounced; it fluctuates, rising and falling on the vowels and voiced
consonants. The fluctuations of the voice pitch are called speech melody.
17
c) The word that is most important for the meaning of the sentence, i. e. the word
acting as its semantic centre, is made prominent by stress and a special moving
tone.
d) Other words, also essential for the meaning, are stressed but the pitch of these
words remains unchanged.
e) Form words, performing grammatical functions (such as articles, prepositions,
auxiliary, modal and link verbs) are usually left unstressed; they are mostly
pronounced in their reduced (weak) forms.
f) Connected English speech comes as a series of closely knit groups of words,
each group containing only one stressed syllable. The stressed syllables occur at
approximately equal intervals of time. This interrelationship of stress and time
makes rhythm.
g) The rate of speech is not constant, but is made to suit the semantic weight of
each sense group of the utterance.
h) The timbre of the voice changes in accordance with the emotions experienced
by the speaker.
All the phonetic features of the sentence enumerated above (speech melody,
sentence stress, tempo, rhythm, pauses and timbre) form a complex unity, called
intonation.
The most important components of intonation from the linguistic point of view
are speech melody, sentence stress, and rhythm.

Communicative Types of Sentences

The communicative type of a sentence is a linguistic category differentiated
in speech in accordance with the aim of the utterance. There are 4 types of them.
They are:
1. Statements (categoric, non-categoric, implicatory).
2. Questions (special, general, alternative, disjunctive).
3. Imperatives (commands, requests).
4. Exclamations.

The Segments of Intonation Group

The intonation contour of an extended syntagm consists of three functionally
important parts:

18
1. The pre-head.
2. The scale, or head.
3. The terminal tone.
4. The tail.

I have been doing English at the institute.

Types of Pre-Heads

A low pre-head consists of unstressed syllables pronounced at a low pitch, or

gradually ascending in pitch towards the head or the nucleus:
e.g. But you’ll be home in time for dinner?

A high pre-head consists of unstressed syllables pronounced on a high pitch.

A high pre-head gives to the utterance an extremely emotional character and may
be regarded as a feature of emphatic speech.
e. g. How can you be so obstinate?

The System of Scales

The Scale is a phonetic unit that begins with the head group and extends to
the terminal tone.
Scales can be classified as follows:
1) According to the arrangement of unstressed syllables within stress-tone groups
can be:
• Stepping
e.g. Ourclasses begin at three o’clock.
• Sliding
e.g. Our classes begin at three o’clock.
• Scandent
e.g. Our classes begin at three o’clock.
2) According to the direction of the pitch movement the scales can be classified as:
• The Descending Scale (Stepping, Sliding, Scandent)
e.g. Hepromised to be intime.
Hepromised tobe intime.

19
 Hepromised to be intime.
•The Ascending Scale (Stepping, Sliding, Scandent)
e.g. Hepromised to be intime.
Hepromised tobe intime.
Hepromised to be intime.
• The Level Scale (Low, Mid, High)
e.g. Hepromised to come intime.
Hepromised tocome in time.
Hepromised tocome intime.
3) According to the regularity of their pitch movements scales can be:
• Regular
• Broken
e.g. Hepromised tocome in ↑half an hour.
Hepromised tocome in ↑half an hour.
The function of the scale lies in the fact that it helps to convey different emotions.
We can call this function attitudinal.

Scales in Detail

The Stepping Scale

1. The Regular Descending Stepping Scale is characterised by steplike

descend of all stress-tone units. The head-unit of the contour takes the highest
pitch. The unstressed syllables within every stress-tone unit are said on a level
sequence.
The Regular Descending Stepping Scale is commonly used in descriptive prose
and in monologue parts of a conversation. It can serve any communicative type of
utterance. It sounds formal, businesslike, matter-of-fact.
e.g. Im a first-year student of the English department.
The Regular Descending Stepping Scale can be combined with any of the six
terminal tones.
2. The Broken Descending Stepping Scale

20
 The Descending Stepping Scale can be broken on any important word (except
the head one), which takes a higher pitch than the preceding stressed syllable.
Then the step-like descend continues. This rise is called SPECIAL or
ACCIDENTAL. It is used for several reasons:
• to avoid the monotony of a long syntagm:
e.g. I’m a first-year student of the ↑English department.
• to join short syntagms into longer ones:
e.g. Tomorrow morning we ↑ leave for Kyiv.
• to give special emphasis to an important word. There is a number of emotionally
coloured words which are liable to take the Special Rise, they are: all, always,
very, every, best, many, quite; all the numerals and so on.
e.g. Our classes begin at ↑three in the afternoon.
NOTE. If the Special Rise is produced during the second accented word, the
preceding stressed word takes a low-level or a mid-level pitch.
e.g Our canteen is ↑always overcrowded.
3. The Ascending Stepping Scale is characterised by the step-like ascend of
all stress-tone units. The head-unit of the utterance takes the lowest pitch. The
unstressed syllables within every stress-tone unit are said on a level sequence.
The High Level Prehead often precedes it. It can be used on any communicative
type of utterance. It conveys displeasure, disgruntled protest, critical surprise.
e.g. I thought perhaps you might stay up to see her. (displeasure)
¯Are you sure you don’t want to be a lawyer, John? (critical surprise)

The Sliding Scale

In the Sliding Scale every stress-tone unit is said on a sliding sequence, the
accented syllables take level pitches.
e.g. He wrote a letter on Monday morning.
Note. In monosyllabic stress-tone units the pitch slides during the syllable.
e.g. Mike knows better.
The Slidindg Scale is often used in conversation.
It gives additional prominence to every accented word and sounds weighty and
excited. It can be used in any communicative type of utterance, and can be

21
combined with any terminal tone, but the preference is given to the Low Fall, High
Fall and Fall-Rise. The High Descending Prehead often precedes it.
e.g. Mike knows it better.
Mike knows it better.
Mike knows better.
According to its direction the Sliding Scale can be:
 The Descending Sliding Scale.
e.g. I had such an exciting afternoon.
 The Ascending Sliding Scale.
e.g. As a matter of fact I’m nearly sixty.
 The Level Sliding Scale.
e.g. I didn’t find the shoes anywhere.
According to its regularity the Sliding Scale can also be of two types:
 Regular
 Broken
e.g. Long enough to ↑soak us to the skin.
He’s a first-year student of the ↑English department.

The Scandent Scale

In the Scandent Scale every stress-tone unit is said on an ascending sequence,

the accented syllables taking level pitches. The high pre-head often begins it.
e.g. ¯It’s really very funny.
Note. In monosyllabic stress-tone units the pitch rises during the syllable.
e.g. I hate doing nothing.
The Scandent Scale is used in colloquial speech. It sounds lively, playful,
encouraging. Yet it may also convey surprise, irritation and even irony (together
with the intensified stress and widened temporal range).
The Scandent Scale is used in any communicative type of utterance, giving
it an emotional colouring. It can be combined with any terminal tone except for the
Fall-Rise, but the preference is given to the Falling Tones. The High Level or High
Ascending Pre-Heads often precede it.
e.g. There is no need to lose your temper.
¯Wherever had it come from.
22
According to its direction the Scandent Scale can be:
 Descending
 Ascending
 Level
According to its regularity the Scandent Scale can be also of two types:
 Regular
 Broken

The Level Scale

The Level Scale according to its pitch can be of three types:
 The Low Level
 The High Level
 The Mid Level
According to the arrangement of unstressed syllables within every stress-tone
unit the Level Scale can also be Sliding and Scandent.
In the Low Level Scale all the stress-tone units are said on a Low Pitch-Level.
The unstressed syllables take the same pitch. The Low Level Scale can be
combined with any simple terminal tone, but the preference is given to the Low
Fall, the Low Rise, the Low Level Tone. It can be used in any communicative type
of utterance. This Scale is characteristic of colloquial speech.
The Low Level Scale combined with the Low Fall sounds uninterested,
phlegmatic or sometimes cool, and reserved (supported by the intensified stress
and slowed tempo).
e.g. He promised to come in time. (phlegmatic)
Did he promise to come in time? (reserved)
Did he promise to come? (cool)
The Low Level Scale followed by the Low Rise sounds disapproving, skeptical
and sometimes perfunctory.
e.g. I can’t give permission for that. (disapproving)
Can you give permission for that? (perfunctory)
Who can give permission for that?  (disapproving)
Very nice permission! (skeptical)
The Low Level Scale followed by the Low Level tone sounds pathetic (when it
is supported by the increase in stress and a slow tempo). It is used in recitation.
23
 In the High Level scale all the stress-tone units are said on a high pitch level,
the unstressed syllables taking the same pitch. The High Level Scale can be
combined with any simple terminal tone but the High Fall is most frequent. This
intonation pattern is characteristic of emotional speech. It can be used in any
communicative types of utterance. It sounds decisive, joyful or even irritable.

Terminal Tones
Nuclear tones that finish any syntagm according to their function can be terminal or
non-terminal.
The terminal tone is variation in pitch produced during the final stress-tone unit of
the terminal intonation groups.
The terminal tone is an inseparable part of any intonation contour, because its main
function is to distinguish the communicative types of utterances.
According to their structure the terminal tones fall into two types:
 Consisting of the nucleus only:
e.g. He is free.
 Consisting of the nucleus with the tail:
e.g. He is busy.
According to the direction of the pitch change they fall into three principal groups:
 The group of falling tones:
The Low Fall /m/ (simple tone)
The High Fall /m/ (simple tone)
The Rise-Fall /m/ (complex tone)
 The group of rising tones:
The Low Rise / m/ (simple tone)
The High Rise / m/ (simple tone)
The Fall-Rise / m/ (complex tone)
 The group of the level tones:
The Low Level /m/ (simple tone)
The Mid Level /m/ (simple tone)
The High Level /m/ (simple tone)

The Low Fall

The nucleus of the Low Fall starts at or a bit below the mid pitch level of the
normal range and falls to the normal range and falls to the bottom, the tail
syllables take the low pitch. As any falling tone it is final and chategorical in

24
character. Besides, the Low Fall conveys some attitudes of its own, it sounds
formal, serious, firm or calm, cool, reserved, phlegmatic, depending on the
prehead and scale that precede it.
The Low Fall can be combined with any type of scale and the scale adds
much to the attitudinal meaning of the pattern.
The Low Fall preceded by the Descending Stepping Scale is used in
categorical statements, basic special questions, basic commands and exclamations.
Descending Stepping Scale + Low Fall
 Categorical statements (businesslike, formal)
e.g. My friend is a student of English.
John is Mary’s brother.
Mary is writing a letter.
 Basic Special Questions (businesslike, serious)
e.g. When do you get to the office?
What do you usually do in the evenings?
 Basic commands (businesslike, firm)
e.g. Try to do it now.
Go and fetch some chalk.
 Basic exclamations (businesslike, formal)
e.g. Many happy returns of the day.
Thank you very much!
 In insistent general questions this pattern sounds serious and urgent.
e.g. Do you really leave tomorrow morning?
Low Level Scale + Low Fall (phlegmatic, detached).
e.g. He leaves tomorrow morning.

The Low Rise

The Low Rise consisting of the nucleus only starts at or near the bottom of
the normal voice range and rises to the mid pitch level.
e.g.  Yes,he was away.

25
 If there is a tail to it the nuclear syllable takes the low level pitch and the
tail-syllables carry the rise.
e.g. Certainly, he was busy yesterday.
The Low Rise sounds non-final, non-categorical, encouraging further
conversation. Preceded by the Low Level Scale the Low Rise gives the utterance a
perfunctory ring. That is why it is often called a perfunctory tone.
It can be used in all communicative types of utterances.
1. Non-categorical statements
 Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise – encouraging further
conversation
e.g. He knows it much better.
John’s Mary’s brother.
 Low Level scale + Low Rise – perfunctory
e.g. He knows it much better.
John’s Mary’s brother.
2. Special Questions
 Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise –interested
e.g. What do you usually do in the evening?
 Low Level scale + Low Rise – perfunctory
e.g. What do you usually do in the evening?
What if we meet tonight?
3. Basic General Questions
 Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise – really interested
e.g. Is anyone away from the lesson?
Haven’t you been at the library?
Is he studying science?
 Low Level scale + Low Rise – perfunctory
e.g. Is anyone away from the lesson?
Haven’t you been at the library?
4. Imperatives
 Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise –encouraging
e.g. I’m so upset – cheer up,  don’t worry.

26
 Come along,  hurry up.
5. Exclamations
 Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise –airy, encouraging
e.g. Sorry I must be off.– So long, my dear. See you later.

The Fall-Rise
The Fall-Rise is a complex tone. It consists of two elements: the falling part
and the rising part. The Fall-Rise can be high (emphatic) and low (neutral), but the
fall is always higher than the rise.
It is realised in speech in two allotones the use of which depends on the
structure of the word that takes it.
We speak about the Fall-Rise:
 Compressed into one syllable (undivided)
Yes.
 Spread over a number of syllables or words (divided).
Really…
As a matter of fact.
The Fall-Rise is often called an implicatory tone. It may convey different attitudes,
such as warning, hesitation, concern, correction, contradiction, contrast, apology.
The Fall-Rise is mostly used in:
1. Implicatory statements.
2. Requests.
3. Apology.
4. Non-terminal intonation groups, often tempo rises.
It is usually preceded by the Sliding Scale, though the Stepping Scale is also
possible.

Sentence Stress

Sentence stress is greater prominence given to one or more words in a

sentence. In emotionally neutral speech sentence stress is more or less equally
distributed among all the notional words of the sentence. The normally accented
words are:
1. Nouns.
27
 2. Pronouns: demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, emphatic,
absolute.
3. Notional verbs.
4. Adjectives.
5. Numerals.
6. Interjections.
The unstressed elements as a rule are:
1. Pronouns: personal, possessive, reflexive, relative.
2. Auxiliary verbs.
3. Prepositions.
4. Conjunctions.
5. Articles.
6. Particles.
Sentence stress, to a greater degree, is determined by three factors:
1. By the relative semantic importance of words in the sentence which results
in logical stress.
2. By the rhythmical structure of the sentence.
3. By the style of speech.

Variations in Sentence Stress

I. Auxiliary and modal verbs are stressed:
1. In short answers and in negative contracted forms, e. g. Yes, I do. You
needn’t worry.
2. When “do” is used for emphasis, e. g. I do.
3. In slow colloquial style when they begin general or alternative questions, e. g.
Are you a student? Can you help me?
Note. In rapid colloquial style there is a tendency not to stress them, e. g. Are you
a student?
They are mostly unstressed when followed by the demonstrative pronouns “this”
and “that”, e. g. Is this a book? Can this be true?
II. Prepositions and Conjunctions.
1. In sentence-initial position they may be stressed when followed by an
unstressed syllable (slow colloquial style).
Slow coll. Rapid coll.

28
As to my future. As to my future.
If she wants to help her… If she wants to help her…
Note. 1. In case a preposition or a conjunction is followed by a proper noun it
takes no stress, e. g. If Nina wants to help her…
2. Sentence-initial “but” and “and” are unstressed, e. g. But he would never do
it. And in a moment…
Prepositions and conjunctions in sentence-final position, though unstressed
have vowels of full formation, e. g. What are you looking at//? What are
you listening to //?
III. Interrogative pronouns “what”, “how”, “when”, “why” take no stress in the
following type of utterances (they often become high-prehead syllables), e.
g. How are you? Where is it?
IV. “What” and “how” in exclamatory sentences followed by some emotionally
coloured words take no accent, e.g. How horrible! What fine weather we
are having today!
V. “How many”, “how much” (rhythmical variations), e.g.
How many? How many books?
but
How much? How much money?
VI. Any word at its second appearance takes no stress, e. g. How many books?
– Two books.
VII. “More” and “most” as comparative and superlative degrees take no accent,
e. g. The text is more difficult than I expected.
VIII. “Street” and “square” are stressed in the following way: In Gorky Street.
In Red Square.
IX. Logical stress can be laid on any word semantically important for the
speaker. Sentence stress on the words that follow it either disappears or
becomes partial, e. g. Do you speak English?
Note. In “there + be” construction logical stress is fixed on the subject thus leaving
an adverbial modifier of place unstressed, e. g. There are many places of interest
in Kiev.

29
 Logical Stress

Logical Stress serves to mark the semantic center of the utterance (a word or a
word-group that carries new information important for the speaker).
Logical Stress is observed when the syntagmatic stress is shifted from its
normal place (the last notional word of the intonation-group) to any of the
preceding words thus creating a new semantic center. Logical Stress is always
combined with one of the moving tones.
Stress on words that follow logical stress either disappears (rapid colloquial) or
becomes partial (slow colloquial).
e.g. He left for Kyiv yesterday.
He left for Kyiv yesterday.
He left for Kyiv yesterday.
He left for Kyiv yesterday.

Some Rules of Syntagmatic Division

When we speak we make pauses necessary for understanding. They divide the
speech-flow into syntagms. The syntagmatic division depends on the tempo and
style of speech. The slow colloquial style is characterised by a greater number
of intonation groups, than the rapid colloqual.
Simple extended sentence
1. The subject group and the predicate group consisting of more than one word
form separate syntagms (extended subject group).
John’s sister entered the room.
Note. One-word subject can form a separate syntagm if it is emphasised (one
of the complex tones must be used on it).
Mary is John’s sister.
2. Homogeneous predicates or other members of the sentence:
John came but didn’t stay long.
3. An adverbial or parenthetical phrase at the beginning of the sentence.
A few minutes later we heard a ring at the door.
To tell the truth, he’s never late.
4. An apposition makes up a separate syntagm.
Betty Smith, my wife’s niece, lives with us.
30
 5. Alternative and disjunctive questions
Do you live here or out of town?
You live here, don’t you?
Note. In slow colloquial style participial, gerundial, infinitive, prepositional
phrases can form syntagms.

Complex and Compound Sentences

They make up two syntagms.

If you are lateask permission to come in.
Note. Two-member principle clause and an object clause as a subordinate one are
joined into one syntagm.

He says
I think he was late.
I know
I suppose

Direct Address
The intonation of direct address depends on its position in the sentence.
1. Direct address in sentence-initial position is always stressed, it makes up a
separate sense-group. In formal speech it takes the LOW FALL, e.g.
Gentlemen, take your seats.
In a friendly conversation the FALL-RISE is preferable, e. g. Mary, won’t you
sit down?
2. Direct address in sentence-mid or sentence-final position does not make up a
separate syntagm. It is pronounced as an unstressed or partially stressed tail of
the preceding syntagm, e. g. Good night, Mary!
Note. Direct address after the low falling nucleus can make the LOW RISE
without forming a separate syntagm. In this case it sounds informal, friendly, e. g.
Good afternoon, Mary!

31
 Parentheses
The intonation of parenthesis depends on its position in the sentence.
1. Parentheses in sentence-initial position are usually stressed. They can form
separate syntagms which mostly take the Low Fall or Low Rise, though the
Fall-Rise is also possible.
Note. Parenthetical phrases that introduce object clauses such as, “I think”, “I
suppose”, “I believe” do not form separate sense-groups.
2. Parentheses in sentence-mid or sentence-final position do not form separate
syntagms. They are pronounced as an unstressed tail of the preceding stressed
word, e. g. He is out, I’m afraid.

Author’s Words
The group of author’s words may stand at the beginning, in the middle or at the
end of the sentence.
I. Author’s words in sentence-initial position form a separate intonation-group.
1. Short phrases generally take the Low Level Tone, Low Rise or Low Fall.
She said, 
She said,  “Sorry to have kept you waiting.”
She said ,
2. An extended group of author’s words usually takes the Low Level pre-terminal
tones (the Low Level scale or head) followed by the Low Fall or Low Rise, e.
g.
She said excitedly, 
“Sorry to have kept you waiting.”
She said excitedly, 
II. Mid-sentence author’s words are usually pronounced as an unstressed tail of
the preceding sense-group, thus breaking the sense-group into two syntagms.
“Sorry, - she said – to have kept you waiting.”
III. Author’s words in the sentence-final position are also pronounced as an
unstressed tail of the preceding sense-group, if they are unextended.
Extended group of sentence-final author’s words forms two or more syntagms.
Some initial words of the group are said as an unstressed tail of the preceding
syntagm, it repeats the intonation pattern of the first syntagm but on a narrowed
range.
“Will you do me a favour”, she asked looking me straight in the eye.
32
 GRAPHICAL RULES
Vowel № 1 / i : /
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 1 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter e in open and historically open syllables (be, meter, these, theme);
2. the digraphs: ее – meet, see, feel, tree
ea – meat, seat, peace
ie – piece, field, believe
ei – ceiling, receive

Rare Spellings: people, key, breathe, wreathe.

/i:/ in proverbs and sayings:

1. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
2. No sweet without some sweat.
3. Extremes meet.

Vowel № 2 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 2 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letters i, у in stressed closed syllables (myth, syllable);
2. y, ey when unstressed (city, baby, money, family, hockey, valley);
3. ai when unstressed (fountain, mountain, portrait, captain);
4. the letter e in prefixes (before, begin, decide).

Rare Spelling: busy, build, biscuit, foreign, women, coffee.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. As fit as a fiddle.
2. As busy as a bee.
3. Little pitches have big ears.

Vowel № 3 /e/
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 3 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter e in closed accented syllables (red, better);
2. the digraph ea before d (bread, head, dead);
th (breath, death, weather).
33
Irregular Spelling; deaf, heavy, measure, pleasure, pleasant, health, wealth,
meant, breakfast, weapon.

Rare Spelling: any, man, friend, says, said.

/e/ in proverbs and sayings:

1. Many men, many minds.
2. Better to do well, than to say well.
3. Better late than never, but never late is better.
4. All is well, that ends well.

Vowel № 4 //
Graphical Rules;
Vowel № 4 is represented in spelling by:
the letter a in closed syllables (lad, glad, scratch, cramped).
NOTE. A number of three-syllable words with the accented letter a in an open
syllable fall under this rule (family, cavity, vanity).


/ in proverbs and sayings:

1. No living man all things can.
2. Who chatters to you will chatter of you.
3. He that hatches matches hatches catches.

Vowel № 5 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 5 is represented in spelling by:
1. the digraph ar (cart, party);
2. the letter a followed by
ss – pass, glass sp – grasp, clasp
st – past, fast ft – after, craft
sk – ask, basket th – path, father
3. a followed by lf, lm (half, calf, calm, palm);
4. ance, and in words of French origin (France, glance, demand, command)
when stressed.

34
Rare Spelling: aunt, draught, clerk, heart, hearth, bazaar, drama, aria, tomato,
banana, garage, moustache, vase.

// in proverbs and savings:

1. He laughs best who laughs last.
2. After a storm comes a calm.
3. Each dog barks in his own yard.
4. Art is long, life is short.

Vowel № 6 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 6 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter o in closed stressed syllables (not, office);
2. the digraph wa (was, want, wasp);
3. qua (quality, quantity) except quarter.

Rare Spelling: because, cough, knowledge, sausage.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. Honesty is the best policy.
2. A little pot is soon hot.
3. Be slow to promise and quick to perform.
4. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.

Vowel № 7 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 7 is represented in spelling by:
1. oor, our, oar (floor, door, your, course, board);
2.. the digraph or third syllable type (port, sort);
3. a followed by ll, l + cons. (all, tall, salt, chalk, wall);
4. ough, augh + t (thought, bought, caught, taught);
5. war (warm, ward).

Irregular readings: our, flour, sour, poor.

// in proverbs and sayings:

It never rains but it pours.
35
Vowel № 8 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 8 is represented in spelling by:

1. the digraph oo followed by k (book, look, took);

2. the letter u after p, b, f (pull, bull, full).

Irregular Reading: but, bus, butter.

Rare Spelling: could, should, would, wolf, bouquet.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. A good beginning makes a good ending.
2. A good cook never cooks while looking into a cookery book.
3. Look before you leap.

Vowel № 9 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 9 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter u in open syllables (tune, due, puny)
NOTE: It sounds // preceded by l, j, r (June, rule, blue, true);
2. the digraphs eu, ew (neutral, feudal, few, new);
3. ui (suit, fruit, cruise);
4. the digraph ou in words of French origin (group, soup, route, youth,
wound, rouge, you).

Rare Spelling: shoe, beauty, queue, who, whom, whose, do, to, two, tomb.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. No news is good news.
2. Bad news has wings.
3. That’s where the shoe pinches.

Vowel № 10 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 10 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter u in stressed syllables (hurry, uncle, consult);
36
2. о followed by m, n, v, th (come, some, son, ton, love, govern, mother,
other);
3. the digraph ou followed by gh, bl(e), pl(e) (tough, enough, trouble, double,
couple);
4. ou + other consonants (country, courage, cousin, youth, southern).

Rare and irregular spelling: blood, flood, worry, shove.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. So many countries so many customs.
2. Don't trouble trouble until trouble troubles you.
3. Love me, love my dog.
4. When two Sundays come together.
5. A storm in a tea-cup.
6. A man is known by the company he keeps.
7. As hungry as a hunter.

Vowel № 11 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 11 is represented in spelling by:
1. e, i, u, у followed by r third syllable type (term, service, bird, stir, fir, nurse,
fur, turn);
2. ear + consonant (earth, heard).

Irregular readings: heart, hearth, worn, work, worst.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. It’s an early bird that catches the first worm.
2. First come, first served.
3. Live and learn.

Vowel № 12 //
Graphical Rules:
Vowel № 12 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter a in prefixes (about, asleep);
2. in suffixes er, or, ar, oar, ous (teacher, doctor, cellar, flavour, famous);
3. a, o, u non-accented (sofa, atom, column).
37
Diphthong № 13 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 13 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter "a" in open syllables (take, lake);
2. the digraphs ai, ay (main, plain, may, play);
3. ei, ey (veil, vein, neighbour, grey, they, convey).

Irregular Readings: key, height.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. Make hey while the sun shines.
2. Make haste slowly.
3. Haste makes waste.
4. No gains without some pains.

Diphthong № 14 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 14 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter o in open syllables (go, home, moment);
2. the letter o followed by ll, ld, st (polk, roll, old, told, most, post);
3. the digraph ow (low, show, know, tomorrow);
4. the digraph oa (boat, road, load);
5. the letter о in word-final unstressed syllables (hero, photo, potato).

Exceptions to memorize: now, how, cow, row, brow, bow.

Irregular Spelling: shoulder, poultry, soul, owe, mould.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. As you sow you shall mow./As you sow, so shall you reap.
2. True love never grows old.
3. When at Rome do as Romans do.
4. Be slow to promise and quick to perform.

Diphthong № 15 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 15 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letters i, у in stressed open syllable (lie, fly, final, lime);
2. igh followed by t (light, night, sight);
3. the letter i followed by ld, nd (child, wild, kind, blind).
38
Irregular Spelling: either, neither.

Irregular Readings: wind, city, pity.

Diphthong № 16 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 16 is represented in spelling by:
1. the digraph ou (out, thousand, stout);
2. the digraph ow (town, down, towel).

Irregular Spelling: drought, bough, plough.

// in proverbs and sayings;
1. A sound mind in a sound body.
2. Every cloud has a silver lining.
3. Actions speak louder than words.
4. To come out dry.
5. When angry, count a hundred.

Diphthong № 17 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 17 is represented in spelling by:
the digraph oi, oy (oil, boil, toy, oyster).

Irregular Readings: tortoise.

// in proverbs and sayings:

The voice of one man is the voice of no man.

Diphthong № 18 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 18 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combinations ere, ear, eer (here, sphere, hear, dear, fear, deer,
beer, pioneer);
2. the letter combination ier (pier, fierce, cashier);
3. the letter e in open accented syllables + r (era, hero, period, serious).
Rare Spelling: theory, museum, theatre, idea, beard, real.
39
// in proverbs and sayings:
1. Neither here nor there.
2. Experience is the best teacher.
3. To be up to the ears in love.

Diphthong № 19 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 19 is represented in spelling by:

1. the letter combinations are, air (hare, fare, care, prepare, hair, chair, air);
2. the letter a in open accented syllable followed by r (vary, Mary, parent,
variant).
NOTE. Mind the rr case: marry, parrot.

Irregular Spelling: are, bear, wear, tear, where, there.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. Where there's a will, there's a way.
2. After rain comes fair weather.
3. If you run after two hares, you'll catch neither.

Diphthong № 20 //
Graphical Rules:
Diphthong № 20 is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combination ure (cure, pure, sure);
2. the letter u in open accented syllable (fury, during).

Rare Spelling: poor, moor, tour, Europe.

Irregular Readings: to bury.

// in proverbs and sayings:

1. What can't be cured must be endured.
2. Slow but sure.
3. Curiosity killed a cat.

40
 Tongue twisters
Six sick slick slim sycamore saplings.
A box of biscuits, a batch of mixed
biscuits
A skunk sat on a stump and thunk the
stump stunk,
but the stump thunk the skunk stunk.
Red lorry, yellow lorry, red lorry,
yellow lorry.
Unique New York.
Six thick thistle sticks. Six thick
thistles stick.
Is this your sister's sixth zither, sir?
A big black bug bit a big black bear,
made the big black bear bleed blood.
The sixth sick sheik's sixth sheep's
sick.
Toy boat. Toy boat. Toy boat.
One smart fellow, he felt smart.
Two smart fellows, they felt smart.
Three smart fellows, they all felt
smart.
Pope Sixtus VI's six texts.
I slit the sheet, the sheet I slit, and on
the slitted sheet I sit.
She sells sea shells by the sea shore.
The shells she sells are surely
seashells.
So if she sells shells on the seashore,
I'm sure she sells seashore shells.
41
Mrs. Smith's Fish Sauce Shop.
Shy Shelly says she shall sew sheets.
Three free throws.
Sam's shop stocks short spotted socks.
Knapsack straps.
Which wristwatches are Swiss
wristwatches?
Lesser leather never weathered wetter
weather better.
Inchworms itching.
A noisy noise annoys an oyster.
The myth of Miss Muffet.
Friendly Frank flips fine flapjacks.
Vincent vowed vengeance very
vehemently.
Cheap ship trip.
I cannot bear to see a bear
Bear down upon a hare.
When bare of hair he strips the hare,
Right there I cry, "Forbear!"
Lovely lemon liniment.
Gertie's great-grandma grew aghast at
Gertie's grammar.
Tim, the thin twin tinsmith
Fat frogs flying past fast.
Flee from fog to fight flu fast! Peggy Babcock.

Greek grapes. Black bug's blood.

The boot black bought the black boot Flash message!

back.
Six sticky sucker sticks.
How much wood would a woodchuck
chuck If Stu chews shoes, should Stu
if a woodchuck could chuck wood? choose the shoes he chews?
He would chuck, he would, as much
as he could, Crisp crusts crackle crunchily.
and chuck as much wood as a Give papa a cup of proper coffee in a
woodchuck would copper coffee cup.
if a woodchuck could chuck wood.
Six sharp smart sharks.
We surely shall see the sun shine
soon. What a shame such a shapely sash
should such shabby stitches show.
Moose noshing much mush.
Sure the ship's shipshape, sir.
Sly Sam slurps Sally's soup.
Betty better butter Brad's bread.
Six short slow shepherds.

Which witch wished which wicked Sixish.

wish? Don't pamper damp scamp tramps that
Old oily Ollie oils old oily autos. camp under ramp lamps.

The two-twenty-two train tore through Six shimmering sharks sharply

the tunnel. striking shins.

Twelve twins twirled twelve twigs. I thought a thought.

But the thought I thought wasn't the
Three gray geese in the green grass thought I thought I thought.
grazing.
Gray were the geese and green was Brad's big black bath brush broke.
the grass. Thieves seize skis.
Many an anemone sees an enemy Chop shops stock chops.
anemone. Strict strong stringy Stephen Stretch
Nine nice night nurses nursing nicely. slickly snared six sickly silky snakes.
42

Truly rural.
The blue bluebird blinks.
Betty and Bob brought back blue
balloons from the big bazaar.
The Leith police dismisseth us.
The seething seas ceaseth
and twiceth the seething seas sufficeth
us.
Plague-bearing prairie dogs.
Ed had edited it.
She sifted thistles through her thistle-
sifter.
Give me the gift of a grip top sock:
a drip-drape, ship-shape, tip-top sock.
While we were walking, we were
watching window washers
wash Washington's windows with
warm washing water.
Freshly fried fresh flesh.
Pacific Lithograph.
Six twin screwed steel steam cruisers.
The crow flew over the river with a
lump of raw liver.
Preshrunk silk shirts
A bloke's back bike brake block
broke.
43
A pleasant place to place a plaice is a
place where a plaice is pleased to be
placed.
I correctly recollect Rebecca
MacGregor's reckoning.
Good blood, bad blood.
Quick kiss. Quicker kiss.
I saw Esau kissing Kate. I saw Esau,
he saw me, and she saw I saw Esau.
Cedar shingles should be shaved and
saved.
Lily ladles little Letty's lentil soup.
Shelter for six sick scenic sightseers.
Listen to the local yokel yodel.
Give Mr. Snipa's wife's knife a swipe.
Whereat with blade,
with bloody, blameful blade,
he bravely broached his boiling
bloody breast.
Are our oars oak?
Can you imagine an imaginary
menagerie manager
imagining managing an imaginary
menagerie?
A lusty lady loved a lawyer
and longed to lure him from his
laboratory.

The epitome of femininity.
Kris Kringle carefully crunched on
candy canes.
Please pay promptly.
What time does the wristwatch strap
shop shut?
Girl gargoyle, guy gargoyle.
If a Hottentot taught a Hottentot tot
Will you, William?
Mix, Miss Mix!
Who washed Washington's white
woolen underwear
when Washington's washer woman
went west?
Two toads, totally tired.
Freshly-fried flying fish.
The sawingest saw I ever saw saw
was the saw I saw saw in Arkansas.
Just think, that sphinx has a sphincter
that stinks!
Strange strategic statistics.
Sarah sitting in her Chevrolet,
All she does is sits and shifts,
All she does is sits and shifts.
44
Hi-Tech Traveling Tractor Trailor
Truck Tracker
Six slippery snails, slid slowly
seaward.
Three twigs twined tightly.
The ochre ogre ogled the poker.
Shredded Swiss chesse.
The soldiers shouldered shooters on
their shoulders.
Theophiles Thistle, the successful
thistle-sifter,
in sifting a sieve full of un-sifted
thistles,
thrust three thousand thistles through
the thick of his thumb.
Success to the successful thistle-sifter!
Thank the other three brothers of their
father's mother's brother's side.
They both, though, have thirty-three
thick thimbles to thaw.
Irish wristwatch.
Fred fed Ted bread, and Ted fed Fred
bread.
Cows graze in groves on grass which
grows in grooves in groves.
Tragedy strategy.
 Practical assignments

Stress

Task 1
Write the words listed below in groups according to the following accentual
patterns:

  ();   ;    ();  ;    ():

expose, re-pay, illustrate, forbear, make-up, debate, admission, event, get off,
dressing-table, vacancy, pedagogic, vice-dean, discontent, demonstration, well-
bred, exact, compensate, antiphonic, exclamation, foresee, multiply, begin,
submarine, blue-eyed, celebrate, ice-cream, behave, parenthetic, tape recorder,
procession, registration, well-shaped, paraphrase, economic, parenthesis,
introduction, machinery.

Task 2
Write the words listed below in groups according to the following accentual
patterns:
  ();   ;    ();  ;    ():

Advertise, conversation, demonstrate, believe, antifascist, sitting-room, recognize,

composition, postwar, forget, appreciate, situate, armchair, patriotic, academy,
inconvenient, election, forbid, gas-stove, economy, blackboard,criticize, recollect,
well-known, beefsteak, vice-president, revolution, become, get up, fair-haired,
redress, sympathetic, make up, fourteen, picturesque, put on.

Task 3
Write the words listed below in groups according to the following accentual
patterns:
  ();    ();     ;     ;     ();      :

Father, phonetics, compound, organisation, phonotactics, practice, saying,

communication, allophone, attitude, international, loudness, nucleus, intensity,
opposition, pronunciation, syllable, classify, reduction, articulation, phoneme,
modification, prosody, palatalisation, quality.

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 Linking of words in connected speech

1. Linking “r”
Practise the following word combinations and phrases
father-in-law a lecture on history ask for a favour
mother-in-law a picture of acity send for a doctor
daughter-in-law a teacher of English a glass or a cup
brother-in-law the author of the novel closed or open
father and mother the Tower of London German or English
neither is Ann Arthur is here.
neither are we I can’t hear anything.
the door is open The teacher is in the classroom.
the floor is clean They are in the other room.
they are easy She has a shower every day.
they are ours We have a seminar on Wednesday.

2. A consonant with a vowel at the junction of words

Practise the following words, word combinations and phrases:
an uncle went away the first of January
an actress half an hour the fourth of April
his aunt once or twice the fifth of March
his uncle my wife and I the eighth of August
the ninth of October Good evening. It’s always green
the eleventh of December Good afternoon It’s almost open
the twelfth of November It’s all right. It’s always late
the thirteenth of September It’s also nice. It’s Andrew’s aunt.

3. Two adjacent vowels in a word and at a word boundary

Practise the following words, word combinations and phrases:
46
the artist to earn the twentieth the easiest trying
the actress to own the thirtieth the earlliest going
the Indian to envy the fortieth the heaviest drying
the earth to argue the fiftieth the happiest crying
the only to occupy the sixtieth yellowish living
the eleventh to invent the eightieth bluish staying
very often only a few days It’s a new opera.
very interesting every other day It’s a very easy exercise.
pretty awful nearly a whole week There are only eight.

Assimilation
Task 1. Loss of plosion
a) Practise the following words, word combinations and phrases.
about twelve a big garden victory a light dress
eight text-books a bad dinner  quite common a white dog
black coffee a big breakfast what colour a thick dictionary
a black coat a cold day up-to-date eight girls
a cheap pen a hundred times quite clean sit down

a big town the second daughter What colour is that dress?

a round table thousand pounds It doesn’t take me long.
a big cottage for the third time What kind of tape do you want?

sudden good news clothes at last It’ll be fine

pardon top marks glimpse at least It’ll be late
darkness last night handle goob-looking It’ll benice
blackmail an old man jungle good luck She doesn’t need it
statement not new model hard life I don’t know

47
ointment right now bottle a big lawn It isn’t new
a fortnight not now bicycle a bright light It isn’t Nell

b) Read the following conversational contexts:

1. She didn’t reply.
 Write to her again, then.
2.  I won’t be able to phone you.
 Drop me a line, then.
3.  I had to wait for three hours.
 Bad luck! What a shame!
4.  It was most kind of you.
 Don’t mention it. I was glad I was able to help.
5.  It’s all very puzzling.
 I couldn’t agree more.
5.  She won’t be back till ten.
 I’ll ring her up later, then.
7.  You look smart in this coat.
 Does it suit me?
8.  How much were you paying for the room?
 Eight pounds a week.
9.  Do you feel like going to the cinema?
 I’d like that very much. Thank you.
10.  Couldn’t you take the day off?
 Well, it might be possible.
11.  I’m dreadfully sorry, but I’ve broken a plate.
 Oh, that doesn’t matter.
12.  There’s a variety show at eight o’clock.
 We mustn’t miss that.
13.  What’s your opinion of his work?
 It’s not bad.

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14.  May I see your passport, please?
 Oh, I haven’t got it with me.
15.  Let’s have dinner out tonight.
 That’s a good idea.Why not go for a walk first? It’s only six o’clock.
16.  I’ve just called in to say good-bye.
 What time are you leaving?
17.  What dress do you think I’d better put on?
 Oh! I don’t know.
18.  Seen my hat anywhere? I’ve lost it.
 What colour is it?
Task 2. Different degrees of aspiration
a) Practise the following words:
tight  appetite  style test  protest  step
tale  detail  stale pot  teapot  spot
case  staircase  skate tip  city  stick
coat  tobacco  scold cup  teacup  scull
piece  mantelpiece  speak tact  contact  stamp
tutor  Institute  student kin  ticket  skin
peaceful  masterpiece  speed tent  architect  stench
tulip  static  stupid timid  phonetic  stingy

b) Read the following conversational contexts:

1.  Hallo, Kitty here. Can I speak to Peter, please?
 Sorry, but he’s out.
2.  Hallo, Patrick Cowel speaking. Could I talk to Stella, please?
 I’m afraid she’s not here. Can you call later?
3.  They haven’t time to finish the job.
 That’s no reason for not starting it.
4.  You will stay a bit longer, won’t you?
I’m sorry I can’t.

49
5.  What do you think of the place?
 Oh, it’s a delightful spot.
6.  By the way, where do you live?
 Near King’s Cross station.
7.  I do wish I could go.
 I’m not stopping you.
8.  Whatever was he thinking of?
 I can’t imagine.
9.  I want to see the football match after the news.
 Don’t you want to see part two after the serial?

Task 3. Alveolar consonants before interdental

a) Practise the following words, word combinations and phrases:
the seventh in that all the time quite thin
the ninth in this all the students can’t think
the tenth on that as though last Thursday
the thirteenth and this is the other isn’t through
the hundredth and the others has this isn’t thin

Cross the river this theater Tell the truth He’s thirsty
Pass the salt is there Write the word He’s thirty
Press the button six-thirty Meet the train Find thick notebooks
What’s the matter? six thousand It’s thundering It was thundering
What’s the time? is that What’s thick? It was Thursday

b) Read the following conversational contexts:

1. – Can I book two seats for tomorrow nights?
– Would you like something in the second row?
2. – What’s the postage on these letters to Spain?
– I’ll have to check.
3. – I’ve just been promoted.

50
 – That’s the best news I’ve heard for a long time.
4. – Is there anything worth watching on the other channel?
– I think it’s a documentary.
5. – Excuse me, can you tell me where South Street is, please?
– Take the second turn on the left and then ask again.
6. – Excuse me, but I’m trying to find the town hall.
– Take the third turn on the right and go straight on.
7. – Do you think the manager could see me tomorrow before nine-thirty?
– He won’t be till ten thirty.
8. – Why don’t they work in the evenings?
– Some of them do, I believe.
9. – What’s the time, please?
– I suppose it’s about twelve.

Task 4. Consonants before [r]

a) Practise the following words and word combinations:
drop truth through practice
draft travel throw present
drove a trolley-bus thrice surprise
Andrew a portrait threshold a tape-recorder
a bedroom a great risk a bathroom a sharp razor
a good reason a white rose both rings a deep river
bad results Pete wrote both roads deep roots
cross a thick rope French frighten
cruel a dark room France frosty
prescribe a pink rose fruit a brief report

b) Read the following conversational contexts:

1.- Is it still possible to get tickets for tonight?
- No, I’m afraid you’ve left it rather late.
2.- How could he let you know?
- He could have written.
3.- It was all your fault.
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 - But it wasn’t. And I can prove it.
4. I’m sorry to trouble you, but could I borrow your spade?
- It’s no trouble. I’m not using it at the moment.
5.- Could you make up this prescription for me, please?
- I’ll do it for you straight away.
6.- You’re quite a stranger. Where have you been travelling?
- I’ve had a few weeks with my friend in Brussels.
7.- What do you think of life in France?
- I still feel pretty homesick. Everything seems so strange.
8.- What are your first impressions of Greece?
- It’s quite different from what I expected.
9.- Are you sure this drive is not too much trouble?
- No, it won’t take a minute to drop you off.
Task 5. Consonants before the bilabial sonorant [w]
a) Practise the following words and word combinations:
quarrel swan twice dwell
quarter swallow twinkle Dwen
quality swarthy twilight dwarf
awkward persuade footwear hardware
equal thiswoman it will a language
quick-tempered it’s white it won’t dwelling house

b) Read the following conversational contexts:

1.- Was there any difference between them?
- Very slight, as far as I could see.
2.- Quick. The kettle’s boiling over.
- I’m just coming.
3.- Nice and bright this morning.
- Yes, quite different from the forecast.
4.- It’s good to see the sun again.
- A big improvement on what we’ve been having.
5.- Hasn’t he been there often?
- Once or twice at the most.
6.- We are quite sold out, l’m afraid.

52
 - Then I must try somewhere else, I suppose.
7.- They are twins, aren’t they?
- Yes, but they’re not a bit alike.
8.- Could you tell me where they live?
- Number twenty-four.
9.- I saw Grace at the Taylors’ party.
- Oh! And who else was there?

Rhythm and Rhythmic Groups

To acquire correct reading habits it is advisable to attach the unstressed syllables

to the preceding stressed word rather than to the following one.
Task 1.
John’s away on business.
Thank you for the letter.
What a delightful surprise.
Somebody called when you were out.
Will it be a nuisance if I leave it here?
They went for a walk in the park.
I’m going to the theatre to night.
I sent them a photo of the children.
You can get there by bus from Liverpool Street.
I think it would be better to wait till to morrow.
Perhaps we might go to the theatre together for once.
I don’t think they will have come back from their trip to Paris by then.
I would have tried to see his point of view.

Task 2.
As we felt hot and dusty after our trip we bathed and rested a while. By that
time it was five thirty,  and we decided to stroll down to the dining-room

53
and see what was on the menu for dinner. We decided not to eat until six
o’clock. So since there was half an hour to kill we went into the lounge to
watch the television for a while.

Task 3.
A bad tempered dog one day found his way into a manger,  and found it
↑so nice and comfortable  that he made up his mind to stop there. When ever
the cattle came near to eat their hay  he growled and barked at them to
frighten them off. “What a very selfish dog,” exclaimed one of the oxen.
“He can’t eat the hay himself  and he won’t let us eat  who can.

Scales and Terminal Tones

Practice reading these sentences.
a) Thats good. Thats good. That’s good. That’s good?
Don’tleave. Don’t leave. Don’t leave. Don’t leave?
Ask John. Ask John. Ask John. Ask John?
Not now. Not now. Not now. Not now?
Who’s that? Who’s that? Who’s that? Who’s that?
Why not? Why not? Why not? Why not?
What for? What for? What for? What for?
How strange. How strange How strange. How strange?
Next week. Next week. Next week. Next week?
Come here. Come here. Come here. Come here?

b) Who did you go with?

Who did you go with?
Who did you go with?
Who did you go with?

54
c) I think you’d better ask the others.
I think you’d better ask the others.
I think you’d better ask the others.
You think I’d better ask the others?

d)I’ll finish it now.

I’ll finish it now.
I’ll finish it now.
You’ll finish it now?

e) You can easily catch the last train.

You can easily catch the last train.
You can easily catch the last train.
You can easily catch the last train?

f) Does she know the way?

Does she know the way?
Does she know the way?
Does she know the way?

g) It’s always better to wait.

It’s always better to wait.
It’s always better to wait.
It’s always better to wait?

h) How long do you want to keep it?

How long do you want to keep it?
How long do you want to keep it?
How long do I want to keep it?

55
i) Nobody told me what to do about it.
Nobody told me what to do about it.
Nobody told me what to do about it.
Nobody told me what to do about it?

j) John told me not to come.

John told me not to come.
John told me not to come.
John told me not to come?

k) Henry said he’d wait for us at home.

Henry said he’d wait for us at home.
Henry said he’d wait for us at home.
Henry said he’d wait for us at home?

l) Why does he refuse to listen?

Why does he refuse to listen?
Why does he refuse to listen?
Why does he refuse to listen?

m) Who’s going to support him?

Who’s going to support him?
Who’s going to support him?
Who’s going to support him?

n) I don’t think I’IIfollow your advice.

I’m afraid I’ve made a mistake.
Don’t take it too much to heart.
Why don’t I write to the secretary?
Could anything have been simpler than that?
Are you travelling on your own?
My message didn’t reach him in time?
I don’t believe it’s possible.
It doesn’t matter, dear.
56
I thought it was going to rain.
It’s much too late to have any regrets now.
When did I see him?
From which station?
You saw him when?
What time do you want me?
I saw him a few moments ago.

57
 Word Phonetic Analysis Model

1. Spell the word.

2. Define the number of phonemes, constituting the word and give their definition
and orthographical representation.
3. Define the allophones by which the phonemes are realized in the phonetic
structure of the word.
4. Divide the word into syllables. Define their types. Mark the stressed syllable.
5. Give the accentual pattern of the word and examples of words of the same
accentual pattern.

Sentence Phonetic Analysis Model

1. Define the communicative type of the sentence.

2. Show the syntagmatic division of the sentence.
3. Lay all the necessary tonetic stress marks in the intonation groups. Define the
communicative centres in the intonation groups according to the meaning and modality
expressed in the sentence.
4. Transcribe the sentence. Define the cases of vowel reduction and assimilation.
5. Draw the tonogram of the sentence. Define the structure of each intonation group.

58
 Preparatory Tests

Preparatory Test 1
1. Listen to the words and write them down in transcription. Lay stress-tone
marks.
      
      
      
     
      
     
     
     
     

2. Transcribe the following words. Lay stress-tone marks.
tongue larynx
alveolar ridge vocal cords
front vowel hard palate
back uvula
muscular rounded

3. Lay stress-tone marks, transcribe and give tonograms of the following:

Peter: Hello, Guy. How are you?
Mr. Hunt: I’m fine, thank you.
Peter: Very well, thank you. How are you, Sarah?
Mrs. Hunt: Fine, thank you.

4. Listen to the conversation, write the utterances down and lay stress-tone
marks.
Tim: Last name?
Sheila: Morgan.
Tim: First name?
Sheila: Sheila.
Tim: Address?
Sheila: 34 Rue Temple, Geneva, Switzerland.
59
 Preparatory test 2
1. Listen to the words and write them down in transcription. Lay stress-tone
marks.
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
2. Transcribe the following words. Lay stress-tone marks.
phoneme pronounce
speech sound monophthong
articulation diphthong
muscular tension diphthongoid
pronunciation narrow variant
3. Lay stress-tone marks, transcribe and give tonograms of the following:
Peter: Are you Swiss?
Sheila: No, I’m English.
Peter: Here’s a taxi. Taxi!
Where are Simon and Jane?
Mrs. Hunt: Here they are.
Peter: Good. The Beardsley Hotel, please.
Taxi driver: Yes, Sir.
4. Listen to the conversation, write the utterances down and lay stress-tone
marks.
Tim: Date of birth?
Sheila: The second of May, 1950.
Tim: Place of birth?
Sheila: Exeter, Davon.
Tim: Sex?
Sheila: Female.
Tim: Nationality?
Sheila: British.

60
 Preparatory Test 3
1. Listen to the words and write them down in transcription. Lay stress-tone
marks.
      
     
     
     
     
     
      
      
      
2. Transcribe the following words. Lay stress-tone marks.
vowel lateral
consonant obstruction
classification nasal cavity
occlusive sonorant
constrictive reduction
3. Lay stress-tone marks, transcribe and give tonograms of the following:
I’m Carol Fenton.
I’m Mrs. Hunt’s sister.
This evening my sister’s family is coming to celebrate my nephew’s
birthday.
I’ve planned a small party but Simon doesn’t know about it yet.
It’s a surprise.
4. Listen to the conversation, write the utterances down and lay stress-tone
marks.
Mrs. Fenton: Hello, Sheila.
Sheila: How do you do, Mrs. Fenton.
Mrs. Fenton: Please, call me Carol.
Now sit down everyone.
I’ve made some tea.
It’s in the kitchen.
Can Jane help me?
Mrs. Hunt: Of course, she can.
61
 Preparatory test 4
1. Listen to the words and write them down in transcription. Lay stress-tone
marks.
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
      
2. Transcribe the following words. Lay stress-tone marks.
palatalisation spread
nucleus strong
falling weak
rising raise
pre-head element
3. Lay stress-tone marks, transcribe and give tonograms of the following:
My aunt and uncle are so kind. They remember my birthday every
year. I’ve already received one present. Mum’s parents have sent me two
pounds.
4. Listen to the conversation, write the utterances down and lay stress-tone
marks.
Mrs. Hunt: Hello, Sheila.
Sheila: How are your sons?
Mrs. Fenton: Tim’s still living with us.
Mrs. Hunt: Has he finished university yet?
Mrs. Fenton: Yes, he has. He’s worked here in London for eighteen
months.

62
 Pedagogical classification of pronunciation errors and problems

I. Most important pronunciation errors or problems

A. Those which occur most frequently
(1) pronunciation of a particular phoneme (e.g. /r/as [rr]).
(2) mispronunciation of a common morpheme (e.g. past tense -ed as [d]
after voiceless stops, as in worked, slopped).
(3) mispronunciation of a common lexical item (e.g. she, can't).

B. Those which are the most serious, i.e. have the greatest effect on
intelligibility
(1) stress placed on wrong words or syllables of words.
(2) misleading intonation (e.g. high pitched intonation on old information; a
sharp rise or fall, or a separate intonation pattern on each word).
(3) loss of one or more final consonants (e.g. in can't, sent, dusk).

II. Pronunciation errors or problems that will benefit most from remediation
A. Those whose improvement will have the greatest effect on performance
(1) a very soft or monotonous voice.
(2) incorrect stress or intonation.
(3) loss of final consonants in lexical items.

B. Those for which there is the greatest chance of successful remediation, i.e.
those which will be the easiest to correct
(1) a very soft or monotonous voice.
(2) misleading intonation.
(3) stress on an incorrect word.

III. Errors or problems identified by the learners of their language needing

attention
A.Stereotyped errors
(1) unreduced vowels.
(2) substitutions such as /i:/and//, /l/and /r/, /s/ and //.
(3) loss of -ed and -(e)s endings.

B. Errors causing embarrassment or obvious miscommunication

63
 (1) incorrect stress or intonation.
(2) mispronunciation of common words (e.g. she, his).
(3) Unintential profanity caused by phonemic substitutions (e.g. opening of
the initial consonant in sit or lowering/laxing of the vowel in sheet).

C. Items they would like to pronounce correctly

(1) new words, phrases or sentences which they have recendy encountered in
their reading or picked up from friends or the media.
(2) common or favorite expressions.
(3) key words in their field of specialization.

IV. Errors or problems in areas of language that are of importance for the
learner's social, ocademicr or professional needs
A.Errors or problems in communicational pragmatics
(1) inappropriate voice quality (e.g. talking on the telephone socially or
professionally, disagreeing with someone in different social, academic or
professional circumstances).
(2) incorrect or misleading intonation.
(3) failure to use prosodic backgrounding and foregrounding to indicate the
informational structure of messages.
B. Errors or problems related to specialized areas of language
(1) stress placed on the wrong syllables of key words in the learner's field of
specialization.
(2) lack of elision and other coarticulatory effects in commonly used or key
phrases.
(3) commonly mispronounced words or expressions needed for social,
academic or professional encounters.

64
 PHONETIC AND GRAMMAR TERMS

Accent  Nasalization 

Accentuation  Nasal plosion 
Accidental  Neutral 
Rise 
Adjective  Nuclear tone 
Adverb  Noise consonants 
Adverbial  Nucleus 
modifier group 
Affricate  Notional verb 
Allophone  Noun 
Alveoli Alveolar Numeral 
/,  (cardinal, ordinal) 
, -/ 
Alveolar ridge  Occlusive 
Apostrophe  Organs of speech 
Apposition  Palatalization 
Article  Palatalized 
(definite, 
indefinite)
Articulation  Palate 
Articulatory  Palato-alveolar 
phonetics 
Aspiration  Partial devoicing 
Assimilation  Pattern 
(regressive, 
progressive, 
reciprocal; 
partial, 
intermediate 
and complete) 

65
Author’s words  Pharyngeal / 
Pharyngal 
Auxiliary verbs  Pharynx 
Backlingual  Phoneme 
Bilabial  Phoneme 
sequence
Boundary  Phonemic symbol 
Brackets  Phonemic system 
Colon  Phonetic alphabet 
Comma  Paragraph 
Complex tones  Parenthesis 

Compound  Partial stress 
words 
Conjunction  Pausation 
Consonant  Pause 
Consonant  Phonetic 
cluster  paragraph
Constrictive  Phonetics 
Contour  Plosion 
Curve  Plosive 
(downward, 
upward) 
Dash  Plural 
Dental  Polysyllabic 
Devoiced  Post-alveolar 
Diphthong  Predicate group 
Direct address  Prefix 
Disyllabic  Pre-head 
Dot  Prenuclear 
Emphasis  Preposition 
Ending  Prominence 
Enumeration  Pronoun 
66
 Exclamation  Question mark 
mark 
Facial  Range 
expression 
Final position  Realisation 
Flat rounding  Reduction 
Forelingual  Reduced vowel 
Fricative  Rhythm 
Fricative  Rhythmic group 
plosion 
(incomplete 
plosion) 
Full stop  RP (Received 
Pronunciation) 
Full stress  Rhythmic 
structure
Function  Root of the word 
Gestures  Scale 
(Regular/Broken; 
Descending/ 
Ascending 
Stepping, 
Sliding, Scandent, 
Level) 
Glide  Semicolon 
Handwriting  Sentence 
(cursive, italic)  communicative 
type (statements, 
questions, 
imperative, 
exclamatory) 
Head  Singular 
Hyphen  Slanting brackets 

67
Implicatory  Slanting line 
Initial position  Special Rise 
Interdental  Stress (Word 
Stress, Utterance 
Stress)
Interval  Schwa 
Intonation  Segmental level 
Intonation  Semivowel 
group 
Intonation  Simple tone 
pattern 
Inverted  Sonorant 
commas
Italics  Speech sound 
Jaws  Suprasegmental 
level 
Junction  Syllable 
Juncture  Stress-timed 
language 
Kinetic tone  Subject group 

Labialization  Suffix 
Labiodental  Tempo (rapid, 
(accelerated), 
moderate, slow 
(decelerated) 
Larynx  Tonogram 
Lateral  Tune (simple, 
compound) 
Lateral plosion  Target language 

Lax  Tail 
Linking  Terminal tone 

68
Lip rounding  Tone 
Long vowels  Uvula 
Loss of plosion  Velar 
Loudness  Vocal cords 
Manner of  Voiced 
noise 
production
Meaning  Voiceless 
Mimics  Vowel 
Modal verbs  Utterance 
Modification  Word Order 
Monophthong  Word Stress 
(primary, 
secondary, strong, 
weak or 
unstressed)
Monosyllabic  Weak forms 
Nasal 

69
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