Name: SULEKHA GAURI Sub: Histology

Student ID: 19-2-02489 Date: May 19 2021

Assignment 4: Endocrine System

1. Describe the histology and discuss the function of the following:

Hypothalamic- hypophyseal tract
The hypophyseal hypophyseal tract is a system of blood vessels in the
microcirculation at the base of the brain, connecting the hypothalamus with the
anterior pituitary. It contains the unmyelinated axons of neurosecretory cells
whose cell bodies are located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus. Its main function is to quickly transport and exchange hormones
between the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland. The capillaries in the
portal system are fenestrated (have many small channels with high vascular
permeability) which allows a rapid exchange between the hypothalamus and the
pituitary. It transports oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH; vasopressin),
neurophysin (a binding protein specific for each hormone), and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) to the pars nervosa.
Adenohypophysis
Adenohypophysis originates from an ectodermal diverticulum of the stomodeum
(Rathke's pouch). It is subdivided into the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars
tuberalis.
● The pars distalis is supported by a connective tissue capsule and framework and
it consists of irregular cords of parenchymal cells lying adjacent to fenestrated
capillaries.
● The pars intermedia lies between the pars distalis and pars nervosa and
separated by the hypophyseal cleft. It contains many colloid-containing cysts
(Rathke's Cysts) that are lined by cuboidal cells. It also possesses basophilic cells,
which sometimes extend into the pars nervosa. These cells secrete the
prohormone proopiomelanocortin (POMC), which is cleaved to form melanocyte-
stimulating hormone (MSH).
● The pars tuberalis surrounds the cranial part of the infundibulum (hypophyseal
stalk) and it is composed of cuboidal basophilic cells, arranged in cords along an
abundant capillary network. It reportedly contains gonadotropes and
thyrotropes, plus other secretory cells (FSH and LH) of unknown function.

Neurohypophysis
Neurohypophysis originates from an evagination of the hypothalamus and is
divided into the infundibulum, which is continuous with the hypothalamus, and the
pars nervosa, or main body of the neurohypophysis.
● The infundibular process forms the bulk of the neurohypophysis. It is composed
of largely unmyelinated axons from hypothalamic neurosecretory neurons. These
axons have their cell bodies in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the
hypothalamus. These neurons secrete oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone.

● Pars nervosa contains the distal ends of the hypothalamohypophyseal axons and
is the site where the neurosecretory granules in these axons are stored in
accumulations known as Herring bodies. It releases oxytocin and ADH into
fenestrated capillaries in response to nerve stimulation.

● Pituicytes are glial-like cells that support axons which occupy approximately
25% of the volume of the pars nervosa. It possesses numerous cytoplasmic
processes and contains lipid droplets, intermediate filaments, and pigments.
2. Discuss the histology and function of the adrenal cortex and medulla.
Adrenal glands are a pair of glands, embedded in fat at the superior pole of each
kidney. they have inner medulla and outer cortex which are derived from two
embryonic sources:
● The ectodermal neural crest, which gives rise to the adrenal medulla,
● The mesoderm, which gives rise to the adrenal cortex.

Adrenal cortex
The hormones secreted by this region are steroid hormones, which are all based on
cholesterol. Secretory cells, secrete steroid based hormones, and contain
triglyceride droplets. The cortex can be divided into three regions:
● Zona glomerulosa: the outermost zone of the adrenal cortex which secretes
mineralocorticoids. These hormones are important for
fluid homeostasis. These include aldosterone, which
regulates absorption/uptake of K+ and Na+ levels in the
kidney. The secretory cells are arranged in irregular
ovoid clusters that are surrounded by trabeculae which
contain capillaries. The nuclei stain strongly, and the
cytoplasm is less pale than that of the next zone, the
zona fasciculata, as there are fewer lipid droplets in
these cells.
● Zona fasciculata: the middle zone of the adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids
which are important for carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. An
example is cortisol which raises blood glucose and
cellular synthesis of glycogen. Its secretion is
controlled by a hormone from the pituitary- ACTH.
The secretory cells are arranged in cords, often one
cell thick, surrounded by fine strands of supporting
tissue. The nuclei of these cells stain strongly, and the
cytoplasm is rich in sER, mitochondria and lipid
droplets. The cytoplasm looks pale and foamy due to the presence of lipid
droplets.
● Zona reticularis- the innermost layer of the cortex
secretes sex hormones (androgens) and small amounts
of glucocorticoids. These cells contain lipofuscin,
probably an insoluble degradation product of organelle
turnover - an 'age' pigment. The cytoplasm of the cells
in this region stains more darkly, and contains fewer
lipid droplets.

Adrenal medulla
This region of the adrenal glands contains basophilic staining cells, with a granular
cytoplasm and no stored lipid. It also contains
many venous channels which drain blood from
the sinusoids of the cortex, pass through the
medulla, and drain into the medullary vein.
This is because these cells are actively
secreting the peptide based hormones - nor-
adrenaline and adrenaline (catecholamines),
which are stored in the granules. Secretion of
these hormones is controlled by the
sympathetic nervous system. The targets of
these hormones are the adrenergic receptors in the heart, blood vessels,
bronchioles, visceral muscle, skeletal muscle, and in the liver, where they promote
glycolysis (breakdown of glycogen).
3. Discuss the histology of the pancreatic islets as well as its functions.
The endocrine component makes up about 2% of the pancreas, which is
represented by about 1-2 million pancreatic islets (of Langerhans). They are
dispersed throughout the exocrine component of the pancreas, most of them being
located in the tail region. These islets are demarcated from the rest of the
parenchyma by a delicate sheath of reticular fibers.
Pancreatic Islets are spherical clusters of polygonal endocrine cells. The cells of the
islets are connected to each other with desmosomes and gap junctions, forming
bands or cords of cells. Pancreatic islets are permeated by many fenestrated
capillaries, which allow quick entry of pancreatic hormones into the blood.
There are four main types of cells in the pancreatic islets:
● B (beta) cells - These cells secrete insulin and constitute about 70% of the islet
cells. They are most commonly located in the central part of the islet. B cells
contain many secretory granules which possess a dark center with crystallized
insulin, surrounded by a wide pale halo.
● A (alpha) cells - these cells secrete glucagon and constitute 15-20% of the islet
cells. They are usually larger than B cells and most commonly located
peripherally in the islet. Their granules are more uniform in size, with a larger
dark center surrounded by a thinner halo compared to B cells. The granules are
filled with glucagon.
● D (delta) cells - these cells secrete somatostatin and constitute 5-10% of the
islet cells. They are located diffusely throughout the islet but most commonly in
the periphery. D cells contain larger secretory granules compared to A and B
cells.
● PP (pancreatic polypeptide) cells - these cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide
and constitute <5% of the islet cells. They are mostly located within the head of
the pancreas.

The hormones of the endocrine pancreas are the primary regulators of glucose,
lipid and protein metabolism.
● Insulin: Insulin exhibits its effects on most cells of the body, most notably
those of the liver, muscles, and adipose tissue. The main function of insulin is
related to glucose metabolism, decreasing blood glucose, and sparing proteins
and lipids.
● Glucagon: Glucagon is the antagonistic hormone of insulin. Overall, glucagon
causes an increase in blood glucose, increased proteolysis and lipolysis.
 ● Somatostatin: This hormone inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon
through local paracrine action. Somatostatin is identical to a hormone
secreted by the hypothalamus, which inhibits the release of growth hormone
(GH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary.

4. Discuss the function of the neuroendocrine system.

Neuroendocrine system is the branch of biology which studies the interaction
between the nervous system and the endocrine system; i.e. how the brain regulates
the hormonal activity in the body. The nervous and endocrine systems often act
together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the
physiological processes of the human body. The neuroendocrine system is the
mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating
reproduction, metabolism, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization,
osmolarity and blood pressure. The neuroendocrine system is made up of special
cells called neuroendocrine cells. They are spread throughout the body.
Neuroendocrine cells are like nerve cells (neurons), but they also make hormones
like cells of the endocrine system (endocrine cells). They receive messages (signals)
from the nervous system and respond by making and releasing hormones. These
hormones control many body functions.

5. Describe the histology of the thyroid gland.

The thyroid gland is a bilobular
endocrine gland that is found in
the neck, anterior and inferior to
the larynx. The main purpose of
this organ is to produce, store
and secrete the iodine-based
hormones triiodothyronine (T3)
and thyroxine (T4). These
hormones have various effects on
fat, protein and carbohydrate
metabolism, as well as on the
development especially central nervous system and general growth. It is encased by
a thin connective tissue capsule that enters the substance of the lobes to further
subdivide the gland into irregular lobular units. Each lobule contains a cluster of
follicles, which are the structural and functional units of the thyroid gland.
● Thyroid follicles are spherical structures filled with colloid, a viscous gel
consisting mostly of iodinated thyroglobulin. Surrounding the colloid within
each follicle is a single layer of epithelial cells, called follicular cells. In
 addition, one or more parafollicular cells, occasionally lie sandwiched
between the follicular cells.
● Follicular cells are normally cuboidal, but they become columnar when
stimulated. They help in the synthesis and release of the thyroid hormones
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
● Parafollicular cells are also called clear (C) cells because they stain less
intensely than thyroid follicular cells. They synthesize and release calcitonin,
a polypeptide hormone, in response to high blood calcium levels.

6. Discuss the production of thyroid hormone and its control.

The thyroid gland uses iodine from food to make two thyroid hormones:
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It also stores these thyroid hormones and
releases them as they are needed. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, which
are located in the brain, help control the thyroid gland. The hypothalamus releases
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to
release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Thyroid hormone synthesis begins with the recognition of thyroid-stimulating

hormones (TSH) by TSH-receptors at the basolateral region of the follicular cells.
Simultaneously, iodine is taken into the cell via Na+/I- symporters (the excess Na+
is removed by Na+/K+-ATPase pumps). Iodine is used in the organification of
tyrosine in the follicular lumen to form monoiodotyrosine (MIT). MIT can then be
organized to form diiodotyrosine (DIT). The enzyme thyrosine peroxidase (TPO),
can subsequently link a MIT and a DIT molecule to form triiodothyronine (T3) or
two DIT molecules to form thyroxine (T4).

When the hypothalamus and pituitary are working normally, they sense when:

● Thyroid hormone levels are low, so they secrete more TRH and TSH, which
stimulates the thyroid to make more hormones.
● Thyroid hormone levels are too high, so they secrete less TRH and TSH, which
reduces hormone production by the thyroid.

7. Describe the histology of the parathyroid gland.

Parathyroid hormones are four small glands that lie on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland, embedded in its connective tissue capsule of thyroid gland. They are
supported by septa from the capsule, which penetrate each gland and also convey
blood vessels into its interior. They become infiltrated with fat cells in older
 persons, and the number of oxyphil cells also increases.They have a parenchyma
composed of two types of cells, chief cells and oxyphil cells.
● Chief cells are small basophilic cells arranged in clusters. Chief cells form
anastomosing cords, surrounded by a
rich, fenestrated capillary network. They
synthesize and secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH, or parathormone) which
raises blood calcium levels. High blood
calcium levels inhibit the production of
PTH. PTH acts on osteoclasts, and the
epithelial cells of the renal tubule, to
increase plasma calcium by promoting
bone resorption and increasing renal
calcium resorption.
● Oxyphil cells are large eosinophilic cells that are present singly or in small
clusters within the parenchyma of the gland. Their function is not known.

8. Discuss the function and metabolic role of the parathyroid gland.

Parathyroid glands control the calcium levels in our blood, in our bones, and
throughout our body. Parathyroid glands regulate the calcium by producing a
hormone called Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).

Calcium is the only element with its own regulatory system- the parathyroid glands.
The only purpose of the parathyroid glands is to regulate the calcium level in our
bodies within a very narrow range so that the nervous and muscular systems can
function properly. They measure the amount of calcium in the blood every minute
of every day and if the calcium levels go down a little bit, the parathyroid glands
recognize it and make parathyroid hormone (PTH) which goes to the bones and
takes some calcium out (makes a withdrawal from the calcium vault) and puts it
into the blood. When the calcium in the blood is high enough, then the parathyroids
shut down and stop making PTH.

The single major disease of parathyroid glands is over-activity of one or more of the
parathyroids which make too much parathyroid hormone causing a potentially
serious calcium imbalance (too high calcium in the blood). This is called
hyperparathyroidism.
9. Discuss the histology and function of the pineal gland.
The pineal gland, or epiphysis is a small cone-like structure that comprises a part of
the diencephalon. It is a neuroendocrine gland that secretes the hormone melatonin
and several other polypeptide hormones that have a regulatory function on other
endocrine glands. The gland has several functions, the most important of which is
maintaining the body’s circadian rhythm and regulating the sleep-wake cycle. In
addition, the pineal gland plays a role in modulating the onset of puberty and the
development of the reproductive system. This gland has a capsule formed of the pia
mater, from which septa (containing blood vessels and unmyelinated nerve fibers)
extend to subdivide into incomplete lobules. It is composed primarily of
pinealocytes and neuroglial cells. It also
contains calcified concretions (brain
sand) in its interstitium. The function of
these concretions is unknown, but they
increase during short light cycles and
decrease during periods of darkness.

Pinealocytes are pale-staining cells with

numerous long processes that end in
dilations near capillaries which contain
many secretory granules, microtubules,
microfilaments, and unusual structures
called synaptic ribbons. These cells
synthesize and secrete serotonin (during the day) and melatonin (at night).
Pinealocytes may also produce arginine vasotocin, a peptide that appears to be an
antagonist of LH and FSH.