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    Bernard Etkin - Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight-John Wiley & Sons Inc (1972)

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    Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight BERNARD ETKIN Chairman, Division of Engineering Science and Professor, Institute for Aerospace Studies (UTIAS), University of Toronto ELETTRONICA Spa. Via TBURTHINA VAL. ko 1 or NF INVENTARO. seanatura fi) John Wiley & Sons, Ine New York London Sydney Toronto 063 Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight SISTEL S.pA BIBLIOTECA OPERA N. 429 In my book, Dynamics of Flight, the dedication read “To the men of science and engineering whose contributions to aviation have made it a dominant force in shaping the destiny of mankind.” I now add: ‘To those men of science and engineering, who with sensitivity and concern, develop and apply their technological arts towards a better future for man on Earth and in space. Preface CCopycight © 1972, by John Wiley & Sons, Tne All rights rosorved, Pablshodsimultanco iy in Canada, No tf hi ok ny bo noel yay ve “aoa ne pent of tes Library of Congeos Catalogue Cand Number: 73165046 ISBN 0-471-24020-4 Printed in the Unitad Staton af America woeresesat ‘This book originally was intended to be a modest revision of my earlier work, Dynamics of Blight—Stability and Control, published in 1959. As the task progressed, however, I found that the developments of the intervening, decade, and the shift in iny own approach to the subject, made « “modest revision” impossible. Thus this volume is virtually a new book, with organi- ‘zation and content substantially different from its predecessor. Two principal fuctors caused this change: (1) the proliferation of vehicle types and fight regimes, particularly hypersonic and apace flight, and (2) the explosive ‘growth of machine computatior ‘The first factor compelled me to abandon the long-standing simplifying assuinption that the Earth's surface eould be represented by a plane fixed in inertial space, and to include in the mathematical model all the com plications that arise from the curvature and rotation of the arth, ‘The second factor had two profound effeota. One was that since we are ‘no longer confined to primitive computation methods, it is commonplace nowadays in industry to construct highly sophisticated mathematical “simulations” of systems for the purpose of carrying out research and design studies. The emphasis on simple approximations is thereby reduced, and the need to set up accurate (even though complicated) mathematical models increased. The other effect of the computing revolution (on me at any rate) hhas been to produce a shift to modern algebra (veotor/matrix analysis) as the basic tool for anslysis, ‘This is ideally suited to digital computation, A Wi Dynamics of atmospheric Aight tertiary effect has derived from the ready availability to me of sophisticated ‘computing machinery, which I have wed for the computation of many numerical examples, to illustrate both typioal results and how to apply the theury. T have continued as in the previous book, to emphasize fandaentale ince, as L stated in the prefuce to Dynauies of Plight—Staility and Control, The att of plane and missle design is progressing so rapidly, and the ‘configurations and flight regimes of interst are so varied tbat one Is scarcely justified in apesking of typical configurations and typical results. Kach new “departure brings with it ite own special probloms, Engineers in ths field must ‘always be alert to discover these, and be adequately prepared to tackle ‘them—they aust be ready to discard long-aecepted methods and assump- tions, and to venture in new direetiona with confidence, The proper back: ‘ground for such ventures and for such cocfidence] ia thorough understanding of the underlying principles and the essential techniques.” To which TT. Hacker (cef. 1.11) appropriately adcls that some doubt should Ieaven the confidence and that "the effort for a thorough understanding of principles ‘and techniques should he completed by the desire to further... the former fand improve the latter.”” Chapters 2 and 3 review the foundation in mathematies and system theory for the material that follows, Readers who are familiar with this material will find it useful for review and reference. Ror readers whose background has not included these topics, a study of these two chapters is essential to understanding tho rest of the book. Chapters 4 and 5 continue with the building of a general mathematical model for Aight vehicles and contain many explicit variations of such modela. ‘The sacrodyuuamic side of the subject is explored next in Chapters 6 to 8, and specific applications, with many fully worked numerical illustrations, are given in Chapters 9 to 13. The example vehicles range from STOL to hypersonic, I have omitted the rather extensive appendices of data that were ‘contained in the previous book, simply in the interests of economy. ‘These data are now available in the USAF Handbook of Stability and Control Methods and the Data Sheets of The Royal Aeronautical Society. I also ‘omitted, on the grounds of time and economy, a planned chapter on the dynamics of spacoeraft entry into the atmosphere. However, the general equations of Chapter 5 embrace this application "This book is written for both students and practicing engineers, Chapters 2 to 6 are not especially suited for an introductory course, but are appro: priate for the more serious student who wishes to qualify av « practitioner n this field, ‘The remaining chapters provide ample useful material for an introductory course when used in conjunction with a less rigorous develop. ‘ment of the small-perturbation equations for the “flat-Karth’” case, Preface vil Tam grateful to my students, from whom Ihave learned ao much, especially to those in my graduate course who used the manuscript as a text and who made weful suggestions, For helpful discussions, and constructive criticism, Tthank P. C, Hughes, H, $. Ribuer, G, F. D. Duff, and especially L. D, Reid, who wrote the first draft of Chapter 12. I received financial support from ‘the US. Air Forco, through AFOSR Grant No, 68-1490, monitored by the Applied Mathematics branch, Vor carrying out machine ealculations I thank Terry Labrash, of the UTLAS, staff, R. Lake and H. Gindl, undergraduate studenta and, above all, my aon, ‘David Alexander, who did the bulk of the computations in the summers while he was a high-school student express my deepest gratitude to my wife, Maya, for giving up three ‘euramer vacations while I worked, and for her endless patience and constant encouragement. The encouragement and support of my daughter, Carol Elizabeth, also helped to sustain me throughout this task. Toronto, 1971 BERNARD rx Contents | | INTRODUCTION 1 ANALYTICAL ‘TOOLS 8 2.1 Inteoduetion 8 22 Veotor/Mateix Algebra 9 2.3 Laplace and Fourier ‘Transforms 9 24 Application to Differential Kquations a 2.5 Methods for the Inverse ‘Transformation 18 2.6 Random Process Theory 20 2.7 Machine Computation 40 SYSTEM THEORY, a2 3.1 Concepts und Terminology 2 32 Transfer Functions 50 3.3. Autonomous Linear/Invatiant Systems 56 3.4 Reaponse of Lincar/Invariant Systema a 8.5 Time-Varying and Noulinear Systoms 96 REFERENCE FRAMES AND TRANSFORMATIONS 108 4.1 Notation 104 42 Definitions of Reference Frames Used in VehicleDynamies 108 4.3 Definitions of the Angles uz 44 Tranaformation of a Veotor ng Dynamics of atmospheric fight 4.5 The L Matrix in Terms of Rotation Angles 4.6 Transformation of the Derivative of a Vector 47 ‘Translormation of a Matrix ERAL EQUATIONS OF UNSTEADY MOTION 5.1 Velocity and Acceleration in an Arbitrarily Moving Frame 52 Angular Velocities of the Several Reference Frames 5.3 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of the Vehicle Mass Center 5.4 Equations of Motion of an Arbitrary System 9.5. Force Equations in Wind Axes 5.6 Force and Moment Equations in Body Axes (Buler’s Equations) 5.7 Disoussion of the Systetn of Equations 5.8 ‘The Flat-Earth Approximation 5.9 Steudy States 5.10 The Small-Disturlianee Theory 5.11 Exact Linear Aerodynatniesand the! 5.12 Elastic Degrees of Freedom 5.13 Nondimensional Equations 5.14 Transforms of the Nondimensional Equations 5.15 ‘Transformation of Aerodynamic Derivatives from One Body- Fixed Reference Frame to Another LONGITUDINAL AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERIS. ‘TICS—PART 1 G1 The Basie Longitudinal Poroes 62 Pitch Stiffueas and Possible Canfigurations for Plight 63 Pitch Stiffness of « General Configuration GA Longitudinal Control 6.5. Control Hinge Moment 6.6 Influence of a Free Elevator of Lift and Moment 6. The Use of Tabs 68 Conteol Force to ‘Prin 6.0 Control Foree Gradient 6.10 Maneuverability—Elevator Angle and Control Foree per g LONGITUDINAL AERODYNAMIC CHARACTER- ISTICS—PART 2 7.1 Bob Weights and Springs 7.2 Influence of High-Lift Devicos on Trim and Pitch Stiffacss 7.3. Influence of the Propulsive System on ‘Trin and Piteh Stiffuess TA Bifect of Structural Flexibility ransformed Equations 129 134 Mi 143 M45, 148 12 154 165 168 115 139 aso 106 107 109 202 212 2 226 229 233 237 237 2 2d 27 249 258 10 Contents 7.5. Geound biffect 76 CG, Limits 7.7 Longitudinal Aerodynamic Derivatives 78 ‘The V Derivatives 79 ‘The g Derivatives 7.10 The & Derivatives 7.11 Aerodynamic Transfer Functions 7.12 The 2 Derivatives 7.13 Aeroelastic Derivatives 7.14 Summary of the Formulae LATERAL AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS 8.1 Yaw Stifness (Weathercack Stability) 82 Yaw Control 83° Roll Stiffness 84 Rolling Control 85. The f Derivatives 8.6. The p Derivatives 87 Ther Derivatives 8.8 Summary of the Formulae STABILITY OF STEADY FLIGHT 9.1 Longitudinal Modes; Flat-Earth Approximation 8.2 Approximate Equations for the Longitudinal Modes 93 General Theory of Static Longitudinal Stability 94 Wffect of Flight Condition on the Longitudinal Modes of 4 Subsonic Jet Transport 9.5 Longitudinal Characteristics of a STOL Airplane 9.6 Lateral Characteristies of a Subsonic Jet Transport 8.7 Approximate Kquations for the Lateral Modes 98 Lateral Characteristics of a STOL Configuration 9.9 kifeots of Vertical Wind Gradient 9.10 Stability Characteristies in Hypersonie Flight RESPONSE TO ACTUATION OF THE CONTROLS (OPEN Loop) 10.1 Inteoduetion 102 Response to Elevator Input 10.3 Response to the Throttle 104 Lateral Steady States 10.5 Lateral Froqueney Response 10.6 Transient Response to Aileron and Rudder 10.7 Inertial Coupling in Rapid Maneuvers x 250 260 262 263 267 216 285 285, 286, 201 203 206 298 300 303 308 ala 318 310 320 828 334 337 356 361 370 315 378 384 11 CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL. 111 General Principles 112 Example—Suppression of the Phugoid 11.8 Equations of Motion of the Control Systems 114 Example—Stability Augmentation System for STOL Airplane 11.5 Bxample—Altitude and Glide-Path Control 116 Stability of Closed.Loop Systems 12 HUMAN PILOTS AND HANDLING QUALITIES (by L. D. Reid and B, Ethin) 12.1 The Human Pilot 122 Mathematical Model of Human’ Pilote—Compensatory Display 12.3, Mathematical Model of Hunan Pilote—Pursuit Display 124 The Ruture Role of the Human Pilot 12.5 Airoraft Handling Qualitiea 126 Plight Simulators 12.7 Results of Handling Qualities Research 12.8 Longitudinal Handling Qualities 12.9 Tateral-Directional Handling Qualities 12.10 Handling Qualities Requirements 13 FLIGHT IN A TURBULENT ATMOSPHERE 13.1 Introduetion 13.2. Deseription of Atmospheric Turbulence 13.3 ‘The Input to the Airplane 134 An Bxample 135 Gust Alleviation BIBLIOGRAPHY. INDEX 462 402 456 462 an 478 485 490 490 491 501 506 507 510 ou su 518 526 520 529 531 543 556 562 563 Introduction CHAPTER | ‘his hook is about the motion of whic that Ayia the atmosphere. As such lt belongs to tho branch of enginceringesione called applied mechani, Tho thre taldted yord above wernt further decasion. To begin with the dtionary definition is not very reatreiv, although it implies ‘sccan hvongh he tho ara applzeten ng of cote tbr Howover, vo abo muy "a sione fs” or “an arrow its,” ao he notion of Sumention fits not nosey implied. ven the tmoapheic medium is ln in “the Right of angels” We propos as a lial alent def Inton that fying be defined st motion though « Aid medium oF empty tpece, Thus u satelite "fea through space and a nabmarine “ie Uhrongh the water. Not that dvigible inthe air and sabinarne inthe water a the same from a medhanta sandpoint—the weight each natn balanced by bueyaney, They are simply separated by three ondom_af magnitude in dena. By vehi ls meant any fying objet thu ie made wp Ofenerbitary satan of defomable bodies thet aresrnehow joined tgetoe ‘oilatrate with omecxamples: (1) Arif ballt ithe imple kind, which can be thought ofa a single idealy-sgd ody. (2) A jot trangport ao more compllatod vehi, comprising a main este body (the airframe and all the parts tached to), folatingsubmystoms ihe engine), artilatad tubeyolone (she arodynamie control) an Rui subaystere (lin. tanks) (3) An astronaut atached to his oriting spacerat by along flexible cable ine further complex example of une general Kin of ayniom we are concord 2 Dynamics of atmospheric ight with. Note that by the above definition a vehiele docs not necessarily have to cerry goods or passengers, although it usually doca, ‘The logic of the de initions is simply that the underlying engineering science is common to all these examples, and the methods of formulating and solving problems ‘concerning the motion are fundamentally the same. ‘As is usual with definitions, we can find examples that don’t ft very well. ‘There are special cases of motion at an interface which we may or may not include in fying—for example, surfice ships, hydrofoil craft and air-cushion ‘Yehicles, In this connection itis worth noting that developments of hydrofoils ‘and ACV's are frequently associated with the Aerospace industry. ‘The main difference between these eases, and those of “true” flight, is that the latter is essentially three-dimensional, whereas the interface vehicles mentioned (as well as cers, trains, ete.) move approximately in a two-dimensional fiekd. ‘The underlying principles and methods are atill the same however, with certain modifications in detai) being needed to treat these vehicles, Now having defined vehicles and flying, we go on to look more carefully ft what we mean by motion. It is eonvenient to subdivide it into several parts: Gross Motion: (i) Trajectory of the vehicle mass center (ii) “Attitude” motion, oF rotations of the vehicle “as a whole.” Fine Motion. (i) Relative motion of rotating or articulated sub-aystems, such as engines, gyroscopes, or acrodynamie control surfaces. (ii) Distortional motion of defonnable structures, such as wing bending ‘and twisting. i) Liquid sloshing. ‘This subdivision is helpful both from the standpoint of the technical problems associated with the different motions, and of the formulation of their analysis. It is surely selfevident that studies of these motions mu be central to the design and operation of aircraft, spacceraft, rockets, missiles, ete, To be able to formulate and solve the relevant problems, we ‘must draw on several basic disciplines from enginoering science, ‘The re- lationships are shown on Fig. 1.1. It is quite evident from this figure that the practicing flight dynamicist requires intensive training in several branches of engineering science, and a broad outlook insofar as the practical ramifications of hia work are concerned, In the classes of vehicles, in the types of motions, and in the medium of flight, this book treats a restricted set of all possible eases, Tis emphasis is ‘on the flight of airplanes in the atmosphere. The general equations derived, Weis i als Wena oes |_| rut ‘atue nuts esa it ‘seams ‘pet mater, seine open a | oe Lace | sn Se) ia, 1.1 Block diagram of disiplines. ‘and the methods of solution presented, are however readily modified and extended to treat the other situations that are embraced by the generat problem All the fundamental science and mathematics needed to develop this ‘subject existed in the literature by the time the Wright brothers flew: Newton, and other giants of the 18th and 19th centuries, such as Bernoulli, Euler, Logeange, and Laplace, provided the building blocks in solid me chanics, fluid mechanics, and mathematics. The needed applications to aero nauties wer made mostly after 1900 by workers in many countries, of whom special reference should be made to the Wright brothers, G. H. Bryan, F. W. Lanchester, J. C. Hunsaker, H. B. Glavert, B. M. Jones, and S, B Gates. These pioneers introduced and extended the basis for analysis anc ‘experiment that underlies all modern practice.t This body of knowledge is well documented in several texts of that period, e.g ref, 1.4. Concurrently, in the USA and Britain, a largo body of aerodynamic data w: , serving as basis for practical design. Newton's laws of motion provide the connection between environmenta} forces and resulting motion for all but relativistic and quantum-dynamical processes, including all of “ordinary” and much of celestial mechanies, What then ight dynamics from other branches of applied mechanics! 4 An excllont account of th eaty history is given inthe 1970 von Kirmkn Lecture by C.D. Poe (e. 1.13) 4. Dysamies of atmospheric fight Primatily it is the special nature of the force fields with which we have to be concemed, the absence of tke kinematical constraints central to machines and mechanisms, and the nature of the control aystems uscd in fight. The external force fields may be identified as follows: Strong” fields: (i) Gravity (i) Aerodynainie (iil) Buoyaney “Weak” Feld: (iv) Magnetic (¥) Solar radiation We should observe that two of these elds, scrodynamie and solar radiation, produce important heat transfer to the vehicle in addition to momentum transfer (force). Sometimes we eannot separate the thermal and mechanical problems (ref. 1.5). Of those fields only the strong ones are of interest for ‘atmospheric and oceanic fight, the weak fields being important only in space. It should be remarked that even in atmospheric flight the gravity force can not always be approximated as a constant vector in an inertial frame, Rotations associated with Barth curvature, and the inverse square law, become important in certain cases of high-speed and high-altitude flight (Chapters 5 and 9) ‘The prodiction and measurement of aerodynamic forces is the principal distinguishing feature of flight dynamics. ‘The size of this task is illustrated by Fig. 1.2, which shows the enormous range of variables that need to be considered in connection with wings alone. To be added, of course, are the complications of propulsion systems (propellers, jets, rockets) and of com- pound geometries (wing + body + tail), ‘As remarked above, Newton's lavs state the connection between force ‘and motion, The commonest problem consists of finding the motion when the laws for the forces are given (all the numerical examples given in this book are of this kind). However we must be eware of certain important 1. Inverse problems of first kind—the system and the motion are given ‘and the forces have to be calculated. 2, Inverse problem of the second kind—the forces and the motion are given and the aystem constants have to be found. 3, Mixed probleme—the unknowns are a mixture of variables from the force, system, and motion Examp! ‘when one of these inverse and mixed problems often turn up} trying to deduce aerodynamic forees from the observed motion Introduction 5 Parameters of wing stays SHAPE: secons Se ° 19 so spec, F—___“P ‘Sbeonie Superane Wipesone Incomparable renonie motion: Sty nsteaty usu qr = const Io, 0, (0. BO, ar ntmosmucne: Contuum ——Sip——Fee-alecle ss Unicem 4 Nonunlem and Uno and Nannie and tees ‘tet ‘m moton in main een ‘en io, 12 Spectrum of aaradynaimieprabloms for wings of a vehicle in fight or of model in a wind tunnel. Another exemple is the eduction of harmonics of the Earth's gravity field from observed pertur ations of satellite orbits. These problems are closely related to the “plant identification" or “parameter identification” problem that is of great eurrent interest in system theory. (Inverse probleins were treated in Chapter 11 of Dynamics of Flight—Stability and Control, but ate omitted here.) TYPES OF PROBLEMS ‘The main types of fight dynamics problem that occur in engineering practice are 1, Calculation of “performance” quantities, such as speed, height, ra and fuel consumption, Calculation of trajectories, such as launch, reentry, orbital and landing Stability of motion ‘Response of veh le to control actuation and to propulsive changes. Response to atmospheric turbulence, and how to control it Aeroelastic oscillations (flutter). Assossment of human-pilot/machine combination (handling qualities). 6 Dynamics of atmospheric fight It takes little imagination to approsiate that, in view of th types that have to be dealt with, a number of subspecialti the ranks of flight dynamicist, related to some extent to the above problem ‘categories, In the context of the modern acrospace industry these problenis ‘are seldom simple ot routine. On the contrary they present great challenges in analysis, computation, and experiment. many vehicle ‘exist within THE TOOLS OF FLIGHT DYNAMICISTS ‘The toola used by Aight dynamicists to solve the design and operational probleme of vehicles may be grouped under three headings Analytical Computational Experimental ‘The analytical tools are essentially the same s those used in other branches ‘of mechanics, Applied mathematies is the analyst's handmaiden (and some- times proves to be such a charmer that she seduces him away from fight dynamics). One important branch of appliod mathematics is what is now known a8 system theory, including stochastic processes and optimization. It has become a central tool for analysts. Another aspect of this subject that hhas reesived a great deal of attention in recent years is stability theory, ‘oparked by the rediscovery in the English-speaking world of the 19th century work of Lyapunov, At leas: insofar as manned flight vehicles are concerned, vehicle stability per so isnot as important as one might suppose vis neither a necessary nor a auffiient condition for successful controlled flight. Good airplanes have had slighily unstable modes in some part of their flight regime, and on the other hand, a completely stable vehicle may have ‘quite unacceptable handling qualitics. It is performance criteria that really matter, s0 to expend & great deal of analytical and computational effort ‘on finding stability boundariea of nonlinear and time-varying eystems may not be really worthwhile. On the other hand, the computation of stability of sinall disturbances from a steady state, ie, the linear eigenvalue problem that in normally part of the system study, is very useful indeed, and may well provide enough information about stability from a practical standpoint. ‘On the computation side, the most important fact is that the avail ‘of machine computation has revolutionizod practice in this subject over the past ten years. Probleme of system performance, system design, and op- timization that could not have been tackled at all a dozen years ago are now handled on a more o less routine basis. ‘The experimental tools of the flight dynamicist ure generally unique to this fold. First, there are thoge that are used to find the aerodynamic inputs. Introduction 7 ‘Wind tunnels and shock tubes that cover most of the spectrum of atinospherie flight are now available in the major aerodynamic laboratories of the word, In addition to fixed laboratory equipment, there are aerobalistic ranges for Aynamic investigations, as well us rocket-boosted and gun-launched free flight mode! techniques. Hand in hand with the development of these general facilities has gone that of a myriad of sensors and instruments, mainly electronic, for measuring forees, pressures, temperatures, acceleraticn, angular velocity, ete. Second, we must mention the flight simulator as an experimental tcol used directly by the flight dynamicist, In it he studios mainly the matching ‘of the man to the machine. This a an essential step for radically now flight situations, e.g. space capsule reontry, or transition of a tilt-wing VTOL airplane from hovering to forward speed. The ability of the pilot to contol the vehicle must be assured long before the prototype stage. This cannot yet be done without test, although limited progress in this direction is being ‘made through studies of mathematical models of human pilots. The prewar Link trainer, e rudimentary device, has evolved today into a highly complex, highly sophisticated apparatus. Special simulators, built for most new major aireraft types, provide both efficient moans for pilot training, and e research tool for studying flying qualities of vehicles and dynamics of human pilota Analytical tools CHAPTER 2 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter contains a summary of the principal analytical tools that fre used in the formulation and sclution of problems of flight mechanics. ‘Much of the content will be familia: to readers with a strong mathematical background, and they should make short work of it ‘The topics treated are vector/matrix algebra, Laplace and Fourier trans. forms, random process theory, and machine computation. This selection is a reflection of current needs in research and industry. The vector/matrix formalism has been adopted as a principal mathematical tool because it provides a single powerful framework that serves for all of kinematics, dynamics, and ayatem theory, and because it ie at the same time a most itable way of organizing analysis for digital computation, The treatment is intended to be of an expository and summary nature, rather than rigorous, ‘although somo derivations are included. ‘The student who wishes to pursue any of the topies in greater detail should consult the bibliography. 1 Most computation centers have library programs fr the manipulation of matrices ‘These are routine operations Analytical tools 9 2.2 VECTOR/MATRIX ALGEBRA ‘As has alresdy been remarked, this hook is written largely in the language of matrix algebra. Since this subject is now so well covered in undergraduate sathematics courses snd in numerous text booke, (2.1, 2.11) we make only «8 fow observations here. In this treatment no formal distinction is made betwoon vectors und matrices, the former being simply column matrices. In particular the familiar vectors of mechanics, such a force and velocity, are simply tee. element column matrices. For the most part we use boldface capital letters for matrices, eg. A = [a,j and boldface lower case for vectors, eg ¥ = [) ‘The transpose and inverse are denoted by superscripts, eg. A® AM! Tho scalar product then appears as ‘and the vector produet as Where @ is a skew.symmetrie 3 x 3 matrix derived from the vootor u, ie 0 ayy 0 may 4% m0 ‘As usual the identity mateix is denoted by 1= 1) Which 8,, is the Kronecker delta 2.3, LAPLACE AND FOURIER TRANSFORMS ‘The quantities with which we have to deal in physical situations usually ‘urn up naturally as functions of space and time. For example, the state or ‘motion of a fight vehicle is a function of time, and the velocity of the atmas. phere is & function of three space coordinates and time, Tt has been found to be very advantageous in many problems of analysis to abandon this “natural” form of the functions, and to work instead with certain “integeal transforms” of them, Analytical tools V1 Fourler Series - ie £ g|2 ce DEFINITIONS Be a Zt ii : a8 ‘Table 2.1 prevents the common one-dimensional transforms of function ie aS Ea : 42{¢) and the companion “inversion formulae” or “reciprocal relations” that i ! iF give the “natural” function in terms ofits transform. ; L 2 \ Multidimensional transforms are formed by auccesive application of thse g qi ‘operations. (An example ofthis is given in Chapter 13.) H Before proceeding further with the discussion of Table 2.1, it is expedient cle clii to introduce here the step and impulse functions, which occur in the following . $)2 3) 42 tables of transforms t gy ua i ‘The unit atep function is (see Fig. 2.1) z isnand| a a) == 7) (39) : a |i t nie] xe-0) 3 i A é = |i ¥ Ee af ‘ . 3/3 2] bi % S| 7 3) 85 i a 3 aa ° a i Fi0. 2.1 Unit step fenton : H by Te has the values us ‘ ay=0, ber 3 | 2 a=, t27 S Syas ‘The impulse function or delta function (more properly, the Dirse “di. tribution”) (ove Fig. 2.2) is defined to bet Me = 7) = tim f(e,4.2) (23,10) where f(e,t, 7) is for ¢ > 0 a continuous function having the value zero asfined Table 2 4 No rel distinction is md ‘the inverse ofthe former th ‘except in the interval 7” <¢ <7 + ¢ and such that its integral is unity, ie. atlera a He a| & t J, Lob Td 1 #| 2 a + The limit in (23,10) has a rigorous mesnin in the sone of distributions, despite the trhich the domain is altered aad eis imaginary fact that it dove not exiat inthe classical sono, 12 Dynamics of atmospheric fight oD ofr The 10.2.2 The impulao funetion, It follows that foe-2va a2) (3) ‘and hence that n When the 1 is omitted from (29,9) and (2.8,10) it is assumed to be zero (as in Table 2. item 2), Table 2.2 Some Fourier Transform Pairs =) xo) 80-2) ont aa, 1 an 2 Bw — 0) 1 28(0) con | afd + 0) + 8(w — A) aint | ix{8(e + 9) — de — 9) Pega 1 wo cern Analytical tools 13 In the first column of Table 2.1 is given the complex form of the Fourier series for describing « function in the finite ringe —'' to ’, in terma of fundamental circular frequency w= m/T.. The coefficients C, are releted to those of the real Fourier series 8) = Edson + Bysin nog) 7 - (2.3,12) by aso =A, +5B,) nso sak fla omamget a 2-3 [xvsinnmta a (Ag + 8! 21¢,) ©) When 1"-> co, the Fourier series representation of a function z(t) passes over formally to the Fourier integral ropresentation, as given in the secund. column. In this limiting process ogra, andl — lw) = im 23,9) oe ‘The Fourier transform that fllows in th thin! eolumn in eientially the same as the Fourier integral, wih trivial diference in notation an the factor 1/2. In some defnitions, both the trunstorm and ts inves have the factor /V/2y- Some useful Fourier transforms are presenta in Table 22 From one vathematical viewpoint, C(w) and. X(a) do no exist as powt functions of w for functions) that do not vanish aco This i ovkdently the ease for items 3 to of Table 2.2, However rom the theory of dete butions, these transform pis some of which coma the angular fancten, are valid ones (oe ref. 23) Heme 1 and 2 are easily verified hy sibatitting 2 into (23,5) and items 3 to 6 by substituting Xo) ino (23.0) Forel Integration of 20 in item 7 prods the Xo) shown plus «peridie tana of infinite frequency. ‘The later bas no eect onthe lategel of Xe), which over any range des > Oi (Yio) dn, om 8 is obtined ly adding fe 7 so J of item 4, The onesided Lape teanaform, inthe fourth colt of Tie 2.1, is een to difr from the Rourer transform in the domain of fend. the’ fact that the complex number « replaces the imaginary number fo 14 Dynamics of amoepheri fight ‘The two notations shown in (23,7) are used interchangeably. The curve ¢ on. which the line integral is teken in the inverse Laplace transform (2.3,8) is an infinite line parallel to the imaginary axis and lying to the right of all the poles of 2(6. If its poles allie in the left half-plane then c may be the imagi- nary axis and (2.3,8) reduces exactly to (2.3.6), ONE-SIDED LAPLACE TRANSFORMT ‘The Laplace transform is a major conceptual and analytical tool of system theory, and hence we explore its properties in more detail below. Table 2.3 lists the Laplace transforms of a number of commonly oecurring functions Tr should be noted that (i) the valuo of the function for ¢ <0 is not relevant to Z{s) and (i) that tho integral (23,7) may diverge for some z(t) in combi- ration with some values of 4, in which case Z(s) does not exist, This re- ‘iriction is weak, and excludes few cases of interest to engineer. (ii) When the function is zero for # <0, the Fourier transform is obtained from the Laplace transform by replacing s by iw. TRANSFORMS OF DERIVATIVES Given the function z(), the transforms of its derivatives can be found toma te) pnt 2) [ent ea-fea ihon weve > ny in ae oir), hn 20) + «2(8) (23,14) «(3 - where 2(0) is the value of 2(!) wien ¢ = 0.$ The process may be repeated qo find the higher derivatives by replacing 2() in (23,14) by #(), and so on. ‘The result is +eE (23,15) 4 Lathe twoctded Laplace transform, tho lowe limit of tha itogral is — <0 instead of sro 756 void ambiguity whan dontng with ep function, ¢ = 0 should always be intorpeted aa = OF. Table 23 Laplace Transforms =o 7 1 a) 1a 1 2} ween en | tern L ‘ a0) ee neem | erage ‘ : 1 3 5 “ 1 ° sina coset u fate | tear 6 conhat | etainnse | etcoae o oe aw s2(s) — (0) #0 aoe 2s — a) 16 Dynamics of atmonpheric fight TRANSFORM OF AN INTEGRAL ‘The transform of an integral can readily be found from that derived above for a derivative, Let the integral be y= f ‘x(t dt and lot it be required to find (0). By differentntng with respect to wo get faa whence | sa(6) — 00) and go) =4a + 240 (2316) EXTREME VALUE THEOREMS Equation (2.3,14) may be rowritien as 40) + 206) = [emeenae "eat at We now take the limit, s+ 0 while 2 is held constant, ie — x0) + sa(o) = im [tim evan a Jim a0) dt = lim [2(7) — 2(0)) ax{6) = lim x(7) aoe ' 3.7 This col, known aa the final ele trem, provides w ready mena for determining the saympoti alu of) fo lage tines from the valu of Laplace transform. ‘he'snilor way, by taking th limit «> coat constant 7, the inegral anishes for ll ite (0) and eg the nid vale harem 0) (23,18) lim 93(3) Analytical tools 17 2.4 APPLICATION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ‘The Laplace transform finds one of its most important uses in the theory of linear differential equations. The commonest application in airplane ‘dynamics is to ordinary equations with eonstant coefficients, The technique for the general ease is given in Seo. 3.2. Here we illustrate it with the simple but important example of « spring-mass-damper system acted on by an external force (Fig, 2.3). The differontial equation of the system is B+ Mud + agte = fio) 4a) the viseous resistance per unit mass, c/m, «1 is the spring rate por ass, Em, and J) is the external foree per snit mass, ‘The Laplace tw, unit | satan stn A C —Viscous damper, © [ow ae transform of (2.4,1) is formed by multiplying Usrough by € term by term from zero to infinity. "This gives 21a) + Mw. Lle] + 02 PE] = LO] (242) ‘Upon using the results of Seo, 2.3, this equation may be written and intograting SE + Mugs + age = f+ 20) + 3x10) + 20,210) (243) oe 2) LEH + (0 + Boel0) F + Mos + ot esa) ‘The original differential equation (24,1) has been converted by the trars. formation into the algebraic equation (24,3) which is easily solved (2.4,4) to find the transform of the unknown function. In the numerator of the right-hand side of (2.4,4) we find a term depondont on the excitation (j), fand terms dependent on the initial conditions [2(0) and 2(0)]. The denomi- nator is the characlristic polynominal of the system. As exemplified here, finding the Laplace transform of the desired solution 2) is usually a very simple provess. The heart of the problem is the passage from the transform 2(s) to the function 2(). Methods for earrying out the inverse transformation 18 Dynamics of atmospheric fight are described in See. 2.5. Before procoeding to these, however, some general ‘comments on the method are in order. One of the advantages of solving differential equations by the Laplace ‘transform ie that the initial conditions are automatically taken into account. When the inverse transformation of (2.4.4) is carried out, the solution applies for the given forcing function f(t) and the given initial conditions. By contrast, when other methods are used, « general solution is usually ‘obtained which haa in it a number of arbitrary constants. These must sub- soquently be fitted to the initial conditions. This process, although simple in principle, becomes extremely tedious for aystems of order higher than the third. second convenience made possible by the transform method is that in systems of many degroee of freedom, represented by simultaneous differential equations, the solution for any one variable may be found independently of the others, 2.5 METHODS FOR THE INVERSE TRANSFORMATION THE USE OF TABLES OF TRANSFORMS Extensive tables of transforms (like Table 2.3) have been published (sce Bibliography) which are useful in carrying out the inverse process. When the transform involved can be found in the tables, the function x(t) is obtained directly. THE METHOD OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS Tn some cases it ia convenient to expand the transform 2s) in partial 10 that the elements ace all simple ones like those in Table 2.3. ‘The function 2() ean then be obtained simply from the table. We shall demonstrate this procedure with an example. Lot the second-order system ‘of Sec. 24 be initially quiescent, ic. 2(0) = 0, and #(0) = 0, and It it be ‘acted upon by a constant unit force applied at time t = 0, Then f(t) = 1(), nd f(a) = I/s (see Table 2.3). From (24,4), we find that 1 oe (25) 4 Bogs + oa) 39) Tot us assume that the system is aperiodie: ie. that £> 1. Then the roots of the characteristic equation are real and equal to Agente" (2.5.2) Analytical tools 19 Soy 0? — 1) ‘The denominator of 251) can bo written in factored form so that x0). eine ah Now lt (25,8) be expanded in pata faction, 253) Boy ig 5 (8A) (sa) (25,4) By the usual method of equating (2.5,3) and (2.5.4), we find a "Therefore ae) = Was 4 Malay = Ja), Maly — A) 2 a ee By comparing these three terms with items 3 and 8 of Table 2.3, we may write down the solution immediately as 1 Ral 1 Batre f gree BO Ba ad 25051 HEAVISIDE EXPANSION THEOREM When the transform is @ ratio of two polynomials in s, the method r wo polynomials in s, the method of partial fractions ean be generalized. Let a) 0) 30) = De) 20. Dynamics of atmospheric fight where N(s) and D(s) are polyaomials, and the degree of D(s) is higher than that of (6). Let the roots of the characteristic equation Dis) = 0 be ay, 90 that Dis) = 0 ays — a9 (8 = 8) ‘Thon the inverse ofthe teannform is a) =F [P= AN ge (250) 3S ‘The effect of the factor (¢ — a) in the numerator is to eancel out the same factor of the denominator. The substitution s = a, is then madein the reduced expression. ‘In applying this theorem to (2.5;3), we have the three roots a, = 0, ty = Ayo dy — dy, and N(s) = 1, With these roots, (2.55) follows immediately from (25,8). REPEATED ROOTS When two of more of the roots are the same, then the expansion theorem given above fails. For then, after canceling one of the repeated factors from ‘Dis) by the factor (¢ —a,) of the numerator, still another remains and ‘becomes zero when # is set equal to a,, Some particular cases of equal roota ‘reshown in Table 23, items6,7, 11, and 12.’The method of partial fractions, ‘coupled with these entries in the table, suffices to deal conveniently wit ‘moat eases encountered in stability and control work. However, for enses hot conveniently hendled in this way, # goneral formula is available for Gealing with repeated roots, Equation (2.5,6) is used to find that part of the solution which corresponds to single roots. To this is added the solution corresponding to each multiple factor (8 — a,)® of D(s). This ia given by a] Bla) 2.6 RANDOM PROCESS THEORY ‘There are important problems in fight dynamics that involve the response of systems to random inputs, Examples are the motion of an airplane in Analytical tools 21 atmospheric turbulence, aeroclastic buffeting of the tail when it is in the wing wake, and the response of an automatically controlled vehicle to random noise in the command signal. The method of describing these random functions is the heart of the engineering problom, and determines which features of the input and the response are singled out for attention. The treatment of such functions is the subject matter of generalized harmonic analysis, It is not our intention to present a rigorous treatment of this involved subject here. However, a few of the more important aspects are digeussed, with emphasis on the physical interpretation. STATIONARY RANDOM VARIABLE Consider a random variable u(t), as shown in Fig. 2.4, The average value of u(t) over the interval (I; — 7} to (fy + 7) depends on the mid-time f,, and wo Pio, 24 Random variable, the interval width, 1 pwr, 2 [wa 26,1 i. 6a) ‘The function is said to have a stationary mean value @ if the li fas 7+ co is independent of t,: ie, it of wt, 7) im Lf yy at (2.6.2) rent Jy If, in addition, all other statistical properties of w(t) are independent of f, then itis a stationary random variable. We shall be concerned here only with such functions, and, moreover, only with the deviation »(?) from the mean, (see Fig. 24). The average value of w(t) is zero. 22 Dynamics of atmospheric fight ENSEMBLE AVERAGE In the above discussion, the tim: average of a single function was used. Another important kind of avorago ia the ensemble average. Imagine that the physical situation that produced the random variable of Fig. 24 has been repeated many times, a0 that » large number of records are available as in Fig. 25, Sample wo. 0 Bre. 28 omble of random varia Analytical tools 23 ‘The ensemble average correspénding to the particular time fis expressed in terms of the samples w(t) a8 cute Him atm) tin © ay) + 6) m4 (28) If the process is stationary, (u()) = (u) independent of , The proces is ssid tobe egodicit the ensemble and time average are the ame, i (0) ‘This willbe the case, for example, ithe records are obtained from « single physical aystom with random starting conditions. In this book we are con. cerned only with stationary ergodic processes HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF ¥(1) ‘The deviation v(t) may be represented over the interval —7' to 7 (t, having been set equal to zero) by the real Fourier series (23,12), or by i complex counterpart (2.3,2). Since v(t) has « zero mean, then from (2.3,12) Ay = 0. Since (28,124) shows that By also is zero, it follows from (2.3,12b) that C, = 0 too. The Fourier series representation consists of replacing the ‘ctual function over the specified interval by the sum of an infinite set of sine and cosine waves—ie, we have a spectral representation of x(0), The ‘amplitudes end frequencies of the individuel components can be portrayed by aline spectrum, asin Fig. 2.6. The lines are uniformly spaced st the interval = »/7, the fundamental frequency corresponding to the interval 27. ‘The function described by the Fourier series is periodic, with period 27, while the random funetion we wish to represent ie not periodie. Nevertheless, ‘good approximation to itis obtained by taking a very large interval 27. ‘This makes the interval «, very amall, and the spectrum lines become more densely packed. If this procedure is carried to the limit 77> co, the coefficients Ay, By, Cy all tend to zero, and this method of spectral representation of 2() fails. This limiting process is just that which leads to the Fourier integeal (eee 2.34 to 23,6) with the limiting value of C,, leading to C(w) aa shown by (23,18). A random variable over the range co <1 < eo does not eatialy the condition for C(w) to exist as « point function of «. Nevertheless, aver ny infinitesimal de there is welldefined average value, which allows a proper representation in the form of the Foutier-Stieltjes integral (26,4) It may be regarded simply as the limit of the eum (2.3.2) with noy > @ sand C,—+ de, Rquation (26,4) states that we may conceive of the function 24 Dynansies of atmompherie fight LM. Q at i Pras, ¢ La Dh. ’ 1a, 2.6 Line spectra of «function, H(t) as being made up of an infisite sum of elementary spectral component each of bandwidth di, of the form e%', ie, sinusoidal and of amplitude de If the derivative de/de existed, it would be the C(w) of (2.3.4). CORRELATION FUNCTION ‘The correlation function (or covariance) of two functions ot) and 0,() is defined a8 Ral) (outinat +) (265) i.e, as the average (ensemble or time) of the product of the two variables ‘with time separation x. If y(t) = v4() itis ealled the autocorrelation, otherwise itis the erosscorrelation. If r = 0 (2.6,5) reduces to Rul) = Cee) 26,6) Analytioa! tools 25 and the autocorrelation to Ry) = (048) = 9 ean A nondimensional form of R(x) is the correlation coefficient Ryo) (2.68) where # indicates the root-mean-square (rms) value, Vet. It is obviously: true from symmetry considerations that, for stationary processes, Iy(r) Ry(—7), ie. the autocorrelation is an even function of r. It ie also generally true that for random variables, Ry(r)—+ 0 as 7» o. It is clear from the definition (2.6,6) that interchanging the order of » and 0 is equivalent to changing the sign of +. That is Ruls) = Ba—7) (2.632) If Rag in an even function of r, then Ry(r) = Ryg(—2) andl Ryle) = Ral itis an odd function of r, then Ry(r) = — Ral— ‘Phe most goneral case is a sum of the form Rule) = Rudhoven + Ra(Dota (2.680) ‘whence Rule) = Ral SPECTRUM FUNCTION ‘The spectrum function is by defini the Fourier integral of Ry(r), be Ease oo iit at tienes [Od eo special case of (2.6,10), ie R400) = [u(y do or by virtue of 26,7) (0) do (2.6) 26 Dynamics of atmaspherie ight fuyfends Fo. 2.7. Spocteum function ‘Thus the area under the curve of the epectrum function gives the mean- ‘square value of the random variable, and the area («) du gives the con: tuibution of the elemental bandwidth du (see Fig. 2.7) In order to see the connection between the spectrum function and the harmonic analysis, consider the mean square of a function represented by Fourier series, i. y= 2 (7 Hen) = 5 now Ef (Esssornes + myansod) x ( 34,208 mol + sin mart) a Because of the orthogonality property of the trigonometric funetions, all the integrals vanish except those eontaining 4,* and B,3, 0 that, Fa Sas 4 3) (26,12) From (2,120), 4,3 + #,? = 4 10,2, whence Sac, (28,13) where the * denotes, as usual, the conjugate complex number. ‘The physical significance of |C,[? is clear. It is the contribution to that comes from the spoctral component having the frequency na. We may rewrite this contribution as orc, ey on (2.6.14) Analytical tools 27 Now writing w= 6a and interpreting Jo as the contribution from the band width (n = j)uy < a < (n+ Hy, we have 838 = Fos by (26,15) ‘The summation of these contributions for all n is and by comparison with (2.6,11) we may identify the spectral density as, ®,(0) =m SE (26,16) ‘More generally, for the cross apectrum of v, and v4; (2.617) Now in ma power, a8 when v isthe current wire or the pressure in «plane acoustic wave. Generalizing fom sich examples, %@) is often called. the instantancous power, the average power, and ®,,(0) the power epectral density, By analogy (a) i often termed the crows power apetral density From (26,8), and the aymmetry propertien of Ry given by (2.68), and by noting that the real and imaginary parts of "are aso respectively even and od in +i follows easly that (0) = O8(0) 6,178) ‘The result given in (26,17) is sometimes expressed in terms of F forms of truncated functions function ior trans. 8 follows. Let v,(t; 7) denote the truncated ati) =o) fore] <7 e(l:P)=0 fort > 7 (26.18) ander) = [Taesmema=[Toxnema 26.) be the associated Fouri Table 2.1 ( transform. Comparing (2.6,19) with (23,1) in nay) we see that (2.6,20) ,(0) (2.6.21) 28 Dynamics of atmospheric fight On substitution of wy = m/T’ and © = nap, this becomes finally, 2 =im 1 ro: 2W 40:0) on) row ‘The spocial caso of power spectral density is given by @, 4a) = rt a Bim pos THE (26,228) CORRELATION AND SPECTRUM OF A SINUSOID ‘The autocorrelation of a sine vave of amplitude a and frequency Q is given by tim © [" sin Sesin (+ Oya 0 2 br iy y [Afar integrating and taking the Timi, the rel i th eos Ror) (7) =< c08 Or 2.6,23) Rls) =F eos 0 (26.28) Te follows that the spectrum function is 1/2 times the Fourier transform of (2.6,23), which from Table 2.2 ia Oe) = £ (ew +O) + Ho — OY) (26,280) ive. a pair of epikes at frequencies +02 PROBABILITY PROPERTIES OF RANDOM VARIABLES ‘An important goal in the study of random processes is to predict the probability of a given event—for example, in fight through turbulence, the ‘occurrence of a given bank angle, or vertical acceleration. In order to achieve this aim, mote information ie needed than has been provided above in the spectral representation of the process and we must go to a probabil description. Consider an infinite set of values of v(,) sampled over an infinite ensemble of the function. The amplitude distribution or probability density of this set is then expressed by the function fio), Fig. 28a, defined such that the lim fv) Av is the fraction of all the samples that fall in the range Aw. ‘This fraction is then given by the area of the strip shown. Tk follows that [love = (2624 Analytical toole 39 fo) @ ae . Pe 19}§-—— Fic. 2.8 Distribution functions. (a) Probabity density function. (8) Cusmlat Tw. 2D i) function. (8) Cumlativo ‘The cumulative distribution ia given by Fe) =] sey do (2.6,240) and is illustrated in Fig, 2.80, The ordinate at P gives the fraction of all the samples that have values v

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