Chapter 11- Evolution of Genus Homo

The closer we get in time to us, the more fossils we have the more intense the debates get over
interpretations. Debates revolve around taxonomic classification of fossils, debates over genus
and species designations. As with Ch 10 you do not need to know all of the species names, you
need to know the names which are underlined/bolded. I want you to have a broad overview rather
than memorize details.

Nature of Genus Homo

Genus Homo- : large brained, omnivorous hominid, with refined bipedalism

1. Compare the differences for the description of the genus Homo, Australoithecus and
Paranthropus. What are the key differences in- geographic location, timeframe, adaptations both
biological and cultural?

Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and early Homo habilis - below the neck are very similar.
Paranthropus outcompetes Australopithecus with its larger molars and chewing muscles
(in a dryer environment). Homo habilis outcompetes other species with larger brains and
making and using stone tools

2. What are the taxonomic debates over how old we are as a species and how many species exist
in our genus?

3. What species likely made Oldewan tools? How are the tools made and what are they used for?

Here's a brief outline of Early Homo. You need to know the species underlined and general
information.

“Early Homo” 2.3 –1.44 mya, found in East and South Africa.

Homo habilis - Below the neck: body is similar to Australopithecus, longer arms and shorter legs
(versus H. sapiens having longer legs and shorter arms). Height ranges from 4 to 5 feet, weight
70-115 lbs. Above the neck: face a bit less prognathus, bit less sloping forehead, no sagittal crest,
brain size 680 avg. ml (range 500-800ml). Ongoing questions about how sexually dimorphic the
species is. Associated with Oldewan Tool Tradition.

Homo rudolfensis: similar features to H. habilis. This species name was given to fossils found in
East Turkana, Kenya. Some see them as different enough to warrant a new species name.

4. There is ongoing taxonomic debate as to whether or not early Homo should be included in our
genus or in Australopithecus. What are the two reasons H. hablilis has been included in our
genus?
5. Did H. habilis process scavenged meat at home bases or did they utilize stone caches (places
where stone tools were made and kept)? What data do we have to analyze this question?

6. What did taphonomic analysis reveal in regards to lower leg bones found at the sites where
Oldewan tools are found? Was H. habilis likely a hunter or a scavenger?

7. Competitive Exclusion led to early Homo outcompeting Australopithecus, and Paranthropus

species. What is competitive exclusion and what is the likely reason early Homo survived and the
other two genus died out?

8. What are the adaptive themes of bipedalism which we see in hominid evolution?

Middle Homo has two species associated with it. There is an ongoing taxonomic debate between
the lumpers (who emphasize similarities, and fewer species) and splitters (emphasize differences,
and more species) as to how many species the fossils represent.

Homo erectus: 1.8mya to 100,000 (and some debated early fossils to 27,000), found in Africa,
Southeast Asia, China, and Europe (artifacts). Features of middle Homo include; bigger brains,
more complex behaviors and increasing reliance on culture (complex stone tools, fire, social
organization, mating patterns). Some H. erectus populations travel out of Africa quite early.
Above the neck, the skull has heavy brow ridges, reduced prognathism, and a sloping forehead.
Brain size: 980 ml average, but sizes range from 800-1250ml. Below the neck they are modern
looking, with a modern gait for bipedalism. Sizes range from 5 to 6 ft., 100lbs+, sexual dimorphism
is thought to be reduced. They developed a more advanced tool technology, Auchulian Tools

Homo eragaster: some put these fossils, found in Africa, as a separate species from H. erectus.
There is ongoing debate about these taxonomic designations. .

9. Is there such a thing as a missing link? What is the confusion over the idea of a missing link?
(hint: what is the difference between seeing evolution a straight line with one species evolving into
another or as a tree, branching from a common ancestor- and which model is correct)?

10. What are the Zhoukoudian finds? Know; genus/species of finds, key data from the site,
timeframe of occupation of site.

11. Why did H. erectus leave Africa? What behavioral and/or physical features allowed them to be
able to leave?

12. What is the Pleistocene? When did it occur? Did it likely affect hominin evolution?

13. What are the two plausible explanations as to the early migrations of H. erectus? What is
Park's perspective?

14. What is found at the Dmanisi site? What are the discussions surrounding these finds in
regards to the early migration of hominids out of Africa?
15. H. erectus made Acheulian Tools. Know; general description of the tools, timeframe found,
how they are made, and how they were likely used.

16. When were hominids first able to use and make fire? Know the following; When did hominids
first make and use fire and what evidence is used to support this date? What are the benefits of
fire (be specific)?

17. When did humans start birthing such helpless, dependent infants and how did this likely affect
social organization? Consider chimp infants are born able to cling to their mothers and begin
walking very early compared to the big headed human infants who can’t even roll over for months.

18. What are the pros and cons of larger brains? Consider the pros and cons in the context of
natural selection and fitness. What are the benefits and costs with fitness (differential reproductive
success) as the criteria for big brained infants (who are basically still gestating outside the womb)?

Archaic Homo sapiens : This section involves ongoing contested taxonomic classifications. The
closer we get to our time, we find more fossils, the fossils are more widely distributed over the
world (on three different continents) and DNA analysis adds more data to the mix. You need to
know the species that are underlined for this section.

Homo antecessor: Spain, 1.2mya- 780,000. Found in northern Spain, Atapuerca Hills. Two sites
Gran Dolina and Sima del Elefante. Fossils are variable in their features, ranging from modern to
more primitive. Simple stone tools found with earliest finds to more complex tools, but none as
advanced as Acheulian tools.

Homo heidlbergensis: Found in Asia, Europe, Africa. Dated from 700,000-200,000. Above the
neck; larger brain size, average 1300ml, steeper foreheads reflect increase in forebrain (associated
with higher level thought, decision making). Associated with Levallois Tool Tradition: “prepared
core” careful preparation of core to produce desired flake shape, more specialized purpose tools.

19. What is found at the Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos (pit of bones) site (include all fossils
discussed)?

Homo neanderthalensis (Neandertals): 225,000-36,000 Europe, Croatia, Iraq, Israel (275+

individuals). Skull: sloped forehead, back of skull broad, large discontinuous brow ridges, large
face, slightly prognathus, receding chin, large sinus cavities, Brain size: 1480 avg. (1200-1740),
Body: robust, stocky, muscular, 5’3”-5’6”, Mousterian Tool: elaboration of Levallois, careful
retouching of flakes, up to 63 tool types

20. What have been the paradigm shifts of Neandertals over time? What caused the views of
Neandertals to change over time?

21. Is the robusticity of the Neandertals due to their physically demanding lives or were their
robust bodies inherited? What data can be used to answer this question?
22. What type of environment were Neandertals adapted to? How did this environment shape
them physically?

23. What is the Mousterian Tool tradition? How did they make these tools and how did they use
the tools?

Debates about the nature of Neandertals, and how similar or different they are to humans are
ongoing. When comparing humans to Neandertals we often use a fairly optimistic, positive view of
humanity for our comparison. For instance, we see our species as marked by big brains and
intelligence, being humane- loving, and compassionate while we tend to minimize our species
aggressive, violent nature. Know the debates about the following for Neandertals:

24. Burial of the dead- Did Neandertals bury their dead? What is the evidence?

25. Care for elderly and disabled- Did the Neandertals care for the elderly and the disabled? What
evidence is available to answer this question?

26. Cognitive abilities- How smart were Neandertals? What evidence do we have to answer this
question (consider- fossils, tools, DNA).

27. Violence, aggression, and cannibalism- What is the evidence for Neandertals being a violent,
aggressive species? For engaging in cannibalism?

28. Language- Did Neandertals have language or just communication? What data can be used to
discuss this question?

Modern Humans- For this section we are looking at Homo sapiens, our species. These fossils are
also referred to as Early Modern Homo sapiens or Early Paleolithic Peoples, but they are all Homo
sapiens. H. sapiens are found in Africa, Asia, Europe and later Australia and the America's.

Upper Paleolithic Peoples and the Upper Paleolithic Revolution: Between 70,000- 30,000 yrs ago
the fossil record reveals an uptick in sophisticated, highly differentiated tools. Tools that are works
of art, and besides stone, the use of bone, antler and ivory. There is evidence for sophisticated
hunting strategies, from using a pointed stick, to sticks with stone points (from using them in hand
to throwing them), much later we see bow and arrows (17k~), net hunting, and running game off
cliffs. Food resources are expanded, and rivers/oceans are utilized as a food source. Artwork
proliferates, cave art and figurines, burials with artifacts, musical instruments, personal
adornment/jewelry, etc.

There is ongoing debate as to whether this was a sudden, cultural transformation or is it that we
just haven't found the fossils and artifacts to reveal a gradual transition? There are a lot of
questions as to why humans cultural and symbolic behaviors take off at this time. Is it related to
some physical change (was a mutation or series of mutations in the brain), or environmental
causation (environment change often spurs cultural change), and/or culture (travel, and
interactions with other groups can spur cultural change)?
29. When do we find anatomically modern fossils? What are key physical features we find, above
the neck, that distinguish these fossils? When and where do we find the first fully modern H.
sapiens?

30. When is art (paintings, figurines, decorations) first found in the fossil record? Art takes time
and resources that are not being used for survival. What does the presence of art, burials, etc. tell
us about these hominids?

31. How does the tool technology change? What tools do they develop? How do they use these
tools? When do we first find decorated tools? What materials do they use to create these tools?

32. What is found at the Denisova Cave? What three species left evidence of their presence, and
what were the timeframes? What is the genetic data from these finds?

Homo denisovans: Found March, 2010. Very limited fossil date (finger bone and teeth), but
researchers were able to extract mitochondrial DNA from the fossil remains and were surprised to
find it was an entirely new species. Some modern human populations, in Melanesia and South
Pacific have some 4-6% of H. denisovan DNA in them. Analysis of modern humans shows
European and Asian populations may have 1-5% of Neandertal DNA in them.

Homo Naledi: Found 2015 in South Africa, Rising Star Cave System. Remains of some 15
individuals, and some 1550 individual fossils found. There is likely to be more finds at the site, and
analysis and research is ongoing. Their bodies are similar in size and some features to
Australopithecus, but aspects of the feet, legs, and ankles are more modern looking. The fossils
are located at the end of a long, narrow tube like passage (only small, slim humans can make their
way into the cave), a very difficult place to get to. These finds are remarkable and hotly disputed
because Lee Berger put them in the genus Homo with such small brains. He did so because his
hypothesis is that these individuals were dumped into the cave, in some sort of basic burial. There
are no other animal remains that we would expect to see. The cave is very difficult to get to,
animals would not be likely to wander into it nor would hominin's. Dating is ongoing at the site and
initial estimates are 236,000-335,000 yrs ago.

The Debate over Modern Human Origins- This is a big debate in physical anthropology. You need
to know the basis of the debate and the data and reasoning used to support each model.

(MRE) Multiregional Evolution Model-

33. How old does this model say we are as a species? How many species existed? Where did
we originate per this model?

34. What is the assumption about gene flow in this model?

(AR) African Replacement Model

35. How old does this model say we are as a species? How many species have existed? Where
did we originate per this model?

36. What does this model state about competitive exclusion (what happens where there are two or
more similar species co-existing in the same area)?
Debate over Origin of Modern H. sapiens
37. What does the fossil record say about these two models? Are fossils the best evidence to
make a conclusion about the two models? Why or why not?

38. What does the archeological record say about these two models? Is the archeological record
useful in coming to a conclusion about the two models? Why or why not?

39. What do genetic studies say about these two models? Is the genetic data useful in coming to
a conclusion about the two models? Why or why not?

40. What insight does evolutionary theory give in regards to these two models? What is Park’s
conclusion as to the two models?

Contemporary Reflections- “Homo” floresiensis: 100,000- 60,00 dates for fossil finds. Found Island
of Flores, Indonesia. Stone tools found dated from 190,000 to 50,00yrs. Remains of up to nine
individuals. What is remarkable is their size, these are small hominins, 3 feet tall, with small ape
sized brains, but found with stone tools that were used in hunting pgymy elephants, and control of
fire (fairly advanced behaviors).

41. What was found on Flores and why are these fossils put in the genus Homo? Is it due to their
physical features or the behaviors associated with them?

42. What data can be used to answer the question, "Are the fossils an anomaly (a rare, unusual
fossil) or do they represent a small population of hominin's"?

Chapter 12 - Evolution and Adaptations in Human Populations

1. Can you define evolution? (see Ch 4 ppts). Evolutionary theory states that when we see a
change in allele frequencies we can attribute it to one or more of the processes of evolution.
What are the four processes of evolution (Ch 4 ppt)?

2. Which processes of evolution are random and which are directional (ch 4 ppts)?

3. What is biocultural evolution (Ch 4) What is the example of biocultural evolution from Ch 4? As
you read over Ch 12, what are other examples of how our culture and biology interact?

4. From gene flow we have the concept of populations. What is a population in gene flow (ch 4
ppts)? Does gene flow exchange traits between populations? Does this work to keep populations
more similar?

5. How has evolution shaped our bodies over time in response to environmental variables?
Consider the examples of temperature, UV radiation, and altitude. How have human populations
changed in relationship to these environments?

6 How have hot and cold climates affected human evolutionarily? Specifically what do we see in
population traits in hot climates? What do we see with cold climates and body shape and size?
How does climate affect head and nose shape?
7. Skin color is a polygenic trait (Ch 3 ppts- and terns from Ch 3). How does the genotype for skin
color affect the phenotype of skin color? What other factor affects the phenotype of skin color?

8. What is the relationship between skin color and latitude? Specifically address; UV radiation,
skin color, folic acid. Ultraviolet light varies with latitude. What latitudes have less UV radiation?

9. Can skin color affect reproductive fitness? Does this vary with environment?

10. Human populations around the world have the same number of melanocytes. What leads to
different skin colors (genetics, environment)?

11. When humans moved into more northern latitudes skin color becomes lighter. What process
of evolution would select for a trait (like skin color) in relationship to fitness?

12. What factors led to the selection for lighter skin colors? Specifically address; UV radiation,
vitamin D production, rickets.

13. Mammals have the ability to digest lactose when they are young. Is the lactase enzyme active
throughout the entire life of most hominin's? What is the role of the lactase enzyme?

14. When we discuss the environment, we are looking at everything from the climate, to seasonal
variation, to an organisms adaptations (biological and cultural). In what type of environment is it
advantageous to have the lactase enzyme active into adulthood?

15. Are all variations adaptively important? What does the case example of the ABO blood system
reveal?

16. It has been said that we are a humancentric species. We think of everything in terms of how it
affects us (as opposed to us being one species among millions). Has this biased our perspective
on diseases?

17. What cultural adaptations allowed for the Black Death (caused by the bubonic plague) to
decimate Europe between 1347-1352? Did the Spanish conquer the Aztecs with military might
alone? What role did disease play between these two populations?

18. For some 99% of our history as a species we existed in small, nomadic bands which survived
through foraging and hunting. Were infectious diseases a big threat during this time?

19. How do human lives change with the first epidemiological transition? What has changed with
the environment (cultural adaptations)? When did this transition take place?

20. How do human lives change with the second epidemiological transition? What has changed
with the environment (cultural adaptations)? When did this transition take place?
21. How do human lives change with the third epidemiological transition? What has changed with
the environment (cultural adaptations)? When did this transition take place?

22. What are the positives and negatives of adopting agriculture as a way of life in regards to
health? Are the pros and cons of agriculture equally distributed among a population?

23. How does an understanding of evolutionary theory give us insight into the third epidemiological
transition?

24. How many infectious diseases emerged between 1940-2004? How many were caused from
nonhuman animal sources? How many of these were from wildlife?

25. As you've learned this semester, diseases change and evolve over time. The history of
HIV/AIDs is a good example of biocultural evolution. How our biology is affected by our culture
(environment). What human activities have made us more susceptible to the spread of HIV/AIDS?
How does an understanding of evolutionary theory give insight into the changes in HIV/AIDS?

26. Consider the media panic that went on in regards to the Ebola virus and the Zika virus. How
does a knowledge of disease transmission and evolutionary theory give us insight into what
diseases we should really be concerned about?

Contemporary Reflections- Are there Jewish diseases? Are there Black pharmaceuticals?

27. In Ch 13 you will learn that there are no separate biological races in our species, but we do live
in different populations (remember gene flow, where we’re likely to get our mate from). Since there
is no such thing as discrete races in Homo sapiens, why are the questions above being asked?

28. Are there diseases that only affect some human populations? Or is it more that some
diseases affect some populations more than others? Does Tay Sachs only affect Eastern
European Jews? Does Sickle Cell only affect West Africans? Why are these populations the focus
when we talk about these diseases?

29. What might be the role of the founder effect (Gene Drift- fission/founder effect from Ch 4) be in
the prevalence of these diseases in certain populations?

30. What is the problem with the use of "racial pharmacogenomics" in the development and
prescription of drugs? Is this knowledge important to you in your life? How common do you think it
is that assumptions are made as to someone's ancestry/ethnicity which are incorrect and/or
culturally biased? Have you ever had your ethnicity incorrectly assumed?

31. Does the profit motive affect the development and use of drugs by the pharma industry? Is
evidence based science used in the development and administering of prescription drugs?

Ch 13 -Human Biological Diversity

The quote it the introduction to the chapter states " scrutiny of the actual facts shows...there are
only three primary colors…to the human body.” This class is based on science- what constitutes
science, and how to be scientifically literate. What is a fact? What rises to the level of scientific
knowledge? How do we be scientifically literate? How do we distinguish between science and
pseudoscience (and conspiracies)? Being scientifically literate is an ongoing process- it requires
critical thinking skills, being aware of positionality and paradigm bias, knowing the value of peer
review, etc.

Ch 1 discusses facts- facts are understandings that have been verified to such a degree it is
unlikely they will ever be overturned. Facts are not opinions, but rest on testing, and peer review.
The world is round, is a fact. However we have a number of flat earther groups that are rising in
popularity. To not accept such a basic, testable bit of data is to deny facts, objective data and
science.

In this chapter we look at human biological diversity. We will see that paradigms, and positionality
bias have greatly impacted our understanding of the facts of human biological diversity. Key to this
chapter is understanding the biological data (facts, objective) and the cultural data (political,
economic systems, values, norms, religions, etc- subjective). In Ch 8 study guide and ppt we
looked at Thomas Kuhn's observations on the way science operates in human societies. Scientists
are trained to be objective, but they are always subjective to some degree. Science is an open
system of knowledge and continual testing and peer review works to keep science honest.
Science is self-correcting. However, as we’ve learned there is often strident opposition to science,
if it contradicts peoples assumptions and ideologies about the world.

This chapter will look at how sex and race have historically been characterized as absolute,
essential and discrete categories that define humans, but objective analysis reveals they are
created, cultural categories that exist on a continuum of continuous variation. .

1. Does race exist on a biological level? What is real in regards to race?

2. Jonathan Marks is quoted in the notes for Ch 8. Marks states we do not objectively categorize
the world around us, our culture always affects our categories. How is the racial categorization of
humans an example of this? The fact that different cultures categorize race differently is an
example of the subjective or objective nature of categorizations (taxonomies)?

Human biological diversity is often assumed to be discrete. To be discrete is to have clear,

absolute categories with no ambiguity. Categorizing people into categories based on the ABO
blood system would be discrete categorizing, you’re either A, AB, B or O phenotype. Categorizing
people into categories based on skin color would be subjective based on variable criteria- are there
3 colors, 5, or 100? Human skin color is continuously variable, and any categories rely on arbitrary
criteria.

Sex, Gender identity/expression, Sexuality

Sex, gender identity, gender expression and sexual orientation are categories which are often
assumed to be discrete and binary (either female or male) but the biological and cultural data does
not support this assumption. In both human biology and cultures worldwide we see a range of
continuous variation for these. The four categories are also often assumed to be connected, that
someone's sex is connected to their gender identity/expression, and/or to their sexuality. In
American mainstream culture the four categories are often inaccurately conflated. That someone’s
gender expression (non-binary for example) is linked to sexuality (bisexual). These may be linked,
but it is individually variable.

Sex is a biological category. The three major criteria used to categorize sex are; 1) chromosomes,
2) reproductive organs, and 3) secondary sex traits.

3. What is the data on chromosomes, are all humans either XX or XY? (Ch 4, Ch 13 ppt)

4. What is the data on reproductive organs, do all humans have only, either female or male
reproductive organs? (Ch 4 and Ch 13 ppt)

5. What is the data on secondary sex traits, do all humans have either discrete female or male
traits? (Ch 4 and Ch 13 ppt)

6. Based on the above data can we biologically divide humans into two (binary), discrete
categories of women and man, using the three criteria above?

Agustin Fuentes (physical anthropologist) states the differences between females and males in
regards to reproductive organs and external genitalia are a matter of degree not kind (they exist on
a continuum of variation not as discrete, binary categories). The same embryonic tissues masses
give rise to both female and male genitalia.

Richard Robbins (cultural anthropologist) writes of how in the USA, patriarchy has affected the
view of females biologically and has made them lesser persons in the eyes of the law. Women's
rights to control their bodies have been circumscribed by law (the choice to reproduce offspring or
not). Women have historically been denied the right to vote, to work, to marry/divorce, to control
their finances, etc. Park observes women were denied education because they were viewed as
biologically inferior, as less intelligent, etc.

Individuals rights have been denied or granted based on the group a person is labeled as coming
from. To be designated female, or male has real world consequences under the law. To have the
right to be labeled non-binary, inter-sex, trans-gendered or trans-sexual have all been allowed or
denied under the law. These rights are granted or denied based on assumptions of facts and
ideologies, values of a culture.

What are the facts and what are the ideologies/beliefs? Facts are objective data and
ideologies/beliefs are subjective. It is important to be able to distinguish between the two- are we
going to grant or deny rights based on facts and/or on ideologies/beliefs? Ongoing testing, data
collection, peer review correcting for positionality bias, have lead to clearer understandings of
human biological variation. Everyone has a right to their own opinions (but not their own facts). At
FC the values of our college are that everyone has a right to be treated fairly, and with equity, and
everyone has the right to self-identify as they chose (sex, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, etc.).

7. Are discussions of categorization of purely academic interest? What are real world
consequences to the way in which human variation is classified?
Gender is a cultural/social category that is overlaid onto the category of sex. Ideas of gender,
cultural expectations for behaviors, appearance, etc. have varied widely over time and by culture.
Park notes that gender is a folk taxonomy (category based on cultural values and norms). Cross-
culturally and historically gender has not always been perceived as discrete binary opposites
(female and male), but has often been seen as a continuum (with alternative genders, non-binary
genders, etc)).

Historically many cultures have had three or four gender roles. The colonization and
missionization of cultures around the world led to the denial of variable categories for gender. The
three major monotheistic faiths of Abraham (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) have tended to view
human biological diversity as binary for sex and this view has been imposed on cultures around the
world. However, anthropological research has found the cultural acceptance of variable gender
roles has been fairly common. For instance, Native American cultures had Two Spirits, individuals
who take on an alternate gender role in relationship to their perceived biological sex. They can be
females who take on a male gender role or males who take on a female gender role. Note- Park is
incorrect regarding the term berdache. The term berdache is no longer used academically (it is
associated with racist and sexist perspectives).

8. What data and reasoning is used to categorize gender as a folk taxonomy (versus a scientific
taxonomy)?

Race as a biological concept- Park gives four areas of data which invalidate the biological reality of
race as a way to divide humans into categories.

9. Race as a biological concept (area 1)- What data and reasoning is used to undermine the idea
of discrete biological races in Homo sapiens?

10. What is the definition of race in biology? (keep in mind our definition of species from Ch 5)

11. Human Phenotypic Variation (area 2) - What data and reasoning is used to undermine the idea
of discrete biological races in Homo sapiens?

12. What is the difference between a discrete trait and a continuously variable trait?

13. Is there a combination of traits that can be used to discretely categorize humans into
categories?

13. Genetic Variation (area 3)- What data and reasoning is used to undermine the idea of discrete
biological races in Homo sapiens?

14. Evolutionary theory (area 4)- What data and reasoning is used to undermine the idea of
discrete biological races in Homo sapiens?

Human differences versus the Race concept- Humans have always recognized differences
between each other as they traveled around the world. However the way in which these
differences have been categorized has varied widely. The development of science gave rise to
scientific explorations of human difference. Science is ideally an objective, testable means to
understand the world and life on earth. It is only with the rise of science that we have the scientific
idea of race. Humans have always classified other groups as- outsiders, barbarians, even
inhuman, these were subjective, cultural categories. The race concept has been especially
insidious as it had the backing of science. The race concept is an example of human positionality
and paradigm bias but also the open nature and self-correcting nature of science.

The rise of science around the world coincided with a number of worldwide events- massive
enslavement of West Africans, colonization of peoples from Africa, America’s, Asia by Europeans,
genocide of indigenous groups, etc. However the development of racial concepts varied a great
deal in each nation. See the ppt slides on England, Brazil and the USA, each have variable ideas
of race, even though it was supposedly an objective categorization of humans. This gives insight
into paradigm bias.

15. Folk taxonomies emerge in societies in the context of the culture (political and economic
systems, values, etc.). What was the context within which the race concept was developed in the
USA? Was the race concept being used to justify a particular social, political and economic
system?

16. Look at Linnaeus's taxonomy for humans. What positionality and paradigm bias is clearly
reflected in this categorization of humans? Look at the traits listed for each racial group he
identifies- what traits are objectively described and what traits are subjective? To what degree did
positionality bias influence Linnaeus?

Anthropology and the History of Race Studies

When Thomas Jefferson called on science to examine human variation in the America's, it wasn't
an open call for the truth. It was asked by a man, raised on a plantation, in which he Whites had
political, social and economic power and Indigenous Peoples, and Africans were denied basic
human rights. His paradigm of the world was greatly influenced by his environment. The history of
the race concept is a great lesson in how science works. Science is ideally objective, but it is done
by subjective scientists, existing in a particular cultural system.

17. How does the race example reveal the self-correcting nature of science? How does the race
example reveal the myth of objectivity surrounding science?

18. According to Franz Boas what explained the differences in achievement among cultures? Do
you think ideas of achievement are universal? Do all cultures value the same things? Consider
what is achievement- technology, social equality, organization, universal health care, capitalist or
socialist economic system, etc.?

19. What is the difference between the race concept, and racism?
Eugenics: Eugenics is the improvement of the species through selective breeding. Eugenics
promotes the breeding of individuals with positive traits and stopping the breeding of those with
negative traits. Hitler launched a eugenics movement in Europe, and he got his ideas of race and
eugenics from American and British scientists. The USA had eugenics laws on the books from the
1920's-1970's and tens of thousands of individuals were forcibly sterilized. The ideas of race (and
positive and negative traits) were also applied to immigration policies. These are examples of real
world consequences.

20. The eugenics movements in human history are based on what racial and biological
assumptions? What cultural values are they based on?

21. Does Park state the race concept is invalid scientifically because it goes against his values, or
because it is bad science?

22. What is IQ? Why is it bad science to reify IQ?

23. Do IQ tests measure innate mental ability? What is the data on this?

24. Do test scores reveal an individuals overall ability or their performance on one event? What is
the difference between ability and performance?

25. Can race and IQ be linked? There are two assumptions that this idea rests on- 1) that race is
a valid concept biologically, 2) that IQ is something we can define and measure.

26. What does it mean that sports have a social selection?

27. Are there variable human phenotypic traits linked to geography and athletic ability?

28. What is the problem with using exceptional individuals to make generalizations about a
particular population of humans?

29. If you had an essay question in which you had to explain how “Race is both a reality and an
illusion” what data could you use to answer it? Hint: to discuss race as an illusion biologically go to
Park's four areas.

30. Can the conflicts in the USA regarding race be understood without an knowledge of the history
of the United States?

The American Anthropology Association (AAA) is the main organization for anthropologists in the
USA. Several years ago they published a statement on the race concept. This is one quote from
that statement “the race concept has been inappropriately used to explain, rationalize, and justify
inequalities among human groups ” “race is a socially constructed category.” You can go to the
American Anthropology Association website and read the entire statement.

Contemporary Reflections: Are Genetic Ancestry Tests Worth the Money?

31. What are the three types of DNA that can be tested?
32. If you chose to test the Y chromosome or mtDNA what percent of your genome are you
testing? Does it give you a good idea of your history?

33. Can genetic ancestry tests tell you your race or ethnicity? Why or why not?

34. So, are they worth the money, or are they just "recreational genetics"?
TEN THINGS EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW ABOUT RACE : (From the PBS video series “Race-
The Power of an Illusion). Our eyes tell us that people look different. No one has trouble
distinguishing a Czech from a Chinese. But what do those differences mean? Are they biological?
Has race always been with us? How does race affect people today? Where did the race concept
originate? Go through the following statements and agree or disagree with each statement and
write down your data and or reasoning that backs up your answer. Once you are done go to the
next page and see the correct answers. How did you do?
1. Race is a modern idea.

2. Race has no genetic basis.

3. Human subspecies (races) don't exist.

4. Skin color really is only skin deep.

5. Most variation is within, not between, "races."

6. Slavery predates race.

7. Race and freedom evolved together.

8. Race justified social inequalities as natural..

9. Race isn't biological, but racism is still real.

10. Colorblindness will not end racism.

Answers to 10 Things everyone should know about race.
1. Race is a modern idea. True. Ancient societies, like the Greeks, did not divide people according
to physical distinctions, but according to religion, status, class, even language. The English
language didn't even have the word 'race' until it turns up in 1508 in a poem by William Dunbar
referring to a line of kings.
2. Race has no genetic basis. True. Not one characteristic, trait or even gene distinguishes all the
members of one so-called race from all the members of another so-called race.
3. Human subspecies (races) don't exist. True. Unlike many animals, modern humans simply
haven't been around long enough or isolated enough to evolve into separate subspecies or races.
Despite surface appearances, we are one of the most similar of all species.
4. Skin color really is only skin deep. True. Most traits are inherited independently from one
another. The genes influencing skin color have nothing to do with the genes influencing hair form,
eye shape, blood type, musical talent, athletic ability or forms of intelligence. Knowing someone's
skin color doesn't necessarily tell you anything else about him or her.
5. Most variation is within, not between, "races." True. 85% of all human variation exists within any
local population, be they Italians, Kurds, Koreans or Cherokees. About 94% of human variation can
be found within any continent. That means two random Koreans may be as genetically different as
a Korean and an Italian.
6. Slavery predates race. True. Throughout much of human history, societies have enslaved
others, often as a result of conquest or war, even debt, but not because of physical characteristics
or a belief in natural inferiority. Due to a unique set of historical circumstances, ours was the first
slave system where all the slaves shared similar physical characteristics.
7. Race and freedom evolved together. True. The U.S. was founded on the radical new principle
that "All men are created equal." But our early economy was based largely on slavery. How could
this anomaly be rationalized? The new idea of race helped explain why some people could be
denied the rights and freedoms that others took for granted. Some people were labeled biologically
different and inferior and therefore not deserving of freedom.
8. Race justified social inequalities as natural. True. As the race idea evolved, white superiority
became "common sense" in America. It justified not only slavery but also the extermination of
Indians, exclusion of Asian immigrants, and the taking of Mexican lands by a nation that professed
a belief in democracy. Racial practices were institutionalized within American government, laws,
and society.
9. Race isn't biological, but racism is still real. True. Race is a powerful social idea that gives
people different access to opportunities and resources. Our government and social institutions
have created advantages that disproportionately channel wealth, power, and resources to white
people. This affects everyone, whether we are aware of it or not.
10. Colorblindness will not end racism. True. Pretending race doesn't exist is not the same as
creating equality. Race is more than stereotypes and individual prejudice. To combat racism, we
need to identify and remedy social policies and institutional practices that advantage some groups
at the expense of others

Chapter 14- Biological Anthropology and Today's World

Forensic Anthropology
1. What is forensic anthropology?
2. What do we know of Otzi? What do we know about; his age at death, how he died, how he
lived, where he lived, what timeframe did he live, what was his health like? Lastly, what was the
process by which knowledge of Otzi was gained, was everything learned about him with one
examination, or is the study of Otzi ongoing?

3. What did Clyde Snow learn from the bones found in Oklahoma City, months after two young
girls disappeared? How did he age, and sex the skeleton? Was his identification of the skeletal
remains absolute or a likely match?

Lessons from the Past

4. What knowledge about our biology, gained from physical anthropology, can be useful in
understanding our waking/sleeping patterns? Is it likely our post lunch tiredness is due to food or a
typical wakefulness/sleep pattern for our species? (Keep in mind, what you eat for lunch does
affect wakefulness, protein based versus carbohydrate based, etc.).

5. Based on James Mckenna's research, would you have your baby sleep with you? What two
factors does Mckenna think might explain SIDS deaths? Anthropology is a holistic discipline.
What comparative data did Mckenna use which gave insight into how cultural practices might affect
rates of SIDS deaths?

6. How can a mismatch between our genetic constitution and our modern lifestyles explain major
chronic illnesses we face? What lifestyle choices might you make to minimize the likelihood you
will experience a chronic illness?

7. Was meat a big part of the diet of earlier hominin's? What is different about the meat they ate?
Note that Park doesn't even mention the antibiotics and drugs we feed our domestic animals. What
is different about the plant foods they ate versus what we eat?

8. What does a comparison of the hypertension rates between African American's in Chicago and
Nigerians reveal about the role of environment? Is the difference due to genes or environment?

9. What does evolution tell us about a healthy environment for our species? Is it easy to have a
healthy lifestyle in our society (access to healthy foods, time to exercise, etc.)?

Bioanthropology and Global Issues

10. What are the two criteria that Park lists to define global issues? What is the role of physical
anthropology in this area?

Park discusses climate change in this section. Like evolutionary theory, there are a number of
people who do not accept the data that science presents. Scientific literacy and acceptance of
science is problematic in the USA. Scientific knowledge starts with facts, then the testing of
hypotheses and ultimately a theory may be generated to explain what is observed.

11. What are the major barriers to people's acceptance of science? Do people doubt the facts of
climate change? And/or do people doubt the hypotheses to explain climate change (and humans
role in climate change)?
12. To what degree does politics, economics and religious beliefs play a role in the lack of
acceptance of science in the USA?

13. What effects have we already seen of climate change? Are we being faced with new
diseases? Are we seeing rising sea levels affecting coastal areas?

14. What role can we play to help alleviate the crisis of climate change?

Contemporary Reflections: What can you do with a degree in bioanthropology?

Many students go to school to gain skills, knowledge and a degree to enter into a particular career
or job. A college degree can be a ticket to a wide variety of jobs. However, many students aren't
sure what they want to do with their lives. I worked in the business world from my late teens till my
early 30's (marketing and real estate). However by my mid-twenties I found that I wasn't happy in
this field and went back to school to see what else I could do. I had gone to community college off
and on for many years and found a lot of things I was interested, but nothing that was my passion.
In my late 20's I took my first anthropology class and I found my passion. Anthropology, with its
holistic, 4 field approach allowed me to pursue my interests utilizing the social sciences, natural
sciences as well as the humanities. I encourage you to find and follow your passion. When we
find our passion(s) it gives us the fortitude to finish a degree and find a path to use that degree.

15. What can you do with a degree in anthropology, or specifically physical or biological
anthropology? Keep in mind people often do not work in the field in which they have a degree,
they gain the skills and knowledge they need to get into a particular field and a general degree may
be required.

If you're interested in anthropology as an educational and career path I recommend going over the
information on careers on the American Anthropology Association website

https://www.americananthro.org/