Annamalai University

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R.DIS – 1
I-V
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Diploma in Industrial Safety
COURSE – I
INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
Annamalai University
Lessons: I – V
Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
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DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

COURSE - I : INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
SYLLABUS
Aim
The course is aimed at making the student to understand the hazards that
happen in various industries and methods of preventing them.
Objectives
On completion of course the students are expected to be familiar with the
techniques of safeguarding the men and machineries in industries.
Unit – I
Nature and types of work places-environmental and ergonomic hazards-
Hazards in Housekeeping-Safety devices and tools (hand and portable)-Safety
instructions during crane operation, welding, manual lifting, stacking, carrying
Unit – II
Workers’ exposure to toxic chemicals and its harmful effects and their control-
TLV’s-Physical and chemical properties of chemicals leading to fire, explosion,
ingestion and inhalation. Control and safeguard from dusts, fumes and vapors in
work spots. Safety measures in the use of gas cylinders.
Unit – III
Hazards in construction industries-stages of project construction-civil and
erection works-working at a height-scaffolds and ladders-field quality procedures
and check lists. Mechanical Hazards-Machine guards and its types-Automation-
High pressure hazards and pressure vessels safety-emptying-inspecting-repairing-
hydraulic and non destructive testing-Relief systems-pressure relief valve, rupture
discs, etc.- Common hazards and their control in Dock and mines.
Unit – IV
Electrical Hazards-Safe limits of amperages, voltages, distance from lines, etc.
Capacity and protection of conductors. Joints and connections. Overload and short
circuit protection. Earthing standards and earth fault protection-protection against
surges and voltage fluctuations-effects of shock on human body. Hazards from
borrowed neutrals-types of protection for electrical equipment in hazardous
atmosphere-Cirteria in their selection, installation, maintenance and use. Control
of hazards due to static electricity.
Unit – V Annamalai University
Radiation Hazards-types of radiation and its effects on human body-controlling
methods-instruments of radiation deduction and measurement-disposal of
radioactive wastes. Industrial Noise-causes and its control-isolation, absorption
techniques. Effects of noise on the Auditory system-measurement of Audible noise-
level of acceptance. Vibrations-effects, measurement and control measures.
Reference Book
1. R K Jain & Sunil S Rao - Industrial Safety, Health and Environment
Management Systems, Khanna publishers, New Delhi (2006).
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DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY
COURSE - I : INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
Content
Unit No. Page No.
1 1
2 16
3 32
4 62
5 83
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UNIT – I
CONTENT
1.1 Nature and types of work places
1.2 Manual Lifting
1.3 House Keeping
1.4 Ergonomics
1.5 Welding Safety
1.6 Safety in Hand and Portable Tools
1.7 Safety in Crane Operations
1.8 Questions
Objectives
Failure of people leads to unsafe acts and conditions and they lead to
accidents. This point has to be kept in mind; to carryout any work adopting safety
procedures.
1.1 NATURE AND TYPES OF WORK PLACES
Organising a Safe Work Environment
Introduction
Every work place is unique. Hazards in work places are wide and varied.
Rapid technological development introduces various built-in hazards due to
introduction of new processes, chemical components and equipment in the system.
A safe and healthy work environment is a primary need in any industrial
undertaking. It is therefore, a matter of common interest to the Management,
Workers and the Government. Industrial safety is the scientific and technological
approach to recognition, evaluation and control of work environment factors which
may adversely affect health and safety of the workers.
The work place factors which have got the maximum impact on the health and
comfort of the workers are
1. Physical Hazards
2. Chemical hazards
1.1.1 Physical Hazards
Physical hazards can cause severe health problems or injuries. The nature of
physical agents are wide. The main ones capable of causing occupational disorders
or injuries are
a. Abnormal Temperature – High and low
b. Noise
c. Vibration
d. Ultra sound
e. Defective illumination
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f. Defective colour schemes

g. Ionising Radiation – Alpha particles, Beta particles, Gama rays & X-
rays. Neutrons Ultra violet, Infrared, Microwares, Laser beams etc/
h. Abnormal air pressure – High & low
i. Defective layout
j. Bad house keeping
1.1.2 Abnormal Temperature
The human body has a very sensitive temperature control mechanism. Skin
temperature may vary but the deep body temperature remains constant at 37
degree Celsius. Heat is generated throughout the life by the process of metabolism
but the phenomenon of heat balance, heat exchange and heat loss keeps it
maintained without any adverse effects. Heat and cold represent opposite extremes
of body temperature and occupational hazards are encountered in both the
situations.
Heat disorders are –
a. Systemic - Heat stroke, Heat exhaustion, Heat syncope, Heat cramp,
Dehydration
b. Skin – Prickly heat - Miliaria rubra, cancer, Rodent ulcer
c. Psychoneurotic – Heat fatigue, Loss of emotional control.
(Noise radiation hazards are discussed in Unit – V)
Work Place Having Defective Illumination
Man is having high position in the evolutionary scale only due to activity of his
sight, the accuracy of thumb and finger involvement and the co-ordination of the
eye and hand by the brain. This biological fact alone makes the importance of
illumination in day to day work.
The standard light (Illumination) is described in unit called Lux. The ill effects
due to defective illuminatives are accidents, decrease in visual activity, eye fatigue
and head ache, Stimulation of the nervous system is also reported. Glare can
cause visual discomfort and irritability. Ideally the glare index should be between
12 to 20.
Defective colours in the work area
No lighting can be fully effective without the proper colour application. In -
Industries colour is used for improving (a) quality of workmanships (b) to reduce
rejection (c) to reduce accidents (d) to raise house keeping (e) to reduce absenteeism
and (f) to improve morale of the workers.
Adverse effects of colour on health of the people are mainly through its
psychological effects. Each colour gives a special psychological appreciation on the
human and moderates the behaviours accordingly. If this is not in the proper
shape ille effects increases.
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Colour Psychological effects

Red Stimulates
Yellow Freshening
Orange Tension producing
Light green & Blue Relaxed feeling
Purple Depression
White Stimulating
Size
Green & Blue Objects look larger
Spare
Green & Blue Surface recedes
Red & Yellow Comes forward
Temperature
Red yellow Warm feeling
Blue & Green Cool feeling
These points has to be kept in mind while planning the work place so that the
ill effects due to colour does not occur.
1.2 MANUAL LIFTING
Introduction
Material handling is an integral part of any procurement, manufacturing or
marketing system. Many accidents during manual handling of materials are
caused by unsafe work habits such as
 Incorrect gripping
 Improper lifting
 Carrying too heavy load
 Failure to wear protective equipment
Precautions for safe and efficient handling are as follows:
1. Correct positioning of feet
While lifting load, space the legs apart by hip width with one foot by the side of
the load and ahead of the other foot in the direction of movement.
2. Knees bent
Keeping legs straight and bending forward to lift load is dangerous. This
position has risk of loss of balance and straining the spine. For a strong and
powerful position, bend knees and not the back to reach the load.
3. Straight back
A straight back need not necessarily means a vertical back. In most lifting
postures, the back needs to be inclined from hips but at the same time kept
straight.
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4. Arms close to the body

The farther the load is to the body, the greater is the strain.
5. Correct grip
Do not try to lift with finger tips. Grasp the load using palm and roots of
fingers.
6. Head in correct position
Before lifting raise the head slightly. This also helps to keep back straight.
7. Use of body weight
By positioning the body such that its weight counter balances the load to be
lifted, it is possible to obtain not only better balance but greater mechanical
advantage than what can be obtained through bending the back forward.
8. Team lifting and carrying
When a heavy load is handled by two or more men the job should be leveled in
such a way that load is shared equially by all. It is advisable to exmploy men of
similar physique and built for the purpose.
9. Handling Specific Shapes of Cargo
a) Boxes and Cortons
A firm grasp of opposite top and bottom corners aided by drawing a corner
between the legs.
b) Bagged material
Grasp corners of the bag and lift to vertical position. The sack should than be
rested against hip and then swung to the shoulder. As the sack reaches the
shoulder the work man should support it by putting a hand over the hip and
holding it from front with the other hand. The procedure is reversed for lowering.
c) Drums
For Upending drums:
1. Take lifting position close to the drum with both hands on the underside
of the rim and with one foot forward.
2. Keeping chest close to the drum, move it upward
3. As the load is lifted, bring forward the rear leg and also shift the same
hand to the tip of the rim. Bend the body forward to rest the drum
upend, using the other leg as counter balance.
For lowering the drum, the procedure may be reversed.
While handling drums down on an incline use of ropes or tackles
provides a safe and controlled motion.
d) Sheet metals
To guard against the sharp edges and corners, the sheet metals should be
handled carefully with leather handgloves, gauntlet gloves or wristlets where
necessary.
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e) Compressed Gas cylinders

The gas cylinders whether full or empty should never be dragged or rolled over
their side. They should be rolled over on bottom edge. To upend a cylinder:
i) Take lifting posture with the valve end of the cylinder between feet and
shoulders over the cylinders.
ii) Place both hands beneath the cylinder near the valve.
iii) Lift and step forward, shifting one hand to behind the valve to steady the
cylinder.
Additional safety practices in Manual Handling
1. Use the manual handling aids such as crow bars, hand hooks etc. where
necessary. Keep these tools in good state.
2. Use personnel protective equipment as the situation warrents.
3. When lifting an object to a high level use a bench or support and make the
lift in two stages.
4. Before lifting ascertain that intended path of movement is free from
obstacles.
5. If the load is not within one’s capacity suitable help should be provided.
6. While carrying a load, if a change in direction is desired do not twist the
body. Instead change the direction of entire body including feet in the
intended direction.
1.3 HOUSE KEEPING
House keeping in Industry means an orderly and efficient arrangement of
materials operation, tools, equipment, supplies, storage and facilities in general.
House keeping starts with the preparation of the proper plans. Good House
keeping plays an important part in the safety of the plant and thus becomes
everybody’s responsibility.
Main benefits of Good House keeping
 Reduced operating costs
 Increased production
 Improved production control
 Conservation of material and parts
 Saves production time
 Better use of floor space
 Better employee Morale
 Reduced hazards
 Lower accident rates
FIRE HAZARDS
Orderliness and cleanness are of particular importance of Good house keeping
in Fire prevention. For Example:
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 a covered metal container used for collection of oily wastes and greasy rags
prevents fire resulting from this source.
 Cleaning of dust and avoiding its accumulation over electrical systems,
cables prevents fire.
 Removal of combustibles from work areas prevents fire.
 Resorting to good storage arrangements for chemicals, flammable liquids,
Gas cylinders, other combustible materials prevents fire hazards.
ACCIDENTS
Good house keeping plans and study without in that and revisions reduces
accident Access to work areas, Access to heights, pathways movement ways, and
ladder platform arrangements require inspection with respect to safety
modifications to avoid accident hazards.
GOOD HOUSE KEEPING INSPECTIONS
The Inspections schedule should include
 Plant areas
 Storage areas
 Floor areas
 Scrap yard
 Lighting systems
 Materials lying, uncleared causing obstructions.
CHECK POINTS TO GOOD HOUSE KEEPING
Points to be considered
1. Cleanliness & Orderliness All areas, Equipments, Machines
2. Scrap & debris Frequency of removal
Type of scraps
Disposal
3. Materials Spillage / Reclaim
Protection & storage
Identification
4. Gangways / pathways Paved / marked
Annamalai University free & wide enough

free from obstacles
5. Stairs / Exits Free from obstacles
Approach made easier
Non slippery
Properly located
6. Lighting & Ventillation Adequate
clean from dust
Cables in good condition
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7. Safety Adequacy of personal protective

Devices, their up keep
8. Fire Adequacy of fire extinguishers
Conditions
9. Excavation / Cabling / Work at heights Cardoning
Barricades
Caution boards
Materials stacking
Work environment
10. Hot works Stray sparks / control
Waste Removal
Removal of welding rod bits
Removing of cables
Cardoning / Barricades
1.4 ERGONOMICS
Work in cramped and unnatural positions
Ergonomics is the science of ‘Fitting the job to the Man’
Certain types of working conditions where workers are engaged in unnatural
or awkward body postures cause them to heavy physical exertion. Limited working
place and difficulties of access to reach work areas also adds up to physical
exertion continued activity in unnatural positions result in musculo-skeletal
diseases to carpenters, joiners, brick layers, steel fixers, tunnellers. These diseases
include slipped disc, arthritis, frozen shoulder cellulites.
Work rules, work style, working conditions modifications are the basis of
Ergonomics science. The following improvements are helpfull in reducing physical
exertion and effecting work comfort:
 A good work seating arrangements for a safe body posture and free
movements.
 Mechanizing jobs done by hands and using power tools
 A change of occupation
 Reducing work load, intervals
 Personnel Hygiene, clean work area
 Clean clothes
 Avoiding activities which impose heavy or sudden impact loads
 The weights of objects to be moved have an obvious bearing. When moving
an object too heavy to lift, it should be pushed forwards rather than pulled.
 Weight of a load to be lifted by a male worker or woman worker to be
limited as per statutory codes
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1.5 WELDING SAFETY

Welding as a method of joining two metals involves the application of intense
heat produced by the burning of oxygen, acetylene, LPG other fuel gases or by the
passage of electric current in the form of an arc.
Welding is carried out at factories, repair work shops construction and
erection sites etc.,
Nearly six percent of all industrial fires are started because of unsupervised
welding jobs without a permit to work system.
CAUSES OF FIRE
Welding operations produce sparks. The hot slag of burning metals may drop
down as globules which retain their heat for a long period and can start a fire long
after the welding is completed.
Welding in a closed vessel, pipe or tank can result in an explosion if they
contain flammable liquids or gases. An empty vessel is more dangerous because it
may be full of invisible vapours.
Electric arc welding involves very large quantities of current. Electric current
creates heat, fire and electric shock.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR WELDING
Before Welding
1. Make a thorough inspection of the work place. Ensure it is safe for
welding operations.
2. Issue a written authorization for commencement of welding work
especially when contract workers are involved.
3. Check if the area contains flammable liquids gases
4. Examine whether the job can be welded outside the premises and
brought back. If not, remove all combustible materials to a safe distance
of at least 20 feet.
5. Sweep the floor and the area nearby and remove all waste materials.
6. If any of the combustible materials cannot be removed, cover it with Non-
combustible coverings like metal sheets or asbestos curtains.
7. If the floor itself is combustible, cover it likewise before starting welding
work.
8. In case welding or cutting has to be done on a vessel, pipe or other
container which contains or had earlier contained flammable liquids
ensure that a detailed ‘permit to work’ procedure involving isolation,
blanking, Purging, inerting methods is followed:
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During Welding
1. Use portable screens or partitions to minimize the spread of sparks.
2. Keep portable fire extinguishers (Dry powder) water buckets etc.
3. In case of electric welding, check the connections, cables, earthing, IT Valve
4. Secure the gas cylinders in a safe locations away from heat and sparks.
5. Ensure that the welding uses appropriate goggles, gloves, shoes, apron and
if necessary an approved respirator.
6. Do not have electric circuits on, or blow torches burning when the welder
has to be away for any reasons.
After Welding
1. Inspect the area for sparks or smouldering materials, if you find any, remove
and extinguish them.
2. If any Fire extinguisher has been used, replenish it
3. All welding accessories used should be returned to the stores or kept at the
authorized place.
WELDING HAZARDS
Hazards Factors to be considered / Precautions
Electric shock Wetness
Electrode holder
Cable in good conditions and terminations.
Do not work if insulation is damaged.
Wear dry hole free gloves.
Do not touch electrically ‘hot’ parts or electrode with bear skin or
wet clothing
Use constant voltage with voltage readucing device
Use rubber mat or dry wood
Check earthings.
Welding fumes Electrode types, Base metal and metal fumes.
Supervise / Arrange Buddy
Confined area Provide ventilation / Exhaust to keep breathing zone clear
Read warning on electrode and follow safety data
Use helmet and positioning of head to minimize fumes in
breathing zone.
Do not weld unless ventilation is adequate.
Welding sparks Follow procedures, permit-to-work to weld on containers,
Fire / explosion which have held combustible materials.
Have a check list Contain / arrest sparks spreading
Out Keep fire extinguishers in the welding area
Arc rays, Burns, Select filter lens / welding glass suitable for the welding wear
Eye Injuries clothing, Gloves which protects skin and body parts.
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General Work Area Hazards

Cluttered area Keep cabels, materials, tools neatly organized.
Indirect work Connect work cable as close as possible to welding.
Connections Do not allow alternate circuits.
Electrical equipments Properly grounded, Double insulated. Check equipment by
authorized electrical personnel.
Gas cylinders Never touch cylinder with the electrode
Keep cylinder upright and chained to support
Keep away / cover cylinder against falling sparks.
1.6 SAFETY IN HAND AND PORTABLE TOOLS

Accidents arising out of hand tools can be attributed to any one of the
following reasons:
A - Using the wrong tools
B - Using tools which are in poor condition
C - Using the tool in a wrong way
D - Keeping tools in unsafe places.
If the above four conditions are taken care of, we can eliminate all the hand
tool accidents.
Using the Wrong Tools
The weight, size and type of tool should be selected to suit the job being
carriedout. Using pliers or wrenches as hammers, using screw drivers as pinch or
chisels, using double end spanners in place of Ring spanners, using pipe wrenches
as spanners are a few examples of using wrong tools.
Using Tools in Poor Condition
Tools provided with wooden handle should always be used with the handles
intact. The handles should be tightened with wedges whenever necessary. Split or
broken handles should be replaced immediately. Pipes or rods shall not be used as
handles.
Sharp tools improve accuracy and are safer than dull tools. Accumulated dirt
or grease should be wiped off immediately to avoid slippage. Shovel and pick
handles should be free from splinters, splits and cracks. Insulated and non-
conducting tools should be tested frequently for their electrical resistance.
Mushroomed chisel is a serious source of hazard.
Using Tools in Wrong ways
Wrenches should always be placed on nuts with the jaw opening facing the
direction in which the wrench is to be rotated. Wrenches should not be pushed but
be pulled.
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Chisels should be held with steady but relaxed grip. Chisels being struck by
others should be held by tongs or other holding devices. Always chip away from
yourself and protect others by screening. Use goggles while chipping.
While using screw driver, the object should not be held in hand or thigh.
Blades of hack-saw should always point forward and the entire length of the
blade should be used in the forward cutting stroke. The stroke should be steady
and firm to avoid jumping of blade.
Keeping Tools in Work Places
Hand tools should not be allowed to lie on work benches, scaffoldings, etc.
where they can be tipped down. They should be stored properly after the work is
over. Sharp tools like screw drivers, etc. should not be kept in pockets. Hand tools
shall not be held in hand while climbing up or down through a ladder. Tools
should never be thrown up or down.
Jacks
Select jacks heavy enough to raise and hold the load safely. Jacks should rest
on firm level foundation, adequate to support the load. Jacks of same capacity and
type should be used while using number of jacks. Simultaneously be sure that the
jack cannot tip and is in line with the vertical movement of load. Wooden block
should be given over the jack also to avoid metal to metal contact. Load must rest
on firm packing before releasing the jack or before allowing persons to work below
the raised load.
Inspect frequently and use only the proper grade and clean oil. It is advisable
shore up any load that must remain in a raised position for any length of time.
Portable Electric Tools
1. Maintenance of electric tools should be systemic.
2. Safety guards provided in the tools should not be tampered with.
3. Gloves, safety shoes, goggles, etc., should be worn by the operator wherever
necessary.
4. Only experienced and authorized personnel should be permitted to operate
power tools.
5. For all electric power tools, a running earth must be maintained and the
supply cable should be handled very carefully.
6. Electric supply should be disconnected before attempting any repairs or
servicing. Even a change of wheel in the grinding machine requires the
supply to be disconnected.
Drilling Machine
1. A prick punch or pilot hole should always be provided to guide the drill bit.
2. Suitable drill bit should be selected for the material being drilled.
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3. If bit is long enough to pass through the object, care should be taken to
avoid damage or injury on the far side.
4. If the object is small, it should be secured to prevent spinning.
5. Care should be taken to prevent sleeves and other clothing from being would
around drill.
Portable Grinders
1. HOOD GUARD provided in the machine should be maintained in place
always.
2. Wheels of proper rpm rating should be used. Date of expiry of wheels
should always be checked before mounting. If in doubt, a tap test may be
conducted to check for minor cracks and the machine be allowed to run
under no load in a safe place for some time.
3. The grinding wheel shall be stored & handled properly. It shall never be
allowed to be dropped and stored in damp places.
4. Mounting blotter should be used when provided in the machine. The
spindle nut should not be overtightened.
5. Only experienced and skilled grinders shall be engaged.
6. The grinding machine shall not be allowed to be kept on the ground when
the wheel is at rotation.
Bench Grinders
1. It should be provided with a proper earthing.
2. Eye shield and hood guard should be provided and maintained.
3. Wheels of proper rpm should be used and they should be carefully inspected
to check for cracks. The object should not be forced on the grinding wheel.
4. Tool rest should be in place properly adjusted to a maximum gap of 1/8 “
from the wheel.
Pneumatic Tools
1. Air hoses of Pneumatic tools should be protected against whipping. They
should also be protected against damage by vehicles.
2. The air line should be depressurized before opening any joint.
3. Compressed air should not be directed against self or others. It should not
be used for removing dirt from the clothes, etc.
4. Air hoses taken over head or vertically should be sufficiently supported.
1.7 SAFETY IN CRANE OPERATIONS
1. The capacity of the crane should be ascertained before using. Brakes
should be checked while lifting critical load and adjusted if needed.
2. Crane should never be overloaded.
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3. Mobile cranes should be parked on hard soil or strong base. They should
not be placed near the edge of the pit or excavation.
4. Safe working load of any mobile crane depends on:
 operator’s skill
 condition of the ground
 Boom length
 Radius of rotation while lifting the load inclination of boom to vertical
 Out rigger blocked / free
The safe working load is generally tabulated in the Load chart of the crane.
Some times cranes are derated due to the defects in welding, bend in angle,
Bracings etc., and condition of clutch brake, etc.
The load is the total load hung from the rope sheaves of the body including
weight of hook block, ropes/slings, etc.
5. Standard signaling code properly understood by the operator and trained
signal man should be used. The crane operator should respond to signals
only from the appointed signaler but shall obey signal at any time no matter
who gives it.
6. Tag lines should be used while hoisting heavy and bulky materials.
7. The brakes, boom, hook, wire ropes and pulleys, rope anchoring should be
checked periodically by a Maintenance person to ensure the crane’s safe
operation.
8. The load being lifted should not touch the boom.
9. The book or any part of the crane should not come near any live electric line
/ service line.
10. Swinging of load should be done smoothly.
11. Proper quality of packing should be used and the outrigger should rest
tightly on the packing.
12. Nobody should stand below the boom or load.
13. The operator should be able to see the hook and load throughout the
hoisting period.
14. During storm, the hook block should be anchored firmly and swing lock be
released.
15. When an extended boom is used on the crane, the operator must use
extreme care in lowering the load to the ground. An extended boom never
should be lowered to one side of the chassis for the stability of the crane is
usually reduced in that position and the crane will get upset.
16. The crane has to be traveled on a heavy timber mat whenever there is
instability of soil.
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17. The use of any make shift methods to increase the capacity of crane such as
timbers with blocking, or additions counter-weight, should not be permitted.
18. Before leaving the crane at the end of the workday, the crane operator
should remove the load from the hook and raise the hook block to maximum
height.
19. The crane operator should keep the deck clean of any oil, mud and grease.
20. Operator should always keep the windshield clear, in order to prevent
accident due to this.
21. Ensure at least two full winding of ropes be always on the rope drum. After
a boom extension, the hooks shall be lowered to the required lowest point to
ensure that at least two dead coils remain on the drum and to the highest
point to check that the drum capacity will not be exceeded.
MOBILE CRANES
Following precautions have to be taken while using tyre mounted mobile
cranes in addition to the precautions given above.
1. When traveling up a gradient, the load shall be derricked out and when
traveling down a gradient, the load shall be derricked into the minimum
radius, and this position shall be corrected on reaching level ground.
Other wise, constant watch on the radius should be maintained while
traveling on uneven surfaces.
2. The mobile crane shall be fitted with suitable horn, head lights, side lamps,
rear and stop lights and flashing direction indicator.
3. Cranes with cantilever type jib, when traveling without load, the jib should
be lowered to a horizontal position.
4. The pneumatic tyres shall bemaintained at the correct pressure at all
times.
SLINGS / ROPES / ‘D’ SHACKLES
 Select the proper sling free from mechanical defects
 Ascertain the capacity
 Know the slinging method. Engage Experienced workers
 Check for safe ‘sling angle’ and attachment points.
General: All cranes lifting tackles should possess valid Test certificates.
1.8 QUESTIONS
1. Describe how will you organize a heavy load lifting and handling using a
crane?
2. Describe safety procedures in the use of grinding wheel and Pneumatic
tools. Briefly explain the various causes for tool injuries.
3. Explain safety precations in welding operations.
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4. Write short notes on

a. Wire ropes
b. Ergonomics
c. Manual lifting of a drum
d. Defective colours

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UNIT – II
CONTENT
Introduction
Work Environment and Chemical Hazards
Permissible Limits
Appraisal of Health Hazards
Properties of Chemicals Leading to Fire
Safety Measures in the Use of Gas Cylinders
Control and Safeguard from Dusts, Fumes and Vapours
Questions
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Healthy worker is an asset to the Management as only a healthy worker can
give his maximum output in terms of Productivity. Interaction of the worker with
his working environment may result in impairment of his health leading to work
related illness.
Most of the chemicals used in the Industries are harmful to the human system
and lead to illness. Occupational health problems due to chemical factors is of
great concern for the people. These are briefly discussed in this lesson.
Objective
To improve operating procedures without increasing the hazards.
KEY WORDS
1. HAZARD: Hazard is considered as an inherent property of a substance or an
occurrence which has the potential to cause loss or injury to property,
person or environment.
2. COMPRESSED GAS: means any permanent gas, liquefiable gas or dissolved
gas in liquid under pressure or gas mixture in a closed pressure vessel
exercises a pressure either exceeding 1.5 Kg/Sq.cm (G) at 15 degree C or a
pressure exceeding 2 Kg/sq.cm (g) at 50 degree C.
2.2 WORK ENVIRONMENT AND CHEMICAL HAZARDS
In many work environments, the workers are exposed to a variety of chemical
substances which cause health hazards.
Chemical hazards can be classifications as
a. fire and explosion
b. Poisons or toxic to the human
Work place environment gets contaminated with the release and dispersion of
chemicals as gas, vapour, dust, fume, mist, smoke, fog, smog.
Physiological classification of chemicals
Chemicals are classified as
 Irritants
 Asphyxiants
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 Systemic poisons
 Anesthetics
 Toxic
 Inert
 Allergic and skin sensitisers
HARMFUL EFFECTS – EXAMPLES
Irritants Effects on eyes, nose, throat (e.g.) Chlorine, Sulphur di oxide.
Asphyxiants Prevents transportation of oxygen from lungs and impair
Breathing (e.g.) Carbon di oxide, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen.
Systemic poisons Harmful effects on the system through inhalation, absorption
(e.g.) Lead fumes, mercury.
Anesthetic & Affect the central nervous system (e.g.) organic solvents.
Narcotics
Corrosives Cause destruction of tissues (e.g.) Caustic soda lye, Mineral
Acids.
Allergic and Skin Produce reactions in persons having individual sensitivity
Sensitisers and susceptibility (e.g.) formaldehyde, Pollen.
Toxic Pass from the lungs into the blood stream and then carried
to the various parts of the body. (e.g.) arsenic, antimony,
cadmium, chromic acid, lead, manganese, chromates.
Fibrosis Producing Cause pulmonary impairment (e.g.) Asbestos, coal, bauxite,
free silica.
NOXIOUS GASES, CLASSIFICATIONS
Simple Asphyxiants Nitrogen (N2), Methane (CH4), Carbondioxide.
Chemical Asphyxiants Carbon monoxide (CO), Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S),
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN).
Irritant gases Ammonia(NH3), Sulphurdioxide (SO2), Chlorine (Cl2).
Systemic Poison Carbon-di-sulphide (CS2), Nickal carbonyl, Phosphine.
DUSTS
Pneumoconiosis Coal dust, silica dust, Asbestos dust.
Occupational Asthema Cotton dust, flour dust.
Extrinsic Allergic Alveolitis Due to fungal spores (eg) Bird fanciers

Annamalai University lung Bagassation.
Occupational lung Cancer Asbestos, Chromium.

The effects of poison or toxic substances depend on the quantity entering the
body system and its retention time. Industrial poisoning is of three main types.
(a) Acute; (b) Sub-acute; (c) Chronic.
They enter into the human body by
(1) Ingestion; (2) Inhalation; (3) Skin Absorption; (4) Accidental.
18
Different organs and tissues that can be affected by certain Toxic Industrial
chemical.
Route of Entry Form of entry
Inhalation Gases, vapours, dusts, aerosole
Skin absorption Spillage of liquids, dusts
Ingestion Dusts and liquid
Organs & tissues that may be affected:
Organs Particular Toxic chemicals
Nasal passages Nickel and chromium compounds
Brain Lead, mercury and their components
Lungs Ammonia, Nitrogen oxides, Sulphur dioxide, Asbestos and coal
dusts
Lungs & Skin Tolune di isocyanate
Liver Chlorinated hydrocarbons, ethylene, dichlorodyrin and dioxane
Kidneys Mercury compounds and chlorinated hydrocarbons
Nerves Mercury, cadmium and their compounds
Bladder Auramine, benzidine and 2-naphthalamine
Skin Chlorinated hydrocarbons, mineral acids and Lubricating mineral
oils.
2.3 PERMISSIBLE LIMITS
TLV – THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE
It is the air borne concentration of chemical substances to which it is believed
that the majority of employees may be exposed repeatedly without any adverse
health effects. There are three categories of TLVs.
1. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE – TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE (TLV-TWA)
concentration for a normal 8 hour work day or 40 hour work week which
should not be exceeded.
2. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE – SHORT TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (TLV-STEL)
– maximum concentration to which workers should not be exposed for
more than 15 minutes continuously.
3. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE CEILING (TLV –C) concentration which should
not be exceeded even instantaneously.
The Factories (Amendment Act) 1987 has incorporated the permissible
exposure levels of about 120 chemicals.
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THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES OF SOME TOXIC CHEMICALS (EXAMPLES)

Name of chemical TLV-TWA TLV-STEL
Ammonia 25 ppm 35 ppm
Benzene 10 ppm --
Sulphurdioxide 2.5 ppm 5 ppm
Methonol 200 ppm 250 ppm
Chlorine 0.5 ppm 1 ppm
2.4 APPRAISAL OF HEALTH HAZARDS
The salient points are:
1. Toxicity of the substance present or handled
2. Mode of entry
3. Physical properties of the substance
4. Duration of exposure
5. Intensity and severity of exposure
6. Personal susceptibility
7. Complaints and evidence of injury.
Bio-chemical Tests
The concentration of toxic agents in the body system gives sometime a more
accurate method of determining workers exposure than can be obtained by any
tests in the environment, such as sampling of environmental air. For this purpose,
bio-examination can be made on :-
Blood, Urine, Hairs, Nails, exhaled air, Faces, Saliva, Sweat.
Control of the Environment
The objective of controlling the work environment is to eliminate or reduce the
air borne concentration of hazardous substance to a safe level. There are different
methods available.
Specific Methods and Principles
1. Elimination of the source of emission of contaminants.
i) Improvement of design and control measures
ii) Change of Process
iii)
Substitution of less toxic materials
2. Reduction of dispersion of contaminants
i) Isolation or Enclosure
ii) Application of wet method
iii) House keeping and maintenance
3. Specific method
i) Improvement of general ventilation
ii) Local exhaust ventilation
iii) Forced air ventilation
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4. Protection of the workers from exposure

i) Reduction of period of exposure of workers, safe work practice and
process re-arrangement
ii) Respiratory protective devices
iii) Education of workers
iv) Medical supervision
Chemical Substances
Certain chemicals are classified under hazardous groups and known as
hazardous substances.
‘Hazardous substances’ means any substances or preparation which, by
reason of its chemical or physio-chemical properties or handling, is liable to cause
harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism, property or
the environments. Ministry of environment and forests, has noted list of chemicals
with quantities for application of Public liability Insurance Act. The groups are
classified as follows:
Group - I : Toxic substances
Group – II : Toxic substances
Group – III : Highly reactive substances
Group – IV : Explosive substances
Group – V : Flammable substances
a. Flammable gases.
b. Highly flammable liquids which have a flash point lower than 210 C.
c. Flammable liquids which have a flash point lower than 550 C.
Under Group – I to IV the list contains about 179 chemicals specified a
Hazardous substances.
2.5 PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALS LEADING TO FIRE
The following groups of materials shall be considered to constitute an
abnormal fire risk.
 Explosives
 Compressed, permanent liquefied and dissolved gases
 Substances which interact with (i) water, (ii) Air, (iii) Moisture
 All substances with flash point below 650 C
 Corrosive substances
 Poisonous substances
 Oxidizing agents
 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion
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 Readily combustible substances

 Coal dusts, metal dusts and other dusts and powder.
EXPLOSIVES
These are materials which under certain conditions of temperature, shock or
chemical action can decompose rapidly to evolve either large volumes of gases or so
much heat that the surrounding air is forced to expand very rapidly and thus
results in explosion. Example of explosives is Dynamite and TNT.
CORROSIVES
Corrosive materials involve acids, acid anhydrides and alkalis. Such materials
often destroy their containers and get into the atmosphere of a storage area. Some
are volatile others react violently with moisture, strong acids and alkalis.
FLAMMABLES
 Vapours, Gases and Liquids are usually very easy to ignite
 Fires of liquids propagate rapidly. They often explode
 Flammable dusts are as easy to ignite as gases
 Fires of solid propagate slowly.
PETROLEUM VAPOURS
They form an explosive mixture with air like all other inflammable vapours. In
general, Explosion range of any mixture has a lower and upper limits. The lower
explosive limit (LEL) of petroleum vapours is 1.0 % and upper explosive limit (UEL)
is 6.5% in air. That means, the vapours in the concentration range of 1%to 6.5% in
air is explosive in nature. Below the LEL, the concentration of vapours is too low to
cause fire and explosion and above the UEL, the amount of air too insufficient to
cause explosion. Similarly, the explosion range limits are available for other gases
/ vapours.
The flammable characteristics of petroleum are dependent on their flash point.
Petroleum has been classified under 3 categories.
Class – A Flash point below 230C
Class -B Flash point 230C to 650C
Class – C Flash point above 650C
Class – A Annamalai University
E.g. – Crude Petroleum, Toluene, Benzene, Methanol
Class – B E.g. – High speed Diesel, Kerosene, While spirit, Aviation
Turbine fuel.
Class – C E.g. – Fuel oil, Light Diesel Oil, LSHS
Chemicals Leading to Fire and Explosion
Many raw materials used in chemical Industry are themselves flammable.
Some materials have the inherent property of igniting spontaneously. Heat is
developed within the mass due to oxidation.
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Some materials react with water moisture to produce flammable vapours.

Eg., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium. The materials which evolve
volatile and flammable hydrides are : Nitrides, sulphides, carbides, borides,
phosphides.
Materials which are so reactive that any contact with air (and its moisture)
causes oxidation and or hydrolysis at a sufficiently high rate to cause ignition are
termed pyrophoric compounds.
Fine metallic powder such as iron powder can be pyrophoric.
Chlorates, peroxides, nitrates are oxidizing agents can explode violently in
contact with organic materials. The compounds may liberate oxygen on heating or
even at room temperature.
Metals like sodium, potassium react violently with water giving rise to fire.
Some chemicals are heat sensitive or shock sensitive. The 3 commonly used
mineral acids viz Nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric may cause explosion through
leaking on certain other chemicals.
Pyroxilin plastics, commonly known as celluloid decompose on heating to
about 3000 F giving off heat and large volume of highly toxic gases, chiefly carbon
monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Ignition occurs quickly and if the amounts are
large, the burning will approach explosive violence.
FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS OF ACID AND
ACID FUME SENSITIVE MATERIALS
Concentrated alkalies, metals including structural alloys, As, Se and cyanides
react with acid and acid fumes and lead to evolve heat, hydrogen and flammable
gases.
DUST EXPLOSION
The dust particles are usually less than 5 micron in size. However, the
majority are even less than one micron in size. The factors deciding whether or not
a dust cloud will ignite are (a) Particle size (b) dust concentration (c) Uniformity of
dispersal (d) Whether it is in a settled condition or in a cloud form (e) amount of
impurities present in the cloud and (f) duration of the presence of combustibles and
supporters of combustion. The smaller the size of the dust particle, the higher is
the surface / volume ratio. Spontaneous combustion is easier with an abundance
of small particle size dust.
Cle anline ss is the be st pre caution to ta ke against dust e xplosion.
I n storage , whe n the storage is full, the re is le ss room for air and with
inade quate air the re is le ss like lihood for e xplosion. Most dusts ce ase
to be liable to e xplosion in a n atmosp he re containing le ss than 12%
oxyge n. A t time s, howe ver air or oxygen is not e ve n ne cessary in case
of dust e xplosions. I n dust e xplosions, the pressures gene rate d are
not ve ry high, as c ompare d to flamma ble vapour air e xplosions. I n
many cases it is found that the extensive damage caused by a dust explosion has
23
been due not as much to the primary explosion but due to secondary or tertiary
explosions, caused by the ignition of a cloud of dust raised by the first explosion
from places where it has been allowed to accumulate. These explosions are
actually multiple explosions, each following the other and aggravating the danger in
greater and greater proportions. The distances could be vary far and even the time
intervals could be substantial. In a reported case, this was 48 hours interval
between two explosions. Therefore, any preventive programme should include not
only prevention of any escape of dust but also its deposition.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN EXPLOSION AND DETONATION
A combustion wave propagates by the process of heat transfer and diffusion;
whereas a detenation wave is a shock wave, which is sustained by the energy of the
chemical reaction in the highly compressed explosive medium in the wave.
Combustion waves are slower than the velocity of sound, whereas detonation waves
travel at speeds faster than sound velocity. Thus dangers are far greater in case of
detonation.
Table : 1 – EXAMPLES OF MAJOR FIRES
Chemical Consequence Place and year
involved Deaths Injuries
Methane 136 77 CLEVE LAND OH10 (US) 1944
LPG 18 90 FEYZIN, FRANCE 1966
LNG 40 -- STATEN ISLAND (US) 1973
METHANE 52 -- SANTACRUZ, MEXICO 1978
LPG 650 2500 MEXICO CITY 1985
Table : 2 - EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EXPLOSIONS
Consequences
Chemical involved Place and year
Deaths Injuries
Dimethyl ether 245 3800 LUDWIGSHAFEN Germany 1948
Kerosene 32 16 Bitburg, Germany, 1954
ISO Butane 07 13 Lake charles (US) 1967
Propane 7 152 Illinoise (US) 1974
Cyclo hexane Annamalai University
28 89 Flixborough,UK, 1974
Propylene 14 107 Netherlands 1975
FLAMMABILITY / EXPLOSIVE LIMITS
Two conditions are essential for the occurrence of a fuel-air explosion, first, the
existence of flammable mixture within the space, second an ignition source. Again
to initiate an explosion, a fuel-air mixture should be within a definite range
proportions with air, which is called flammable / explosion range and it varies from
fuel to fuel. There is a lower limit and an upper limit.
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The explosive limits for a few flammable compounds are given below:
TABLE: FLAMMABLE / EXPLOSIVE LIMITS
Lower Flammability limits Upper flammability limits
Compound
(By volume % in Air) (By volume % in Air)
Acetone 2.6 12.8
Acetylene 2.5 82.0
Benzene 1.4 8.0
Butane 1.9 8.5
Carbon Monoxide 12.5 74.2
Ethane 3.0 12.5
Ethyl alcohol 3.0 19.0
Hydrogen 4.1 74.2
Styrene 1.1 6.1
Tolune 1.2 7.0
Source: ICMA :Material safety data sheets
PARAMETERS AFFECTING EXPLOSION BEHAVIOUR
 Ambient Temperature
 Ambient Pressure
 Composition of Explosive material
 Physical properties of explosive materials
 Nature of ignition source, type, energy and duration
 Geometry of surroundings, confined or unconfined
 Amount of combustible material
 Turbulance of combustible material
 Rate at which combustible is released.
2.6 SAFETY MEASURES IN THE USE OF GAS CYLINDERS
Introduction
Gas cylinders or ‘cylinder’ means any closed metal container intended for the
storage and transport of compressed gases.
Gas cylinders are used to bottle various gases, viz. permanent gas, dissolved
gas, High pressure and low pressure liquefiable gas, corrosive gas and toxic gases.
Gas cylinder Rules, 1981
The filling and conveyance of gas cylinders are covered by ‘Gas cylinder rules
1981’. These rules provide a comprehensive law regulating the:-
a. Possession, delivery, despatch, handling examination and testing of gas
cylinders.
b. Construction, fitment, storage, loading, transport, licencing and
inspection etc.
The main objective of the gas cylinder rules is to protect the public against
their dangerous nature by regulating all dealings connected therewith.
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Gas cylinders have to undergo various tests according to their working make
and design. Etc. some of the important tests are:
a. Heat treatment
b. Hydraulic test
c. Leakage test
d. Bursting test
GAS CYLINDERS IDENTIFICATION – COLOUR CODES
Gas cylinders are painted in different colours according to the contained gases
so that their visual identification is easy. These colours, however get abraded,
blurred by frequent use and often need a good face lifts. Suppliers do not
meticulously adhere to the colour code. Extra care is therefore necessary in
identifying the contents of such cylinders.
Colour code for the more common types of gases in Industrial use are given
hereunder:
Colour code
Gas cylinder
Body Band
Oygen Black None

Nitrogen Grey Black
Carbondioxide Black White
Ammonia Black Red & Yellow
Freon Bottom grey None
Neck end violet
Argon Blue None
Chlorine Yellow None
Hydrogen Red None
Acetylene Maroon None
LPG Red None
Air Grey None
USE OF WRONG GAS Annamalai University

Use of a gas cylinder for any specific operation without its correct identification
is an unsafe practice. Instances have occurred in the past wherein oxygen was
used in place of compressed air for starting a diesel engine generating set in a
factory and this resulted in serious injuries to operators and serious damage to the
engine-set putting it out of commission over a long period. The results of the
mishap that could be caused by using a wrong gas in a chemical process will be
catastrophic.
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PRECAUTIONS FOR RECEIVING AND USE OF GAS CYLINDERS

The bulk of gas cylinders are supplied to factories by road transport.
a. Before unloading identify the cylinders by their colour as per standard
colour code or labels.
b. Each cylinder as received from suppliers should be complete with its
valve cap which is provided as a protection to the valve assembly. If caps
are missing ask the suppliers to arrange them.
c. In case of doubt regarding the identity of the gas do not issue it for
process work until it is properly identified.
UNLOADING THE CYLINDERS
Cylinders must be handled with care. They should not be dropped or allowed
to strike against each other.
To ensure safety the method of unloading gas cylinders are:
a. Wherever possible unload directly on a raised platform by rolling over a
coir mattress.
b. If a suitable raised platform is not available, slide down each cylinder
over a 15 cms thick coir mattress of about 2 m x 1 m size, taking care
that the bottom end touches the mattress first (but not on the valve end)
and then roll it away over the mattress. The weakest part of a cylinder is
its valve assembly fitted above its neck and extra care is necessary to
ensure that the valve is not subjected to rough handling or damage
during unloading. Do not drop cylinders from a height.
c. Make sure that the cylinder lowered on the mattress is rolled away before
the next one slid down.
d. Do not use a lifting magnet for loading or unloading any cylinder.
e. A fibre rope sling may be used to lift one cylinder; provided it is strong
and correctly adjusted to prevent slipping use of a chain sling is unsafe
as it is very likely to slip over a cylinder.
f. If more than one cylinder has to be handled by a crane, a properly
designed cradle with proper suspension should be used.
g. From unloading point to stores or from stores to the work spot, the
cylinder should be transported by means of a suitable trolley with a
chain for securing the cylinder so that it cannot fall.
h. Do not roll out or drag the cylinders.
CARE IN STORAGE
a. Storage should be well ventilated.
b. “Full” or “Empty” notices should be displayed on each relevant stack.
27
c. When storing cylinders upright, ensure that they are properly secured by
suitable brackets or stands so that they will not fall. Do not place them
against a wall or bench unsecured.
d. If cylinders are stacked horizontally use proper chocks or blocks at each
end of the stack to prevent their rolling.
e. Do not keep cylinders in a battery charging room or in oil storage room
or in places where there is a likelihood of oil acid or corrosive liquids
splashing due to any reason.
f. Store cylinders well away from sources of heat. Ensure that cylinders
are not subjected to direct rays of the sun.
g. Do not use tarpaulin or any other cover in direct contact with cylinders
as a protection against the sun.
h. Protect the cylinders against corrosive conditions. Do not place them
directly on wet soil. Use proper dunnage.
i. Keep full acetylene cylinders in upright position. Never stack them
horizontally.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE:
a. Do not lubricate cylinder valves.
b. Ensure that dust or dirt of any sort of oil does not enter regulator
assemblies.
c. Use only the standard keys for opening the valves and make sure that these
are free of any oil or grease.
d. Do not use cylinders as work supports or jacks.
e. Never allow cylinders to come in contact with electrical apparatus or live
wires.
f. Keep cylinders away from sparks flames or slag from welding and cutting
operations.
g. Do not interchange fittings between cylinders of combustible and non-
combustible gases.
h. Non-combustible gas cylinders have right hand threads at their valve outlets
whereas combustible gas cylinders have left-hand threads at the spindle
valve outlet. The threads are differently designed so as to prevent the
regulator assemblies of combustible gases being used on non-combustible
gas cylinders.
i. The compressed gas cylinder should not be carried on the shoulder as there
is a danger of its being dropped. It should be transported in a trolley. Also
the cylinder should have a valve protection cap.
28
LEAKING CYLINDERS
Leaking cylinders should be reported to the department heads who will take
immediate action to dispose them. In case of small laboratory size cylinders of
corrosive or poisonous gases leaking cylinders should be placed under a hood that
has the ventilation system running, until such time they can be disposed of.
OUTBREAK OF FIRE IN CYLINDERS
If decomposition starts in a combustible gas cylinder, the flame if any, should
be extinguished and the valve closed. If part of the cylinder becomes hotter, the
valve must be kept closed and the cylinder must be removed to an area where no
one will be injured should it explode. To cool it down, jets of water should be
sprayed on to it, even for hours if required.
REPORTING OF GAS CYLINDER ACCIDENTS
An accident caused in the use of gas cylinders involving loss of life or serious
injury, has to be reported to the Chief Inspector of explosives. This requirement is
in addition to the similar requirements under the Factories Act and other
concerned regulations, which are normally followed wherever, a serious accident is
caused.
2.7 CONTROL AND SAFEGUARD FROM DUSTS, FUMES AND VAPOURS
The chemicals used or procured in an Industrial operation generally spread
into the air depending on the processes. These air borne pollutants can be
identified according to their physical states and physiological status.
DUSTS: Solid particles generated by mechanical forces in a wide variety of processes
from organic and inorganic materials. They settle under the influence of gravity.
Examples are metals, silica and Asbestos. Dusts size 0.1 – 1000 microns.
FUMES: Solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after the volatilization of molten metals, often accompanied by chemical reaction
(oxidation) such as fumes coalesce and flocculate. Examples are lead, zinc and
cadmium.
VAPOURS
The gaseous form of substances which are normally in the solid or liquid state
and can return to these states either by increase in pressure or decrease in
temperature such as vapours diffuse. Examples are benzene, xylene, toluene,
trichloriethylene.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment of the level of these contaminants is necessary.
a. to identify the potential toxicity present in the work spots
b. to determine various occupational hazards
c. to check and plan environmental control system
Assessment is done through environmental sampling which require sampling
equipment, analytical techniques.
29
Based on the findings, the following action plans to be organized.

a. Prepare rules, regulations, standard guidelines.
b. Conduct programmes for the education of workers and management
c. Conduct epidemiologic studies of workers to discover possibilities of the
presence of occupational disease
d. Conduct research to advance knowledge concerning occupational health.
Benefits
 Improved employees health and hygiene
 Reduced compensation costs
 Improved job satisfaction
 Improved productivity
 Reduced absenteeism
 Improved public image of the organization
 Greater opportunity for the company to provide technical input into the
regulations and standards that govern its operations.
CONTROL MEASURES FOR THE CONTAMINENTS AT WORK SPOTS
In industries, work place hazards require to be watched and controlled.
Dusts, fumes, vapours etc. creates a variety of harmful effects. The elimination of
harmful exposures, fire, explosion to these hazards can be achieved in adopting
several Engineering, control methods. The most commonly adopted methods are
a. Substitution
b. Change of process
c. Wet method
d. Close system / enclosure
e. Isolation of process
f. Ventillation
g. Personal protective equipment.
(i) Substitution and Change of Process
The possibility of substituting non-toxic or less toxic materials or change in
the process should always be considered. For example, less toxic solvents such as
methyl chloroform, trichloroethylene have been successfully used as substitutes for
the highly toxic carbon tetra chloride. In place of highly toxic benzene, the less
toxic toluene can be used.
Change of process can be made to reduce the exposure, steel shots are
gradually replacing sand for abrasive cleaning operations. Carborundum and
alundum are used as abrasive materials instead of sand stone. The application of
paints by brushing instead of spraying is another example of process change.
30
(ii) Use of Wet Methods

High reduction in dust concentration can be achieved by the use of water
spray. Wet methods have been used in many foundries where water under high
pressure is used for decording operations instead of fettling. It has also been found
that air borne dust concentrations could be brought down if the moulding sand is
kept moist, and if castings are wetted before knock out operation.
Iron ore dumping from wagons into the hoppers, emanates lot of dust, water
sprinkling greatly reduces dust.
(iii) Close system / Enclosure
Total enclosure of a fume or dust producing operation is often possible and is
a very effective control measure. Many processes can be completely enclosed during
all or part of the operation and when maintained under a negative pressure, will
prevent escape of contaminants into the work room atmosphere. Enclosure is also
a method controlling exposures from such operations such as sand blasting mixing,
grinding and heat treatment. Some times, a partial enclosure combined with
exhaust can be applied.
(iv) Isolation of Process
Isolation of process differs from total enclosure in that one or more persons are
still exposed, but other workers in adjacent areas are protected. With this method
of control it is necessary to supply protection to the individual operator by means of
respirators or similar devices.
In the manufacture or processing of highly toxic substances such as tetraethyl
lead or beryllium, the entire operation is isolated in a carefully sealed off area.
(v) Ventilation
When harmful dusts or fumes cannot be readily eliminated by substitution or
by change of process or enclosed system, their removal or dilution by reducing the
contaminant concentration is achieved by having a suitable ventilation system.
Ventilation is one of the most important engineering control techniques for
improving the work area conditions. It controls environment with air flow:
Purpose of Ventilation
a. Removing the contaminant
b. Diluting the concentration of the contaminant
c. Supply of make up air
By good ventilation system, the improvements that could be achieved are:
a. Reduce explosive concentration of vapours, fumes etc. to avoid explosion
or fire.
b. Protection of health of workers
c. provision of comfortable working condition
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The ventilation system could be classified into two major groups:

a. General or dilution ventilation
b. Local exhaust ventilation
General ventilation in turn can be classified under two groups.
a. Natural general ventilation
b. Mechanical general ventilation.
2.8 QUESTIONS
1. Suggest methods of containment of pollutants in work spots
2. What is physiological characteristics of chemicals? Give examples
3. Explain safety precautions to be observed when using gas cylinders.
4. What is a dust explosion? Explain dust control measures in a factory.
SUGGESTED READING
1. “Health and Safety in Chemical Industry” - Central Labour Institute,
Sion, Mumbai – 400 022.

32
UNIT – III
CONTENTS
The Scope of Construction and its Hazards
Trades and Activities in Construction
Personal Protection Safety fro Construction Workers
High Pressure Hazards and Pressure Vessels Safety
Machine Guarding
Hazards in Mines
Hazards in Ports
Questions
Objective
To play the role of safety in prevention of the wide range of hazards to which
workers are exposed everyday of their working.
Key words
Safe: ‘a thing’ is provisionally categorized as safe if its risks are deemed known and
in the light of that knowledge judged to be acceptable. Thus a condition of safety is
only reached by removing the risks or hazards which covered result in an accident.
Accident: is an unplanned event which has a probability of causing personal injury
or property damage.
3.1 THE SCOPE OF CONSTRUCTION AND ITS HAZARDS
Introduction
Construction is and has been an important part of Man’s activities from his
earliest days and intertwined with all stages of his development. Year in and year
out, in both the Industrialized and the developing world. The construction Industry
produces a toll of fatal and serious accidents far greater than that of any
manufacturing Industry. Construction accidents by their Nature usually occur
singly and to those employed within the Industry. National and international
legislation and standards find pressure for improved occupational health and safety
in the construction industry.
The wide range of hazards to which construction workers the world over are
exposed every day is now becoming increasingly obvious. Many hazardous are
quite specific to one or two of the vast number of trades which constitute the
construction Industry while some affect a wide spectrum of the different skills.
Stages of Project Construction
The scope of construction:
 General construction and Demolition work
 Construction and Repair of buildings
 Civil Engineering
33
 Installation of fixtures and fittings

 Building completion work.
The main areas covered are generally known as “building” and civil
Engineering with a smattering of other engineering activities – mechanical,
electrical, telecommunication, Process Industries and off-shore oil platforms.
Building
By building we generally understand houses, offices, shops, hotels flats,
schools, factories, railway stations, Hospitals, theatres, Museums, libraries and so
on. Building in short covers laying foundations, construction of walls, floors, roofs,
doors, windows. The construction workers are exposed to the hazards of building
materials – brick, mortar, timber, tips, stone, sand, cement, equipment they use –
scaffolding, cranes, excavators etc. Other hazards may arise from many causes –
structural deficiency, fire, natural calamities.
High Rise Building
Factory buildings, stacks, ch8imenys, multi storied residential buildings,
offices, Hotels are constructed to tall heights. Construction of high rise buildings
bring additional hazards into the lives of builders, maintenance men and painters.
The higher wind speeds the greater exposure to atmospheric climate the
psychological fear of heights, earth tremors are some of the main ones. The
greatest hazard lies in the use of traditional wooden or bamboo scaffolding.
The use of unskilled and inexperienced labours and labour – intensive
methods also adds to the hazards of high rise construction.
Prefabricated Buildings
In speaking of prefabricated building we mean the rapid assembly on site of
large and complete modules weighing many tons, complete with doors, windows,
floors, ceiling and all interior fittings. This sort of pre-fabrication reaches its
ultimate in the living quarters built on offshore oil and gas platforms.
The main hazards of prefabricated construction on site lie in trying to install
large prefabricated components by a labor force familiar only with traditional
methods.
Large prefabricated components have to be handled entirely by cranes and
other machinery on site. Many accidents have occurred through attempting to the
unsuitable cranes of inadequate capacity, as well as untrained operatives.
On the other hand, the use of prefabricated parts leads to standardization and
repetition. This facilitates the adoption of safe system of works and special jigs and
equipments for the safe handling of prefabricated parts.
Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is mainly concerned with the building of roads, bridges,
tunnels, dams, harbors and other works, but it encroaches to a large extent on the
work of the builders. Civil Engineering contracts employ structural engineers, site
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supervisors tradesman as scaffolders, concrete workers, carpenters, ground

workers, operators. Civil engineering enterprises are on average much larger than
those in building. Several civil engineering contractors are very large companies.
Many large construction contractors undertake both building and civil engineering
work.
Civil Engineering workers are more at risk than building workers to the
possible collapse or flooding of the structure they are constructing. Bridges, tunnels
and dams are all more vulnerable to much higher unknown stresses in the
construction stage. They suffer from the exposed conditions of their work and
living in improvised construction camps as large number of them are migrant
workers.
Process and Power Plant Construction
Oil refineries, chemical plants, cement factories, power stations, steel
Industries and vast range of other process plant account for a sizeable proportion of
permanent fixed construction. In some cases the plant is housed in buildings while
in other it is erected in the open. The construction of buildings, roads, foundations
and sewers falls and building and civil engineering. Plant equipment and
machinery are designed, fabricate mostly elsewhere and simply installed on site.
Much of the Plant installed is very heavy and require large cranes and other lifting
equipment. A great deal of structural steel and pipe work is involved in this type of
work and has to be erected and installed often at considerable heights.
The construction crews are exposed to increased risks of falling objects.
Asbestos insulation whilst now generally banned in most Industrialized countries,
is still in use in several countries. It is a serious health hazard to laggers and
insulators.
The hazards of erecting plant and equipment inside a building are usually less
than doing the same in the open.
Large tanks and pressure storage vessels often have to be site-fabricated by
welding. A great deal of planning is needed to ensure that the welders and other
workers are properly protected from falling and other hazards.
Offshore Oil and Gas Installation
Most offshore oil and gas work is potentially very hazardous. It includes the
installation of:Annamalai University
 Off shore Platforms and the buildings plant and equipment on them
 The pipe work linking the platforms to the shore
 The drilling and completing of gas and oil wells.
It requires great and thorough engineering skill in designing and planning.
Divers have to work at depths. Fatal accidents among divers are common.
Submarine pipe work has to be installed and connected to a subterranean oil or gas
reservoir under high pressure. This is highly hazardous work.
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Demolition
Demolition is included here as a construction activity. It is often a necessary
preliminary to construction and the hazards associated with it are very similar to
those found in construction. Demolition is regarded as a ‘high risk activity’
Demolition is distinguished as General demolition, Blasting, dismantling,
recovery of scrap metal, equipment and machineries. Reinforced concrete, pre-
stressed concrete is more difficult to demolish. The hazards commonly found in
demolition are
 falls
 being hit by falling objects
 eye injuries from flying particles
 Inhalation of hazardous dusts fibres and fumes
 Explosions
 Electric shock through contact with live wires and cables.
The hazards of demolition are by no means confined to the workers
themselves. They extend to many others in the locality as well as adjacent property.
Underground pipes, sewers and electrical telephone lines may be damaged by
vibration and heavy falls of materials. The damage is often not immediately
apparent. Further hazards may then arise (e.g.) escape of fuel gas leading to
explosion and escape of sewage leading to diseases.
3.2 TRADES AND ACTIVITIES IN CONSTRUCTION
Labour in the construction industry is sub-divided into a variety of inter
dependent crafts and occupations. Each is subject to a characteristic spectrum of
hazards from sudden accidents and illness caused by exposure of toxic substances,
bad weather and physical exertion in cramped or unnatural positions.
There are large number of occupations which make up the construction
industry. A comprehensive list of occupations are
 Managerial, Technical and supervisory staff
 Safety, welfare and inspection staff
 Building crafts and occupations, brick layers and store masons
 Carpenters and joiners
 Roofers
 Concrete workers, plasterers
 Barbenders, scaffolders, steel fixers
 Service workers – rigger – erectors, fitters
 Crane operators.
 Transport workers
 Road and ground workers
 Pipe layers, cable layers, asphalt layers, timbermen
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 Divers, tunnel workers

 Finishing craftsmen, painters, decorators, glazier, ceiling fixers, wall
tillers
 Flooring layers
 Demolition workers
 General workers
3.2.1 General Trades and Their Hazards
This chapter describers briefly the works and hazards:
Brick Layers and Allied Crafts
Brick layers work mainly outdoors. Much of their work is done on or around
scaffold platforms. They are exposed to the hazards of falling and being hit by
falling objects. Bad weather, especially winds, the strength of which increases with
height adds to these hazards. Brick layers are also exposed to :
 Bruises, cuts, and contusions from the materials they handle.
 Dermatitis and skin ailments from contact with some of the mortors they
handle.
 Back and muscle injuries due to unnatural postures.
Carpenters, Joiners and Shuttering Workers
Carpentry consists of cutting, shaping and fixing the wooden parts. The
hazards in their works:
 Noise and vibration when using hand and powered wood working tools.
 wooden splinters, nail and other sharp materials.
 Respiratory hazards from dusts
 Dermatological hazards from solvents and chemicals used in treating
woods.
Wood Working Machinists
They work in various machines such as saws, planes and morticers. They are
exposed to :
 Cuts and lacerations from wood splinters and when sharpening and
setting up their tools.
 Dusts and flying particles from grinders and sanders with risk of injury
to eyes and lungs.
Painters
They are exposed to the hazards of falling from heights.
They are also exposed to toxic and dermatological hazards through solvents,
pigments and other constituents of their paints and from the fumes of the
chemicals used in removing old paint work.
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Other health hazards are irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, dizziness
caused by inhaling solvent vapours.
Plumbers
Plumbers works with a variety of materials – copper, steel and several plastics.
They are generally responsible for the installation and maintenance of all systems
handling water. Plumbers are exposed to :
 respiratory hazards of toxic materials like PVC, Polyurethane and the
vapours formed from them when they are heated.
 Exposed to hazards from the solvents
 Exposed to hazards of inadequate ventilation when they work in
confined space
 Exposed to tool injuries.
Welders and Gas Cutters
They are exposed to fire, explosion, electrical shock, heat, burns, fumes, UV
radiations etc. hazards.
Other hazards are accidental damage to gas cylinders, fittings, Gas hoses and
electric loads and cable.
Sparks, globules of molten meta lead to fire hazards.
Electricians
The main hazards of electricians are electric shock and flash burns through
contact with or short circuiting of electric cables.
Installation electricians are exposed to the risk of falling when working on
ladders temporary platforms and supports.
Temporary supply lines for portable power tools has been the cause of many
electrical accidents.
Reduced supply voltage of 110 volts with the midpoint earthed be used for all
temporary wiring. This greatly reduces the risk of fatal electrocution.
Operators
The term operators covers the operation of cranes, trucks, excavators, bull
dozers, dumpers, road rollers, fork lift drivers and other mobile machines:
The main hazards are
 collision, tipping and overturning
 over stressing with damage to the machineries
 dropping load being carried
 contact of crane with over head live electrical cables
 contact of excavators with under ground services
 noise and vibration from machines
 clearing blockages in concreting machines which are under air pressure.
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Pile Driving Operators

Hazards :
 Intolerable Noise
 Falls & falling objects
 Release of loads from slings hooks and ropes
Concreters
Hazards:
 Falls vibration exposure, material handling
 Dermatological hazards since cement is strongly alkaline and contain
small quantities of chromium compounds.
Plasterers
Hazards:
 Muscular exertion
 Unnatural bodily positions
 Fall from heights
 Respiratory, dermatological and eye hazards
Glaziers
Hazards:
 Deep cuts at veins and arteries
 Toxic hazards through splinters of glass containing lead, arsenic and
other toxic elements which may penetrate and lodge in the skin.
Cladders
Hazards:
 Fixing tools operated by explosive cartridges by means of metal pins
 Works at the outside of the building
 Hindrance from other structures.
Tilers
Hazards: Annamalai University
 Unnatural body positions
 Muscular disorders
 Solvent vapours from tile adhesives and flash and fires.
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OTHER CATEGORIES
Manual Handling
Hazards:
 Unskilled manual works (e.g. digging)
 Exposed to all the same hazards.
High Risk Jobs
Construction includes several high-risk activities. The principal ones steel
erection, scaffold erection, dismantling, roof work, demolition, excavation and
tunnel work.
Steel Erection
The basic hazards are:
1. Falling from the structure under erection or from access ladders
2. Instability of partially erected structures
3. Materials being dropped while working at heights.
Safety Measures
1. Keep people away. Barriers, caution boards, should be used.
2. No one should work beneath the erection
3. Use safety nets, hard hats, shoes, safety belts.
4. Steel erection should not be carried out in unsuitable weather or bad
light or when the structure is slippery.
5. Temporary gangways with hand rails and toe board should where needed
be provided for access to steel structures.
6. Maintain good house keeping through out the work period.
Scaffholders
Scaffolders are exposed to the risk of collapse of the scaffold they are erecting.
Hazards are discussed under separate chapter.
Roof Works
Hazards:
 The falls
 Works on unfinished roofs
 Works on fragile roofing
 Works at roof edges
 Handling roofing materials to heights
 Works during adverse weather conditions.
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Safety Arrangements
 safe access to reach heights, roof ladders crawling boards, safety nets.
 Adequate staging with guard rails and toe boards at the sides of the roof
 Portable edge protections.
Excavation
The main hazards of excavation:
 falls of persons in to excavations
 collapse of sides of excavation and falls of materials excavated on to
persons in excavation
 collapse of adjacent building
 struck by parts of machines engaged for excavation.
 striking other underground electrical cable
 striking other underground service lines
 Poisoning or asphyxiation due to presence of Hydrogen sulphide, carbon
monoxide
 Flooding with risk of drowning
 Accidental explosions through the use of explosives in excavations
 Work in cramped positions
 Weils disease / Biological hazards.
Safety Precautions
1. Assume that there may be a cable, service lines in the area to be
excavated.
2. Details of any likely to be exposed during excavation should be specially
noted and precautions taken.
3. Assess the stability of adjacent property due to effects of the excavation
and take appropriate precautions.
4. Shield the dangers arising from the sudden collapse of sides of
excavations by providing supports t\like sand bags, timber, steel plates
5. Barricade the excavations area. Provide caution boards
6. Do not dump excavated material at the edge of the excavated pit
7. Provide adequate ladder for entry into, exit and escape from excavations
securely fixed projecting atleast 3 ft. 6 in above the edge.
8. Test the atmosphere inside excavations for oxygen, flammable toxic
gases.
9. All machinery operations should be guided by a supervisor. All
machines should have been tested for operational safety and possess test
certificates.
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Field Quality
i) Investigate the nature of the ground, soil and moisture contents.
ii) Determine the type and natural angle of repose wet and dry.
 Non cohesive ground or light soil when dry natural angle of repose in
usually 45 degree or less.
 For cohesive ground, heavy soil angle of repose is about 60 degree
 Rock, whose natural angle of repose varies from about 80 degree for
loosely bonded or light rock to 90 degree for tightly bonded heavy
rock.
iii) Take into account adjacent ground loads
iv) Vibration
v) Nearby traffic
vi) The effect of excavation on ground stability.
3.3 PERSONAL PROTECTION SAFETY FOR CONSTRUCTION WORKERS
Identify the situations where the hazard justifies the need for specific safety
arrangements and the use of personal protective equipments.
Eye protection is needed for hazards such as
 Impact from flying particles
 Dust
 Splashes of molten metal or other liquids
 Toxic, irritation gases
 Chemicals
 Radiation
 Combination of two or more of the above.
Respiratory Protection system is needed for
 Paint spraying
 Removal of old asbestos insulation
 Shot blasting
 Grinding granite, work in tunnels, laying high silica or chrome furnace
bricks
 Gas and electric welding and cutting of steels containing or coated with
load, cadmium, beryllium
 Laying tiles with adhesives containing organic solvent
 Works which produces fine dust
 Entry into pits, confined spaces, sewers
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Head Protections
The main concern is falling objects. The requirement is safety helmet or hard
hats, to be used all the time.
Other head protective needed are:
 Welders helmet
 Acoustic helmets
 Bump hats and scalp protectors for tunnel works
 Caps and hair nets for machine workers
 Shot blast helmets
 Chemical proof hoods and helmets
 ‘air’ stream helmets.
Hand Protections
Hand hazards among different occupations in construction require the use of
gloves – fabric, leather, rubber or plastic, gauntlets, mittens, hard guards, finger
and thumb stalls. Barrier and cleansing creams also to be used to protect hands
against oils, grease, solvents.
Foot Protections
Protection against falling objects – safety footwear with steel toe
Protection against sharp objects – protective mid soles (for ground workers)
Protection against falling and - safety boots and shoes
Crushing hazards
Puddles, wet ground, toxic chemicals- rubber or PVC ankle boot
Fall Protection
The means are safety harnesses, safety belts, safety nets.
Important point to be checked when using safety belt and harnesses are
 anchoring points for belts should be above head
 to be attached only to points which are strong enough to hold the wearer
in the even of a fall
 Be familiar how to wear
 Maintain them in good condition. Check and inspect periodically before
and after use.
Safety Nets
Safety nets are used to catch workers and debris falling from elevated places.
They are to be tied to strong structural members to support them at the sides and
corners. Ensure adequate supports and anchorages for the safety net at the
required height and position.
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Fall Arrest Devices

Two types of fall arrest devices are available for use in conjunction with safety
belts and harnesses. Type 1 runs on a fixed anchorage line and has the safety belt
or harness attached to it. Type 2 is attached to a fixed anchorage point and
contains a special reel with a spring which winds or unwinds an extendable
anchorage line which is attached to the safety belt or harness of the wearer. These
devices particularly the second type, enable a safety harness to be used by a
scaffolder or steel erector with the minimum interference to his movements.
3.3.1 Scaffolds
For any work at heights, soundly constructed scaffolding of adequate strength
shall be used as a safe means of access.
A scaffold should be designed to support at least four times the maximum
intended.
Materials / Steel Scaffolding
Material of construction : MS ‘A’ Class
Standard length of pipe : 6 Mtr.
Dia : 40 mm
Fittings : Right angled coupler
Swivel coupler
Put log couplers
Joint pins
Reveal pins
Working platform : Planks of 2.5 x 1.5 mtr.
40 mm thick
To be made on pipes and will be
Supported
Hand rails : at 100 cm height
Toe boards : 10 cm height
Safety Measures
 To be erected by trained personnel
 Scaffolds must be properly braced
 Platforms must be properly supported – not overloaded
 Guard rails, toe boards must be provided and maintained
 Scaffold pipes must be mounted on steel base plates, loose packing, bricks
must not be used.
 Platforms should be close. Over lapping and excessive overhangs should be
avoided.
 Diagonal bracing to be given to full height of the scaffold at 30 m intervals.
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Points to be Checked
 The alignments, supports
 The straightness
 Adequacy of bracing
 The ties at Building / structures
 The tightness of lashings or couplers
 The soundness of platform planks
 The guard rails and toe boards
 The conditions of ladders
Inspections
 scaffolds should be inspected in every 7 days (at least)
 scaffolds should be inspected after every weather conditions (storms, rains
etc.)
Hazards in Scaffolds
 Un secured ladders slip
 Use of unsuitable and faulty materials
 Inadequately supported
 Inadequate or irregular platform width
 Omission of guard rails or toe boards
 Failure to secure scaffolds to the building or to brace it adequately.
 Overloading of platform and scaffolds
 Lateral forces, wind pressure, rope tension
 Slippery conditions on scaffolds
 Erected on uneven ground
 Dropping or throwing up or down of scaffolding materials during erection or
dismantling.
3.3.2 Ladders
Portable ladders are widely used in construction for ascent or descent to
working places. Portable ladders may be classified by type e.g.
 Plain rung ladders or standing ladders
 Extension ladders
 Step ladders and trestles
 Roof ladders
Ladder Hazards
Falls from ladders have always been a cause of accidents in construction.
Using a ladder as a workplace particularly when the worker needs both hands for
45
his task or if he leans to one side, is the source of the vast majority of accidents by
falling from a ladder.
Construction and Maintenance of Ladders
 Good construction of suitable and sound material of adequate strength for
purpose.
 Proper maintenance
 Prohibition on use if one rung or more is missing or defective
 Evey rung to be properly fixed to the stiles or sides
 No rung to depend purely on nails, spikes or similar fixing for its support
 Tenon joints of wooden ladders to be secured by reinforcing ties and not by
wedges.
 The grain of wooden stiles and rungs to run lengthwise.
Safety Precautions in the use of Ladders
 Ladders to be securely fixed at the upper end or where not practicable at or
near the lower end.
 Footing to be firm and level
 To be secured as needed to prevent under swaying or sagging
 To be equally supported on both ends
 Ladders should extend atleast 3 feet 6 inches above the landing place or the
highest rung to be used by the feet, unless there is other adequate hand
hold.
 There must be sufficient space at each rung to provide adequate foot hold.
 In all other cases, ladders should be securely suspended, equally on both
sides or stiles and secured to prevent un due swaying or sagging.
 Ladder runs should not exceed 30 feet vertically without a landing place
provided with guard rails and toe boards
 Any opening in a platform through which a ladder passes should be as small
as reasonably practicable.
Inspection Check list for Ladders
General
 Missing steps or rungs
 Loose steps or rungs
 Cracked, split, worn or broken stiles steps or rungs
 Cleanliness
 Excessive wear
 Make shift repairs
Aluminium Ladders
 Distortion
 Tightness of rungs in stiles
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 Security of ropes, pulleys and fittings on rope operated extension ladders

 Security of rivets and fastenings
 Corrosion
 Sharp edges on stiles and rungs
Step Ladders
 Wobble (from side strain)
 Loose or bent hinge spreaders
 Broken, split or worn steps
 Loose hinges
 Worn, broken or missing cords
Extension Ladders
 Loose, broken or missing extension locks
 Defective locks which do not seat properly
 Rusted and corroded metal parts
 Defective cords and pulleys on rope operated extension ladders
 Loose tie rods
Storage
Ladders should be stored under cover on edge, clear of the ground in racks or
on wall brackets, which support the edge of the ladder to avoid twist and warping.
All defective ladders must be removed from service. Those which can be
repaired should be handed over to an authorized person for repair with precautions
to ensure that they cannot be used again until they have been repaired. Those
which are beyond repair must be destroyed.
Carrying Ladders
When a ladder is carried by a single person the front hand should always be
kept high enough to clear a persons head. Special care is needed when passing
through doorways, around corners and when turning.
Use of Ladders – Safety Points
 Only one person should use a ladder at any time
 Nothing should be carried in the hands when climbing or descending
 Tools and small items can be carried in a shoulder bag or in a belt but all
other items should be raised or lowered by a suitable rope or tackle from a
safe position.
 Ladders should only be used as working platform as a last resort, for work of
short duration, such as painting window, cleaning where the erection of any
other form of working platform is quite impracticable.
 One hand should always be on the ladder when working.
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 A safety belt to be worn and it should be clipped to the ladder.

 When working, the person should not lean or try to reach too far sideways or
upwards or to attempt to reach round the ladder.
 Should never climb or attempt to work from the underside of ladders
Other Precautions
 Care should be taken not to drop ladders
 Ladders should not be left in position for any longer than they are required
for use.
3.4 HIGH PRESSURE HAZARDS AND PRESSURE VESSLES SAFETY
PRESSURE HAZARDS
Any pressure system is regarded as hazardous Hazards lie in both the
pressure level and in the total energy involved.
EXPLOSION, PRESSURE RUPTURE
The rupture of a pressure vessel occurs when the total force acting to cause
the rupture exceeds the vessel strength. Shock wave produced by a rupture can
produce blast effects similar to and as damaging as those generated by detonations
or explosions.
FIRED PRESSURE VESSELS
In Industry we use steam boilers, water heaters, steam digesters, which fall in
this category.
Every vessel, however small, in which water is heated such as small geyser,
used commonly, if its normal outlet is closed, can, in fact become a high pressure
steam generator and if its strength is exceeded will explode destructively.
BOILER EXPLOSION
The boiling point of water rises is direct proportion to the pressure. If the
water in the boiler vessel is under pressure of 100 psi, its boiling point is 337
degree F. If for some reason, any part of the water tube or vessel gets ruptured, the
pressure may fall down to atmospheric and so will be the boiling point to 212
degree F. That part of the water which is not yet evaporated as steam, will
suddenly flash into stream due to drop in pressure and boiling point and the
thermal energy thereby released will be converted into kinetic energy; and this may
tear off the boiler shell from its foundations and the shell may fly like a rocket,
causing heavy destruction and fires.
A separate steam Boilers Inspectorate to regulate design, fabrication,
installation inspection and also to supervise over their operation and maintenance
has helped to keep mishaps of boilers coming within Boilers Act Rules and
regulations.
UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSELS
Almost every factory has some of these either covered under the Factories Act
& Rules or static & Mobile (Unfired) pressure vessels Rules. They are very rigid
rules and are designed to prevent pressure bursts or explosions. If these are
designed, fabricated, installed, properly operated, provided with the necessary
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safety relief devices and other safety fittings and the required statutory and non-
statutory in-running tests and examinations carried out at prescribed or more often
intervals, by a competent person, there should be no mishap.
Un-fired pressure vessels do not heave the very high heat inputs from furnace
that fired pressure vessels have. However inputs of heat can occur in other ways.
The heat of the sun on outdoor pressure vessels is a common example.
3.4.1 Safety of High Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels are equipped with safety valves which permit pressures to be
relieved if they exceed. In addition, boilers are provided with plugs which melt if
they become too hot. These plugs are located at firmly low points in the boiler.
During normal operations, the plugs are covered with water, which keeps them
relatively cool. If the water level drops excessively, the plugs become uncovered are
no longer cooled by water, get hot and melt. This opens another path for relief of
steam pressure.
Practically all pressure vessel failures occur at flaws in the metal where
stresses are concentrated. If the flaw is serious enough, failure may occur at or
below the normal operating pressure. If the vessel is over pressurized it will fail at
a weak point where a flaw exists.
Air Compressors
Compressors are used for variety of purposes. Compressor has a receiver tank
which is a pressure vessel. Rigid cut out devices are provided. However there is
another hazard, entry of oil, grease etc. from the compressor unit into the receiver
vessel cannot be ruled out. Moisture is being drawn in along with the air being
compressed. Oil hydrocarbon collects over the water condensate. This can be
easily drained off. If the periodical draining is neglected, the oil vapours, due to
heat of compression, may reach their ignition point and catch fire due to pressure
of oxygen in the receiver tank, which will then explode. Besides the precautions of
draining of the receiver tank, feeding of excess oil should be avoided, as any excess
will be carried into the receiver. Only oil recommended for use by the
manufacturers should be used.
Portable Compressed Gas Cylinders
Every factory uses and possess these, in good numbers. Compressed gases
are bottled in cylinders under high pressure. Hazards of the compressed gas
cylinders are much more. They are detailed in a separate chapter under unit – III.
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS – PRESSURE HAZARDS
Safety Guidelines
 Personnel maintain, repair or operate pressure equipment should be familiar
with their hazards and the precautionary measures which must be observed.
 Only qualified trained personnel should install, maintain, adjust the safety
devices involved.
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 Persons should be familiar with control valves and with procedures for
emergency depressurization.
 Pressure vessels and lines should be considered hazardous until it has been
absolutely determined that all pressure has been released.
 Ensure that a system is depressurized either by checking a guage connected
to the equipment or by opening a test cock.
 All pressure systems should be marked to indicate their rated pressures and
direction of flow.
 Face shields or goggles should be worn by all persons working on or with
pressure systems.
 Do not use compressed air to clean clothing or parts of the body.
 Maintain the pressure systems clean and free of dirt.
 Do not use a pressure pipeline on a step.
 Pressure vessels, lines should be tested as prescribed in the statutory
regulations.
Pressure Relief / Safety Devices
Each high pressure vessel and any line should be equipped with a suitable
relieving device. The relieving device must be sized to permit flow which will keep
pressure to a safe level.
There should be no shut off valve between the vessel or line and the relieving
device.
The safety systems which should be designed and installed in each high
pressure vessel are
 A pressure indicator controller
 A pressure regulator controller
 Pressure reducing valve.
 Pressure release valves / mechanical, pneumatic vent or burst diaphragm.
 Quick closing valve
 Vacuum relief / rupture disc.
All the devices should be periodically tested and test records should be
maintained where changes are made in the settings, the devices should be tested to
be certain that they are operating at the desired settings.
 No safety devices should be by-passed or isolated for any reason.
 The exhaust from each relieving device be conducted away by arranging
suitable flare lines.
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Vacuum Relief / Rupture Disc

There is a possibility of collapse of a pressure vessel because of condensation
of steam or other gas, decrease in altitude, excessive operation of a vacuum pump.
The collapse of vessel is due to vacuum creation resulting in negative pressure.
Safety devices such as vacuum relief or rupture disc are to be fitted which will
actuate and keep the system under positive pressure and prevent the collapse of
the vessel.
These devices are to be fixed on the vessels and normally connected to a inert
gas system. The rupture disc in the device will break and allow the inert gas enter
the vessel to keep it under positive pressure. The rupture disc devices are also
used for relieving excess pressure in the system.
HIGH PRESSURE VESSELS – INSPECTION, REPAIRS, SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
– CHECK LIST
 Depressurise the vessel through the depressurizing lines and valves slowly
and carefully and empty. Cordon off the area. Fix caution boards.
 Isolate the vessel from all incoming, interconnecting lines
 Blank them off with blinds or disconnect them.
 All shut off valves should be tagged. Identify the blinds with tags.
 Wash with water / Purge with air, steam, nitrogen or neutralizaing solutions
depending on the material the vessel held formerly.
 Check for oxygen content / explosive atmosphere or toxic gas. Additional
checks should be made at suitable intervals.
 Once again check drain valves are left open and inter connecting drain
valves if any are blanked off.
 Open the man holes for inspection. Keep them open until the prescribed
work has been completed. (Inspection & repairs)
 Persons should enter the vessel on getting written authorization in the work
permit.
 Wear protective clothing. Body harness and life line
 The buddy system should be used
 Keep reserve equipment ready for use at all times. Take fire safety
precautions in case welding / cutting is undertaken.
3.4.2 Non Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing is widely used as a means for maintaining safety of
equipment .
The main modes of failure normally encountered in equipment are
 Corrosion
 Erosion
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 Fatigue due to stress reversals or cyclic changes of pressure and

temperature
 Creep due to prolonged exposure to high temperature
 Brittle fracture due to low temperature service or strain hardening
 Hydrogen embrittlement
 Carborisation
 Graphitisation
 Temper embrittlement or loss of ductility due to high temperature
services
NDT Techniques serve as an important tool in monitoring the condition of the
equipment on the above areas of failure – proneness.
The main techniques under NDT normally employed for condition monitoring
of static equipment and piping in chemical plants are
 Visual inspection
 Hydraulic testing
 Boroscopic inspection
 Dye penetrant examination
 Magnetic particle testing
 Ultrasonic testing
 Radiography testing
 Hardness testing
 Metallographical examination
 Leak testing
 Acoustic emission testing
 Strain measurement
 Dimensional / creep testing
 Ferrite measurement
 Vibration measurement
 Bearing conditions monitoring
 Temperature measurement.
Key words
“Safety Relief valve” – means an automatic pressure relieving device actuated
by the pressure upstream of the valve intended to prevent the rupture of pressure
vessel under certain conditions of exposure.
3.5 MACHINE GUARDING
Introduction
Accident prevention is both science and art. It represents control – control of
man performance, machine performance and physical environment. The work
“Control” is used because it connects prevention as well as correction of unsafe
conditions and circumstances. In accident prevention the bull’s eye of the target is
in the middle of mechanical and physical hazards as well as unsafe action. In the
prevention of mechanical and physical hazards, machine guarding and correction of
mechanical and physical hazards is a fundamental and a first requirement of a
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complete safety programme. Safety begins with safe tools, safe machines, safe
processes and safe environment. Although man failure causes the most accidents,
mechanical guarding and engineering revision are nevertheless important factors in
preventing the most accident.
Guards and safety devices are often fitted grudgingly which will satisfy an
apparent whim of a factory Inspector. Many engineers question the relevance of
guarding as a means of accident prevention. Too often they see the problem as one
of disciplining and training and undisciplined and careless worker. The result is
that guards are ‘designed’ as a chore. Such guards may in fact comply with the
law, but only at the instant the inspector leaves the facotyr.
Many inconvenient, defeatable guards do not prevent accidents. They merely
transfer blame for an accident from the employer to the employee when the latter
improperly removes the guard. But innovations in designs of guards coupled with
regulations to maintain the guards have reduced serious accidents very much.
Classification of Dangers
The best way of deciding which parts of machinery are dangerous is the
obvious one. It is to visualize the ways in which a person can be injured by a
component; the immediate sequence of events leading to injury and the location
and potential severity of the injury. This is helpful in the correct choice of
safeguards.
People can be injured by machine components in five different ways. Certain
machines may give rise to sequential injuries from a combination of the forms of
harm.
i. Traps
The limbs (in some cases the whole body) which need not themselves be
moving may be trapped between closing or passing motions of machines. In other
cases the trap occurs when the limbs are drawn into a closing motion of a machine.
These are all often-called in-running nips. (e.g.) gear wheels, ‘V’ belt drive.
ii. Impact
Injuries can result from being struck by moving parts of machinery. (e.g.)
Lathe, shaping machine.
iii. Contact
Sharp or abrasive surfaces or energises (hot or electrically live components)
can cause injury on contact. This category includes contact with fast moving
circulate saws.
iv. Entanglement
Injuries involve the entanglement or hair, rings, glouse, cuffs or ties in moving
machinery. (e.g.) all rotating parts of machineries.
v. Ejection
Ejection involves the throwing out of rough materials, particles, swarf, chips,
sparts, molten splash or broken machine components. (e.g.) burst of abrasive
wheels.
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Types of Safeguard
It should be remembered that guards are only required where the designer has
failed to achieve intrinsic safety – the avoidance of trapping and similar risks.
However intrinsic safety is sometimes not to achieve despite safety design.
The considerations for choosing guard materials are:
Strength, stiffness and durability (to cope up with both continuing and
contingent dangers).
Guard types are listed below in what is a usually accepted decreasing order or
preference.
1. Fixed guard
2. Interlocking guard
3. Automatic guard
4. Trip guard
5. Distance guard
6. Safety by position of machinery
1. Fixed Guard
A fixed guard should be used whenever practicable. The guard should, by its
design, prevent access to the dangerous parts of the machinery. It should be of
robust construction, sufficient to withstand the stresses of the process and
environmental conditions. It should be securely fixed in position when the
machinery is in motion or is likely to be in motion, and it should not be possible to
remove or open the guard at any time without the aid of a tool.
When it is necessary for work to be fed through the guard, openings should be
sufficient only to allow the passage of material but should not create a trap between
the material and the guard. If access to the dangerous parts cannot be prevented
by the use of a fixed guard with a plain opening then a tunnel of sufficient length
should be provided.
Where an opening is necessary in a fixed guard for the purpose of feeding
material by hand, it should not allow the operator access to the dangerous parts.
Where is necessary to provide such an opening it should be at a sufficient
distance form the danger point.
2. Interlocking Guards
When a process demands access to a danger area and a fixed guard is
impracticable, the provision of an interlocking guard should be considered. An
interlocking guard should be so connected to the machine controls that
1. until the guard is closed the machine cannot operate, and
2. either the guard remains locked closed until the dangerous movements
has ceased, or, where overrun is insufficient disengages the drive.
The interlocking system may be either mechanical, electrical, hydraulic,
pneumatic or any combination of these. The type and mode of operation of the
interlock should be considered in relation to the process to which it is applied. The
54
guard should be constructed from material of adequate strength for its purpose and
be securely fixed to the machinery or floor so that it cannot be adjusted or detached
without the aid of a tool. The interlocking system should never fail.
3. Automatic Guard
An automatic guard operates by physically removing from the danger area any
part of a person exposed to danger. It can be used only where there is adequate
time for such removal to take place without introducing any further danger.
The guard should be securely fastened to the machinery so that it cannot be
adjusted or detached without the aid of tools.
The movable part of the guard should be positively actuated by the movement
of the dangerous part of the machinery. The mechanism should be so designed
that it will stand long use with minimum maintenance, although it is essential that
periodic inspection of the mechanism is carried out and provision is made so that
any necessary adjustments can be made to ensure that the safeguard operates
safely and correctly. (e.g.) Power presses
4. Trip Guard
The trip guard is based on the principle of stopping a machine almost
instantaneously. This requires a disconnection of the driving mechanism associated
with a simultaneous application of a powerful brakes. The guard in one form, may
consists of a pivoted frame, so supported that it can swing through a sufficient
length to trip, by means of a trigger, a powerful spring of which the compression
energy suddenly released is able to perform the disconnection and breaking in a
small predetermined period. Application of this type of guard has been chiefly to
laundry cleaners, ironing machines, platen printing machines and certain rubber
trade calendars of the two roll type. Generally speaking, the guard may be adopted
for most continuous running machines which are necessary hand fed and in which
the hands of the operator may be nipped between the in gathering rolls or closing
platens.
With the use of this guard, the necessity arises for constant checking of
adjustment of operation, so much, so that a careful manager will stop any machine
so guarded at least once a day by means of trip mechanism. Probably the simplest
tripping arrangement for quick operation on small machines is the toggle out the
axial line under the influence of a strong compressed spring which is powerful
enough to disconnect and brake the machine. Another variant is that in which the
trip acts
upon a motor control gear so as to cut it out from the supply and possibly
induce dynamic breaking, as in the case of heavy rubber trade multibowl calendars.
5. Distance Guard
A distance guard is designed and constructed in relation to the danger with
the object of preventing any part of the body from reaching a danger point or area.
It may take the form of a fixed barrier or fence designed to a certain height so as to
55
prevent access to the danger area although climbing over this type of safeguard
cannot be entirely eliminated.
6. Safety by Position of Machinery
Every workman has an absolute right to the fullest protection from dangerous
machinery, whether he be careful or careless, skilled or unskilled, obedient or dis-
obedient, dull witted or intelligent or active. In fact personal attributes must be
disregarded entirely in the assessment of danger. Therefore, should reliance be
placed upon positional safety, the maintenance of that positional safety, must be
actively and constantly supervised so that the person may never approach the
unfenced parts. The standard to be adopted is difficult to decide as practice and
supervision both vary widely. But the over-riding criterion of safety is whether it is
possible for any person willfully to reach the dangerous parts, should they be
careless, thoughtless or even disobedient.
The only satisfactory standard for adoption is to assume that sooner or later
some person will come into contact with dangerous parts and to resolve that
fencing by efficient guards is much safer than any reliance upon safety by position.
The choice of the type of guard has to be done taking into consideration the
circumstances in each case.
Ergonomic Aspect of Machinery Guarding
A crucial factor which determines the protection afforded by machinery
safeguards is the potential for dangerous access through or over openings which
may be necessarily present in the guard. The safety of any opening or barrier rail
depends upon the size of the opening or height of the rail; the distance between the
opening or the barrier rail and the nearest danger point; the relevant personal
dimensions of the personal at risk.
The problem with fixed guards concerns, the variation in size and shape of the
limbs of personnel at risk. Width of the slot opening should be greater than the
width of people hand and fore arm.
It is on the part of Management to see that the machineries are securely
fenced and adequately guarded to avoid accidents.
3.6 HAZARDS IN MINES
Introduction
Mining is a very hazardous where one has to be ever vigilant about his working
environment. There are numerous sources of danger inherent to mining.
Mines can be divided into two groups. Viz. Underground mines and open cast
mines. But, whether it is underground or opencast, the operations are always
hazardous and chances of accidents are more when compared to other Industries.
Objectives
Every person shall strictly adhere to the provisions of Mines Act 1952 and
follow safety Rules and Procedures in all his activities.
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Mine Plans
Mines Plans / survey consists of
a) General b) Surface c) Underground plans
At the plan stage, attention is to be drawn to various dangers arising out of
i) surface water ii) unconsolidated strata iii) water bearing strata, iv) water
logged workings and v) fire
Accidents in Mines
The high fatality causes have been (i) fall of roof; (ii) Fall of sides; (iii) Haulage
installations.
Accidents due to transportation machinery disasters due to inflammable gas
leading to fire / explosion, toxic gas leading to poisoning and water flooding.
Continuous efforts have been made over the years to device ways and means
to eliminate the factors giving rise to accidents, in particular the principal causes of
fatal accidents and disasters.
Inflammable Gas and Prevention of Fire / Explosion
Ignition / explosion of inflammable gas has taken the highest toll of lives in
coal mines.
The prime cause of these explosions is the presence of methane gas in the
mine atmosphere within explosive range. One of the important features for
prevention of explosion is to see that the emission of gas from the working does not
reach such explosive limits. Effective ventilation is the way. The principles of
providing ventilation is basically one of installing large capacity fans for exhaust of
polluted air. Booster fans are provided in some large workings, in particular highly
gassy mines. Spot coolers are also being installed. For monitoring the levels of
methane as present in the mines atmosphere, sophisticated equipment have been
devised. Apart from flame safety lamps methnometers are required to be provided.
The mines should have a net work of environmental monitoring systems. In order
to enable workers employed in below ground mines to escape from a hostile
environment created after fire, explosion and ignition of gas, a personal protective
equipment called ‘Self rescuer’ has been developed.
Danger of Inundation
Accuracy of mine plan is the main factor and this has assumed added
importance. The disaster at Chasnalla colliery as well as Horilladih colliery were a
harsh reminder of this state of affairs.
The only precaution under the circumstances while approaching suspected
water logged working is by drivage of advance bore holes. Statutory provisions are
quite exhaustive in this respect and prior permission has to be obtained from
Director General of Mines safety in all such cases.
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Rope Haulage Installations

Improved safety standards in the use of rope haulage system and switch over
to conveyors are some of the efforts in the reduction and elimination of accidents
due to this agency.
Danger of Explosives in Blasting Operations
Development of safe and ultra-safe explosives, copper coated steel tube
detonators with multi-core delay element for use in below ground coal mines, mill-
second detonators, slurry explosives (for use in both below ground and open cast
mines) has resulted to reduction of accidents due to explosives.
OPEN CAST MINES
Accidents due to Earth moving equipment / Transports
Open cast mining activities are increasing. Dumpers, trucks and tractors are
the main means of transport in open cast mines. Fatal / serious accidents due to
dumpers, trucks etc show a rising trend.
Methods for prevention of accidents due to dumpers and trucks etc:-
1. Care in selection of operators. Training of operators.
2. Adherence to maintenance schedule for the equipments.
3. Effective steps to prevent riding on dumpers and trucks by unauthorized
persons.
4. Provision of audio visual alarm for their safe movements, specially during
reversal movements.
5. Supervising loading, movement operations
6. General safety guidelines and their strict adherence.
Mine Environment
Every effort should be made by mine management to achieve the stipulated
national standards with respect to mine environment in each mine. NO worker
should be deployed at any place in any mine where environment standards are not
met with for this purpose. Ventilation scheme should be prepared and provided.
Facilities of continuous type monitoring the environment parameters should
be installed. In gassy coalmines and in such other mines having underground fire
or mines having serious problems of heat.
Air Borne Dust : Control Measures
Dust surveys for different types of dust should be conducted.
In addition to quantitative, surveys, assessment of chemical composition of air
borne dust to ascertain its effect on the type diseases should be carried out.
Periodical medical examination of all workers and the management should
create suitable infrastructural facilities for the same.
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Fall of Ground
The existence of round ways in underground workings is associated with major
hazard of fall of ground. Areas under final extraction and such areas of inherent
weakness need to be supported. Under such supporting provisions prevention of
fall of roof accidents is possible. It depends to a large extent on good roof judgment.
Means of checking soundness of roof should be established. There is an old thumb
rule of tapping the roof with a wooden rod and checking the sound produced.
3.7 HAZARDS IN PORTS
Hatch Opening
Most distressing type of accidents on ships which frequently has fatal results
is that when workers near the open hatches lose balance and fall in holds below.
In one case, four workers were sliding the hatch beams from one part of the hatch
to the other as the beams in the original position were causing obstruction to the
passage of the cargo to the lower hold. Where 3 or 4 beams had been slided, there
was a sudden down pour of rain and the ships crew started closing the top deck
hatch. By the time three of the workers reached the hold ladder, the top deck
hatch had been closed completely. The fourth worker was still walking towards the
ladder and in the darkness he struck against a plant lying crosswise in his path
and as a result, he lost his balance and fell down through the deck hatch opening
through a distance of about 20 ft. and suffered serious injuries.
The deck was not illuminated. It became dark as soon as the top deck was
covered. Besides lack of lighting, this accident demonstrates the danger from not
stacking material in proper way and sufficiently away from the hatch opening.
Improper Slinging
A cargo of steel rails landed on the wharf from a ship was being shifted by a
mobile crane for the purpose of stacking. A double legged chain sling was being
used to sling rails weighing about 4 tons. After securing one leg on one end of the
rails, it was found that the other leg could not be put on owing to the insufficient
clearance under the rails and also that leg could not reach the other end of the
rails. Hence the crane has to be moved back to facilitate the slinging at the other
end. As the crane started moving back with one end of the load suspended from
the hook, its front wheel mounted over the sleeper on which the cargo was resting
and the crane capsized. As a result, the crane driver and a mazdoor, who was
caught under the jib of the crane, received serious injuries. The accident could
have been prevented if the correct method of slinging had been adopted. The
proper method for lifting heavy loads like rails with two-legged chain slings would
be as follows:
1. Lift one end of the load and insert a dunnage and release the load.
2. Repeat the same at the other end.
3. position the crane centrally and fasten both the legs of the sling properly
before lifting the load.
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Defective Signaling
The discharging of loads from the ship over the shore by means of ships
derriks need proper communication and signaling. In one case, the load was
lowered over, a shore worker who was cleaning the loads landed previously. He
received serious injuries. Inspite or shouts from the shore workers, some time
elapsed before the signaler gave signal to the winch operators to heave up the load
landed over the worker.
Handling at Intermediate Decks
No cargo shall be loaded or unloaded by a fall or a sling at any intermediate
deck unless either the hatch at that deck is securely covered or a secure landing
platform of a width not less than that of one section of hatch coverings has been
placed across it. In order to provide a secure landing platform the hatch beams
must be adequately secured and hatch covers of good fit place securely over them.
Any hatch opening not in use for the passage of goods must either be fenced to
a height of 3 feet or be securely covered.
Stacking Cargo
Safety and Health in Dock work recommends that
1. When cargo is built up in sections in the hold each section should allow for
a safe landing place for cargo.
2. If there is a risk of persons falling down from a height of more than (2 M)
during the work, where practicable, suitable measures should be taken by
installing fences guard rails or nets to prevent danger.
Stacking Cargo in a Hold
Bales of gunnies were being loaded in the upper part of the lower hold of a
ship and built up in a section which was about 5M high. The fore part of the hold
was empty in which general cargo was to be loaded later. While a worker was
pulling a bale with his hand hook for the purpose of stacking, the hook slipped and
he fell down from edge of the stack into the empty fore part of the load through a
depth of about 5M.
The accident emphasizes the need for providing a suitable net or fence to
prevent fall of workers while building up cargo in sections. The ILO code
recommends that
1. When cargo is built up in sections in the hold each section should allow for
a safe landing place for cargo.
2. If there is risk of persons falling down from a height of more than 2 M during
the work, where practicable, suitable measures should be taken by installing
fences, guard rails or nets to prevent danger.
Removing and Replacing Hatch Covers
A number of accidents occur to dock workers due to falling into holds while
engaged in removing and replacing hatch covers. Most of these accidents could be
60
prevented by the observance of reasonable safety precautions, effective supervision

over the operations and determination to eliminate dangerous practices. Safe
method of removing and replacing of hatch covers is to work from the center
towards the sides when removing covers and from the sides towards the center
when replacing covers.
Overturning of Cranes
Mobile cranes are used for loading from the wharf into a lorry. Overturning of
cranes occur due to excessive overloading. In the case of cranes where S.W.L. are
varied by raising or lowering of the jib, the load to be lifted should not exceed the
S.W.L. of the cranes at the corresponding radius of the jib.
Fall of Stock
Normally the loads discharged from a ship will be stacked in a shed by means
of fork lift trucks. The workers engaged on adjusting the stocks properly after the
truck has placed the loads on the stocks at heights are likely to fall from the stocks.
The stock may also collapse and fall over them. These sort of accidents could be
avoided if a ladder or some other safe means of access to the stock been provided
for the workers as required under 41(5) of dock workers safety, health and welfare
scheme 1961.
Snapping of Chain / Winches
Loads are likely to fall due to snapping of the link of the hoisting chain of the
shore crane. As required by regulations 29(2) of the Indian Dock Labourers
Regulation 1948, all chains of over 1 cm dia should be annealed at least once in
every twelve months. Lubrication of the chain will also avert snapping of chain
links.
Fall of Derrick Block while Rigging
After a ship had berthed, rigging of the derricks will commence for the purpose
of unloading cargo. The span wires of the derrick on the ship has locking devices
fitted on the deck of the most house. The purpose of locking devices is to hold the
span wires temporarily from slipping while they had to unfasten from the cleats on
the deck and wound round the winch drums for raising or lowering the derriks.
These locking devices have to be kept in unlocked position when not in use. I.e.
when the span wires were secured on the deck cleats. Lowering or raising of the
derricks has to be done by a trained worker who knows about the mechanism.
When one attempts to release the span wire from the cleats when the mechanism is
in unlocked position, it will go out of control and due to the weight of the derrick it
may fall and get damaged badly.
Breakages or Derrick Blocks
Carelessness on the part of winchman is responsible for a number of accidents
to the dock workers. The following description illustrates this cargo of bags was
being discharged from various hatches of a strip by means of the ship’s derricks.
After discharging a sling load on the quay, an empty endless rope sling was being
heaved up by the ship derricks for returning it to the hatch. The winchman
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operating the out-board winch heaved up the sling so high in order to clear it from
the ship’s bulwark that the shackle securing the cargo hook was drawn inside the
derrick head pulley block. As a result, the sheave of the pully block was broken
and its slide plates opened out. One of the broken pieces of the sheave dropped
down on a worker who was working on a quay causing a deep cut on his shoulder.
The winchman were rather rash in heaving up the empty slings as they were
probably assuming that there was no risk involved in heaving up the empty slings
at high speeds and without being thoughtful of the danger that the cargo hooks
were being heaved up to the maximum height and this causing damage to the
derricks head blocks. The above accident show the importance of doubling up long
empty slings while being operated by derricks in order to keep clear above the
ship’s railings and to prevent slings getting entangled with any structures or
objects.
In cyclonic and rainy weather, it is advisable to avoid dock working by
labourers.
3.8 QUESTIONS
1. Explain different occupations in construction Industry and hazards.
2. Explain the risk factors of High Pressure systems and how to safeguard the
systems.
3. Explain safety precautions for working in heights.
4. What is meant by Machinery Guards? Why are they essential?
5. Explain the importance of Mine planning.
Suggested Reading
1. “Construction Hazards and Safety Handbook” – By R.W. King, R. Hudson,
Butterworths & Co. Publishers Ltd., London.

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UNIT – IV
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Electrical Hazards
4.3 Fire Hazards from Electricity
4.4 Safety Procedure in Electrical System
4.5 Protective Devices
4.6 Amperages, Voltage and Safe Distance from Lines
4.7 Wire Joints, Connections and Testing Installation
4.8 Static Electricity
4.9 Questions
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Electricity has been for long and will continue to be a part of man’s life;
playing a significant role in changing for better the conditions in which he lives and
works. Taking the other end of life cycle, it is the electricity which often kills and
kills without warning. It is its “Silent” presence that kills people into a state in
which they tense to become careless and accidents resorts.
Objectives
The purpose of study on “Electricity” is to identify the risks and to take
corrective actions at design, installation and operational stages to ensure electrical
accidents are eliminated.
Key words
“Relay”: A Protective relay is an electrical device connected between the main circuit
and the circuit breaker that detects the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit
breaker.
“Fusing Current”: It is maximum value of current at which, the fuse element melts
and thus disconnects the circuit.
“Conductor”: A substance or body which allows current of electricity to pass
continuously.
“Earthing” : An object is said to be earthed when it is electrically connected by
means of an earth electrode.
4.2 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
A look into electrical accident causes reveals that electrical accidents occur
due to:
1. Carelessness in handling of electric utility
2. Improper and unsafe installation
3. Improper design, selection of electrical equipment, devices, inter
connecting cable
63
Large percentage of accidents – both fatal and non-fatal are due to the first two
of the above mentioned causes.
Thus it becomes the responsibility of the manufacturers and consumers to
make use of electricity safe.
Electrical hazards can be classified as
1. Electric shock
2. Electric flash
3. Electric Burns
4. Electric Fires
Safety of Personnel operating and maintenance of Electrical systems are
important. The criteria to achieve this objective are
1. Effective Earthing provisions
2. Safe clearances of live parts to earth
3. Accessible means of complete isolation of the equipment
4. Availability of working space and ventilation for maintenance personnel.
4.2.1 Earthing
The term “Earthing” means connecting the neutral point of the supply system
or the non-current carrying metal parts used in electrical distribution system to the
general mass of earth by wire of negligible resistance in such a manner that at all
times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger. This
brings the body of the equipment to zero potential and thus will avoid the shock to
the person engaged in electrical works.
The neutral of the three phase four wire supply system is also solidly earthed
to ensure its potential equal to zero. This neutral commences from the star point of
the 11 KV / 415 volts transformer.
Purpose of Earthing
1. To avoid electric shock to human body
2. To avoid risk of fire due to Earth leakage current through unwanted
path.
3. To ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with
respect to earth than its designed insulation.
It is not safe to work on equipment which is not earthed. The frame of every
non current carrying electrical equipment should be efficiently connected to earth
to drain away any leakage of current to earth.
The Fig. 4.1 shows an AC single phase 230 volts motor fed from a 400 volts 3
phase 4 wire supply. The neutral at the supply transformer is effectively connected
to Earth. If the insulation of the Motor winding fails, the current is liable to leak
into the metal body of the motor which would get charged with the supply pressure
64
and become alive and dangerous, unless the charge is drained away to earth by an
earth connection. As the discharge takes place to earth, the impedence of path of
the current is low, a large amount of current flows to earth. The faulty currents
would flow into the earth which would then blow out the fuse on the phase line as
the current exceeds the limiting value of the fuse installed in the circuit will blow off
resulting in disconnecting the supply to the motor. The earthing therefore helps to
automatically clearing the fault current eliminating the possibility of any danger of
electric accidents. Thus earthing of metallic parts of electric equipment and
appliances provides safety.
Fig. 4.1: Illustration of Fault Current through Earth

Indian Standard Specifications Regarding Earthing of Electrical Installation
The various important specifications regarding earthing as recommended by
ISI are given below:
1. Distance of Earth from building
An earthing electrode shall not be situated within a distance of 1.5 meters
from the building whose installation system is being earthed.
2. Size of earth continuity conductor
The conductor by means of which the metal body of an equipment or appliance
is connected to the earth is known as ‘Earth continuity conductor’ (E.C.C.). The
earth continuity can be ensured either through metal conduit, metal sheathing of
metal sheathed cables or by a special earth continuity conductor. The cross section
of earth continuity conductor should not be either less than 2.9 Sq.mm (14 SWG)
or half of the installation conductor size.
3. Resistance to Earth
The main principle regarding earth resistance is that the earth resistance
should be low enough to cause flow of current sufficient to operate the protective
relay or blow fuses in the event of an earth fault. As a general rule, the lower the
value of earth resistance better it is but even then the following values of earth
resistance (maximum permissible values) will satisfactory results.
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Larger Power stations 0.5 Ohms

Major Power stations 1.0 ohms
Small substations 2.0 Ohms
In all other cases 8.0 Ohms
Earth continuity inside an installation i.e., from the earth plate to any point in
the installation 1.0 ohms.
Different methods of earthing
1. Earthing through a water mains
2. Wire or strip earthing
3. Rod earthing
4. Pipe earthing
5. Plate earthing
a) Earthing through a Water mains
Normally, it is not advisable to use water mains for the purpose of earthing. It
is ensured that the water pipe is of iron and electrically continuous, then only the
water mains can be used for earth connections.
b) Wire or Strip earthing
The copper wire of 5 SWG or a copper strip of cross section not less than 25
mm wide and 1.6 mm thick is used as an earth. If round conductors are used, this
cross sectional area shall not be smaller than 3.0 Sq.MM if of copper and 6 Sq.mm
if of galvanized iron or steel. The wire or strip is buried in horizontal trenches of
depth not less than 8 to 15 metres depending upon resistance content in the soil.
The electrodes shall be as widely distributed as possible, preferably in a single
straight or circular trench or in a number of trenches radiating from a point. If
conditions require use of more than one strip, they shall be laid either in parallel
trenches or in radial trenches. This process is applied at places where it is difficult
to dig pits of desired depth due to rocky soil.
c) Rod Earthing
A solid rod of diamtere 12.5 mm solid rods of copper, 19mm diameter of
galvanized iron or a hollow GI pipe of diameter 25mm is driven vertically into the
earth upto a depth of 5 to 6 metres depending upon depth of moisture in the earth.
This system of earthing is suitable for sandy earth. The earth wire (GI) is to be
fixed to it with small sturdy clamps.
d) Pipe Earthing
A Galvanized iron pipe of not less than 38 mm diameter and 2 metre long for
ordinary soil and 2.75 metre for dry and rocky soil should be used. The Pipe must
be placed in a permanently wet ground. The pipe should be at a depth of 4.75
metres depending upon moisture. Charcoal and salt are filled in the pit
alternatively in layers upto about 2 metres from bottom and for a distance of about
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15 cm around the pipe to increase dampness and moisture around the each pipe.
The pipe placed has 12 mm diameter holes drilled in it so that water poured from
top is made to spread in the charcoal layers through the holes to decrease earth
resistance accordingly. The pit of about 40 Sq.cm is dig in the soil.
At the top a cement concrete work is made for the protection of earth pipe from
Mechanical damage and also to facilitate water pouring arrangements for
maintaining dampness. A funnel with wire mesh is provided in the concrete work
for pouring water. 3 to 4 buckets of water to be poured into the funnel whenever
required. The pipe to which funnel is connected is further connected to main
earthing pipe. Another GI pipe is taken from the funnel for its connection to earth
wire.
According to ISI specifications a GI wire of size not less than 8 SWG should be
used for earthing in case of small installations. The earth wire from the GI pipe of
19 mm dia should be carried in a GI pipe of diameter 12.7mm at a depth of about
60 cm below the ground.
The size of continuous earth wire used with cables in domestic installation
should not be less than 14 SWG in any case. It is important to mention that the
earth wire must be electrically continuous. The joints should be made properly
after removing rust etc.
e) Plate Earthing
This is also one of the common system of earthing. In this case, the earthing
is done by embedding GI or copper plate in the earth sufficiently deep. The size of
plate used should not be less than 60 cm x 60 cm x 6.36 mm in case of GI plate
and 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 mm in case of copper plate.
A pit is dug about 4 meters deep and the earth electrode is placed in such a
way that its face is vertical. The space around that plate is filled with layers of
charcoal and salt for a maximum thickness of 15 cm. The electrode or plate is
connected to GI pipe of 12.7 mm diameter for carrying GI earth wire for connections
to earth electrode. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate with bolt,
nut, washer and GI thimble. These must be of copper for copper plate and should
be of GI for Galvanised earth plate or electrode.
Double Earthing
Two separate and distinct earth connections are made for power wiring. The
provision of two earth sets is mainly for covering two aspects,
1. If one earthing system fails, the other will operate
2. Installation of two reduces the resistance of the earthing system to the
minimum possible value.
3. This system provide additional safety measures to eliminate chances of
electrical accidents.
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4.2.2 Electrical Shock

Electrical shock is a general term for excitation of disturbances of the function
of nerves or muscles caused by passage of an electric current.
The Human failure in handling the electrical components or repairing the
distribution system without switching off the supply and adhering to safety. Work
procedures may lead to electric shock on human body and its ultimate effect may
be fatal.
The fatal condition results due to
1. Fibrillation of heart i.e, damaging the heart to small pieces causing the
stopping of breathing.
2. Stopping of breathing action caused by blockage in the nervous system,
causing respiration
3. Local over heating or burning of the body due to sparking.
The fibrillation of the heart is the most serious cause of death and there is no
cure, although there is a possibility of resaving a person who has suffered by the
later two cases.
Factors on which intensity of Electric shock depends
a) The current strength
It has been experienced that in alternating currents of low frequency, the
currents between 1 MA (Milliampere) and 8 mA are just bearable. It is seen that it
is the current which gives shock although it depends upon the voltage. Shock is
almost entirely associated with alternating current and it is rare when low or
medium voltage DC are concerned.
The effect of current on the human body system is as under:
Milli-Ampere (mA) Effects
1 to 8 mA Perceptible but not painful
8 to 15 mA Painful shock, individual can let go at will, as muscular
control is not lost.
15 to 20 mA Painful shock, muscular control of adjacent muscles lost,
cannot let go.
20 to 50 mA Annamalai University
Severe muscular contraction, breathing difficult.
50 to 100 mA Possible death, Ventricular fibrillation, a heart condition that
results in instant death. No known remedy.
200 and above mA Certain death. Severe burns, muscular contraction extremely
severe that chest muscles clamp down the heart and stop it
during the duration of shock.
b) The body Resistance

The body resistance is different under different conditions:
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Condition of body Electric resistance of body in ohms

Totally wet 700 to 1000
Neither wet Nor Dry 5000
Dry 70,000 to 1,00,000
The average effective resistance of the body may be taken as 50,000 Ohm
when dry and 1000 Ohms when wet.
The high voltage causing currents beyond 200 mA punctures the outer skin
causing burns.
In wet situations, the body and contact resistance is low and even a small
leakage becomes dangerous.
c) Frequency of current
When the frequency is low, the electric shock is more severe and dangerous
and the current shock is most severe.
d) The path taken by the current through the body
If the path of the leakage current is without involving the chest or heart,
survival is possible but there are severe burns on the parts of the body involved in
the shock depending upon the value of the current.
e) Duration of the contact
If the duration of the contact is for a more time, the situation becomes
dangerous due to numbness in the body part in contact. Such electric shock
becomes dangerous and sometimes fatal if contact is not broken within the earliest
possible time.
f) Area of contact
Resistance decreases with the area of contact with the live part and the
contact pressure. The accidents are nearly fatal in such situations.
Action to be taken if a person is getting an electric shock
1. If the main switch is close by switch it off at once, Be familiar with their
locations. OR contact the sub-station supplying the area to cut off the
supply temporarily.
2. Prevent anyone else rushing ignorantly out to rescue the victim and getting
himself electrocuted in trying to help.
3. Cardon off the area until supply is cut off.
4. Try to disconnect the person from the supply after protecting oneself with
any dry insulating material
5. If the voltage is 500 V or below every attempt should be made to free the
person from contact with the live wire. But in the case of high voltage
circuits switching off the supply is obligatory.
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6. To free the person from contact with live wire stand on dry plank, stool,
table or any other insulating object and pull away the victim. Use wooden or
bamboo stick to pull or push the person without touching his body directly.
Sometimes the live wire itself (if L.T.) may be pulled or pushed away using a
dry bamboo or any other dry stick such as walking stick.
7. Send a Doctor
8. Observe the victim if he is unconscious and breathing normally. If not start
giving artificial respiration without any delay.
4.2.3 Means to Avoid Electrical Accidents
1. Electrical equipment, cables should be of approved design, construction and
manufactured as per Indian Standard Specification (ISI). The equipment
manufactured to these specifications can be depended upon to give safe and
satisfactory service.
2. Electrical equipment, wiring etc. installations should be done by licenced
persons and experienced engineers who are fully conversant with the Indian
Electricity Act and Rules.
3. Equipments installed should be maintained in safe condition by periodical
inspection and tests by experienced engineers and technicians.
4. Ensure that the electric supply is cut off before undertaking maintenance or
repair works.
5. Working on equipment which is not earthed is unsafe. Every electrical non-
current carrying metal part should be directly connected with earth through
an earth conductor.
6. An untrained and unqualified person not having adequate knowledge and
experience should never be given the job of maintaining electrical equipment
which may or may not be electrically alive.
7. Only the proper insulated tools such as plier, screw driver, Rubber gloves
rubber mat to stand on should be used. Tools with ISI marks should be
preferred.
8. To avoid accidental contact with live wire, practice wearing shoes, Gloves
and work standing on dry wood planks as routine.
9. Generally the electric accidents are outcome of negligence. The knowledge of
proper instructions and precautions is necessary before handling a
particular equipment.
4.3 FIRE HAZARDS FROM ELECTRICITY
In case of a breakdown of insulation over the wires, it always results in
generation of heat and increase of temperature near about the fault. If there is
faulty earth and there is no isolation of circuit due to fault current, then the fault
continues to persist which further increases the temperature of the surrounding
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and if the temperature reaches ignition point, the insulation starts burning and the
fire breakes out. The earthing or grounding is most necessary to avoid fire hazard.
Electric sparks
Electrical sparks are formed when the electrical connections and mechanical
connections are not tight. The sparks causes electric fire. If there are loose
connections in any electrical system, the minute sparks keep taking place, and they
keep on heating the particular spot and thus the conductor gets heated up in turn.
The joints burn and consequently the fire takes place. The fire spreads to adjoining
combustible materials.
To reduce the possibility of fire, it is essential that:
1. Tightness of connections should be checked regularly
2. The material used in the installation should be good quality and
according to the rated value which is based on electrical load
3. Over loading beyond specified limits should be avoided
4. Protective equipment used in the circuit should be in perfect condition
and as per standard rating.
5. Earth connections should be proper and connections with earth wire
tight.
6. The electrical installations should be free from moisture.
Electric Flash
It is due to the result of breaking the circuit of an electric current.
The higher the current, the slower the rate of seperation of the parts, the
greater is the flash. The flash is directly the result of arcing.
Arcing results in eye injuries. An eye or conjunctivitis is a very painful
condition resembling pepper in the eyes and develops some hours after looking at
an intense of UV light. It may occur when a person is very close to a severe short
circuit but it is primarily confined to work with electric welding and potentially to
arc furnace workers. Arc eye losts only for a short time. It can be prevented by
using goggles with side protection. Even ordinarily clean glass cuts out much of UV
light. Special goggles glasses virtually eliminates it, if only slightly fainted.
Theoretically there is a risk of a form of cataract caused by prolonged exposure
to IR light which affects person who work for long periods on glass furnace.
Electric Burns
Burns are in fact the most serious side effect of electric accidents and are the
principle danger with direct currents or very low voltages (below 80V), where a
shock is the typical injury from low and medium voltage alternating current;
although there may also be severe burning. At extra high voltages shock may not
be so important but burns tends to be very severe and may cover on large area of
the body. Burns may be of several types.
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(i) Contact Burns

When one has touched a live conductor there may be local and very deep
reaching to the bone or on the other hand very small area of white skin.
(ii) Arc burn
Arc burn may be very extensive and of any degree, particularly when there has
been a high voltage flash over provided the victim survives the initial wound and
surgical shock and the surface are involved is not too large, he is likely to make a
good recovery as the injury is superficial.
(iii) Radiation burns from short circuit arcing:
This is in effect of a sever form of sun burn.
(iv) Vapourised metal
When an open fuse or small conductor fuses, some copper, silver, tin is
vapourised and at close quarter this may burn or impregnate the face or hands.
(v) Deep Burns
It destroys tissues below the skin where superficially there is only a small
injury. This emphasis that electrical burns and in particular high voltage contact
burns must be taken very seriously and the patient kept under supervision.
4.4 SAFETY PROCEDURE IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
1. Isolation
Any equipment installed should be capable of being totally isolated from the
rest of the system and earth it effectively before commencing on any work. To
achieve this every transformer is provided with either circuit breaker or gang
operated switch on both HT & LT sides. Motors usually have their starters located
closely or where centrally controlled from MCCs additional local push button
control will be provided.
2. Operation & Maintenance
Safety procedure may be divided into
1. Prior to commencement of work – Permit to work system will take care
of this,
2. While carrying out maintenance and test
3. During commissioning and energizing of an equipment
4. General
Maintenance works
a) Working on Dead (Isolated and safe guarded).
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Safety Procedures
1. Temporary grounding cables must be provided and inspected before every
use.
2. When grounding lines / equipments, the connection to the ground shall be
made first and that to lines / equipment last and while removing the
operation must be reversed.
3. Grounds shall be put on all phases even if the work is on one phase.
4. When working on OH lines ground must be provided on dead circuit on
either side of the places of work at the nearest tower. But in no case ground
shall be more than six spans from the place of work.
5. If more than one crew are working on a line each shall put their own ground.
6. Area of work should be cardoned off.
7. Use 3 pair supply with earth terminal connected to the body of electrical
equipment.
Working on Live Low / Medium Voltage Mains / Equipments
1. Only competent and authorized person shall work.
2. Warning board shall be placed on or adjacent to line equipment and the time
limits in which work may be carried out.
3. Work should be properly explained to workers. Make them aware of the
working conditions and the precautions involved.
4. When two member are working within the reach of each other, they should
not work on different phases.
5. Check all protective devices (Rubber gloves, shoes, blankets etc.) before use.
Hotline Work
1. Must be done by specially trained with special tools and with special
precautions.
2. Hot line tools must be dry. They should not be kept on the ground. They
must be cleaned with white petrol and wiped with clean dry silicon treated
cloth.
3. No work shall be carried out if weather condition is bad.
4. Hot line minimum safe distance to be maintained:
Voltage Range Minimum Distance
750 – 3500 V 0.3 Mt.
3501 – 1000 V 0.6 Mt.
10001 – 50000 V 1.0 Mt.
50001 – 100000 V 1.75 Mt.
100001 – 250000 V 3.5 Mt.
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4.4.1 Wires, Cables and Conductors

Introduction
The necessary requirements of a metallic wire or cable are that, it should
conduct electricity with minimum resistance efficiently and safely. The size of the
conductor for a particular current to be transmitted from one place to other should
neither be so small so as to have a large voltage drop or be too large so as to cost
too much. Its insulation should be efficient enough to prevent leakage of current
which may otherwise result in risk of fire and shock.
Conductor
Any wire, cable, bar, tube, rail or plate used for conducting energy and so
arranged to be electrically connected to a system.
Wire / Cable: The selection of wire and cable based on its qualities is very
important.
The cable consists of three parts:
1. Conductor or Core – (Aluminium or Copper wire in single, double or
several cores)
2. Insulation – to cover aluminium or copper core
3. The outer covering also known as protective covering; used to cover the
insulation for protection against mechanical damage and moisture.
Conductor – Important considerations
1. Current carrying capacity – it can carry without overloading and
overheating.
2. Resistance : The conductor size must have low resistance per unit length.
3. Mechanical strength: Must have sufficient physical strength without
stretching or bending.
4. Termination: Must facilitate to be terminated to the required connector by
soldering or other means.
5. Flexibility : To withstand the installation stresses without becoming brittle
and breaking.
Copper and Aluminium are the materials used as conducting materials to
carry electrical current in Power and lighting cables.
Insulating Materials
The Insulation of cables should have high resistance, dielectric strength,
capacity to withstand high temperature, mechanical strength and should be Non-
inflammable. The insulation materials commonly used for general lighting and
power cables are rubber, vulcanised Indian rubber, paper, Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)
vulcanized bitumen and tape.
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Types of wires
Wires are graded at 250 volts, 660 volts or 1100 volts voltage grading means
whether the type of insulation used is capable to withstand the desired electrical
pressure.
The wires used for ordinary house wiring are generally of single solid
conductors. Wires of greater flexibility is required where conductors are used to
withstand heavy loads in which case single conductors are not suitable. The
flexible wire or cord may have number of wires of smaller diameter stranded
together to form a single conductor. The number of conductors stranded together
depends upon current carrying capacity of the wire. For example a flexible cable
cord of 40/0.193 has a current carrying capacity of 7 Amperes and has 40
conductors of 36 SWG stranded together to form a cross sectional area of 1.093
Sq.MM. Similarly flexible cord having largest number of strands is 162 / 0.193 mm
with a cross – sectional area of 4.516 Sq.mm and has a maximum current rating of
20 amperes.
4.4.2 Protection against Overload, Short Circuit and Earth Faults
Introduction
In electrical systems, as and when a fault occurs or anything becomes
abnormal, it becomes necessary to isolate the abnormal condition instantaneously
from the rest of section. The action of isolation of abnormal condition should be
automatic i.e. it must disconnect the supply in the faulty section and leaving the
correct apparatus in the circuit in normal working position. In other words only
the faulty section should be cut off. The function can be fulfilled by using the
protective devices like relays or fuses in the circuit to isolate the circuit from
damage to occur due to short circuit, overload, earth fault etc.
When fault due to overload, short circuit or earth fault occurs the temperature
of a wire increases, which may cause break down because of damage to insulation.
The conductor itself may get hot enough to start a fire when excessive amperes flow
through it. It is therefore most important to limit the amperes to a maximum safe
value for particular type and size of wire. A protective devise is a sort of safety
value of electrical circuit.
Short Circuit
When wires of different phases in a 3 phase line or phase and neutral or
between current carrying wire and earth touch one another and make contact due
to damage of insulation between conductors or between conductors and earth, the
excessive current many times more than the rated value will flow. This condition
providing the above-mentioned circumstances is called SHORT CIRCUIT.
To prevent damage to the wires of the circuit and to prevent out break of fire
FUSES or MCBs are provided to break the short circuit current. Fuses are quite
satisfactory when currents are small and where instantaneous protection is
required against dead short circuits.
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Earth Fault
When one of the phase wire makes contact with Earth or any other conducting
material which is earthed the consequences are as that of short circuit between
phase wire and neutral.
The earth fault occurs when the insulation of a current carrying wire is
damaged and it comes in contact with earth wire or with a component which is
earthed. The second cause of earth fault is where insulation inside the appliance is
damaged and the current carrying wire comes in contact with appliances. The
appliance is supposed to be earthed.
The earth fault thus causes a very large current to flow to earth through the
earth wire. The earth wire in effect ultimately prevents a short circuit between the
phase wire and the neutral at the substation through the earth or between phase
wire and earth.
4.5 PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Fuses
The simplest form of Protection is the provision of fuse in the circuit as the
protection against excess current, short circuit and earth fault. The fuse is a wire
or strip of short length having low melting point. The fuse wire is held in porcelain
fuse carrier and inserted in an electric circuit as a protective device in abnormal
conditions and are rated from 5 Ampere, 30 Amps, 60 Amps and upto 300 amps.
Whenever some excessive current (than its circuit capacity) flows or a short circuit
occurs, the fuse wire gets heated and melts resulting in breaking the circuit.
The provision of fuses is made in the distribution board. The fuse wire must
posses high conductivity, low melting point, low ohmic loss and should be free from
getting oxidized. The most suitable materials for a fuse wire are lead, zinc,
aluminium and lead and tin alloy.
If fuses does not blow even when metal frame of an equipment is connected to
live wire and also connected to earth conductor dangerous situation would be
created as the body of the electrical apparatus would continue to be alive and at a
much higher potential above that of the earth. In such circumstances any person
coming in contact with the metal body of the equipment is liable to get an electric
shock irrespective of earthing. Where the fault current is about 20 amperes if the
fuse does not blow, the voltage drop across the earth electrode will be 20 x 8 ohms
= 160 volts and any one touching the motor body will get a severe shock. If the
fuse does not blow there will be potential gradient in the immediate vicinity of the
earth electrode. Any person walking in the area near the electrical earth electrode
is also liable to get an electric shock. Such cases of shock, due to a heavy current
flowing in the earth wire due to the fuse not blowing are not uncommon.
Main consideration in Selecting a Fuse Holder
1. There must be provision of security against fire risk when the fuse
blows.
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2. There should be a good insulating path for the fuse.

3. Sufficient clearance between terminals
4. It should provide easy replacement of fuse wire.
5. The fuse wire and terminals should be completely enclosed.
Cartridge type Fuse Unit
This is totally enclosed type fuse unit. The fuse element is enclosed in an
insulating container of tube shape. The container carrying the fuse wire is filled up
with powder and sealed at its ends with metallic. The powder provides good
insulating path for the fuse and helps to absorb the arc at the time of blowing of the
fuse. It is not very economical. It is generally used at 415 volts supply system.
H.R.C. (High Rupturing Capacity) Fuse units
H.R.C. cartridge fuses are used to withstand heavy stresses under heavy
currents. They are designed to absorb rapid heat produced by arc at the time of
blowing out. H.R.C. fuse is much more accurate and they are particularly suited
for breaking much heavier currents safely.
Switches
1) Main switch
The main switch is a control equipment which connects or disconnects the
main supply. For single phase supply a D.P.I.C. (Double Pole Iron clad) main
switch with fuse and neutral links is used. For 3 phase supply, a T.P.I.C. (Triple
pole iron clad) main switch with 3 fuses and a neutral link is used. Both types of
main switches also have disconnecting links operated by handles. The main switch
for single phase supply is available in 5 amps, 10 amps, 15 amps and 30 amps
rating and for 3 phase supply in 30 amps, 60 amps, 100 amps, 200 amps 300
amps at 500 volts grade.
2) Switch
The switch is a device used to make or break an existing circuit:
Different types of switches:
 One way switch – Single break type, double break type
 Two way switch
 Two way center off switch
 Double Pole main switch
 Bed switch
 Push button switch
 Intermediate switch
3) Distribution Board and MCB
The distribution Board is to distribute the supply from main circuit into
various circuit and such circuits through protective fuses. The units servicing as
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protective devices are MCB (Miniature circuit Breakers). The MCBs are available
for single as well as three phase or three phase four wire supply.
The MCB is an electro – mechanical device which operates and disconnects the
circuit when the current reaches a pre-determined value. An MCB will normally
operate at 1.25 times its rated current i.e. 20 amp MCB operates at 25 amp.
4) Residual Current Circuit Breaker (R.C.C.B) or Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
(E.L.C.B.)
Fuses and MCB provide protection against overload and short circuit. These
devices however are incapable of sensing currents of small magnitude like the
currents which pass through the human body and therefore are unable to provide
any protection against electric shock. The latest research has now made it possible
to prevent electric shock to human body even if a few milli amperes of current pass
through the body. A life saver component should trip on above conditions. The
component used for the purpose is known as Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
also known as Residual current circuit Breaker (RCCB).
ELCB: Safety Aspects
 Can detect small currents (milli amps) flowing to earth through human body
and breaks the circuit to avoid risk of electrocution to human and prevent
death, injury.
 Fault current / leakage going to earth undetected can create’ Hot Spots’ and
fire may start from these hot spots. ELCB device shall detect this fault
current interrupt the supply and greatly reduce the risk of Fire.
 ELCB serves for energy conservation. Detection of small leakage currents
and fault repair can result in considerable saving in energy loss as it
disconnects the circuit even on very small currents (milli amps).
 The leakage of current occurs if metal part of the appliance comes in direct
contact with an earthed object. The earth leakage currents are undesirable
since they may cause a dangerous voltage on exposed metal work.
 ELCB Testing: Functioning of ELCB i.e. its trip action should be tested at
least once in a month by using a Test switch. If it does not trip during
testing, it should be got rectified or replaced by a new one.
5) Protective Relays
The protective relay may be defined as an electrical device connected between
the main circuit and the circuit breaker that detects the fault (mostly in high
voltage circuits) and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the
defective system from the rest of the circuit. Thus the circuit equipments are saved
from any damage being caused by the fault.
Essential elements of the relay are (i) sensing element (ii) comparing element
and (iii) control element.
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They are many kinds of relays used in Power system. The relays can be
designed and constructed to operate in response to one or more electrical quantities
such as voltage current, phase angle etc.
6) M.C.C.B (Moulded case circuit Breaker)
The MCCBs provide overload and short circuit protection to the normal service
apart from serving as a circuit breaker. The overload and instantaneous tripping
element adjustable over a wide band make the MCCBs ideal for many distribution
applications.
The MCCB is also provided with a RCD (Residual current detection) system
consisting of a case balance transformer (CT) coupled to an RCD relay. The relay
may be used to trip a circuit breaker in the event of an earth fault.
4.6 AMPERAGES, VOLTAGE & SAFE DISTANCE FROM LINES
AMPERE: means a unit of electric current and is the unvarying electric current
which when passed through a solution of Nitrate of Silver in water deposits silver at
the rate of 0.001118 of a gramme per second.
VOLTAGE: means the difference of Electrical potential measure in volts between any
two conductors or between any part of either conductor and the earth as measured
by a suitable voltmeter and is said to be:
Low when the voltage does not exceed 250 volts under normal conditions.
Medium where the voltage does not exceed 650 volts under normal conditions.
High where the voltage does not exceed 33,000 volts under notmal conditions.
Extra High where the voltage excees 33,000 volts under notmal conditions.
Extra Low voltage where the voltage normally not exceeding 50V AC or 120 V DC
between conductors or between a conductor and earth.
Volt means a unit of Electro-motive force and is the electric pressure which when
steadily applied to a conductor, the resistance of which is 1 ohm, will produce a
current of one ampere.
MEDIUM, HIGH OR EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS
1. All conductors (Other than those of over head lines) shall be completely
enclosed in mechanically strong metal casing or metallic covering which
electrically and mechanically continuous and adequately protected against
mechanical damages and connected with earth.
2. Every Main switch:
 a clear space of not less than 3 feet in width shall beprovided in front
of the switch board.
 If there are any attachment or bare connections at the back of switch-
board, the spare behind the switch-board, shall be either less than 9”
or more than 30” in width measure from the farthest outstanding
part of the any attachment or conductor.
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 If the space behind the switchboard exceeds 30” in width, there shall
be a passageway from either end of the switchboard clear to a height
of 6 feet.
OVER HEAD LINES
Material strength
All conductors of overhead lines shall have a breaking strength of not less than
700 lbs.
Joints
Joints of conductors of overhead lines shall be mechanically and electrically
secure under the conditions of operations.
Clearance above ground of the lowest conductors
a. No conductor of an overhead line including service lines erected across a
street shall at any part thereof be at height less than
i) for low or medium voltage lines - 19 feet
ii) for high voltage lines - 20 feet.
Clearance from Building (for low and medium voltage and service lines)
Where a low or medium voltage overhead line passes above or adjacent to or
terminates on any building the minimum clearance to be observed are
For any flat roof, open balcony, verandah roof and lean to roof,
i) When the line passes above the building a vertical clearance of 8 feet from
the highest point.
ii) When the line passes adjacent to the building a horizontal clearance of 4
feet from the nearest point, and
iii) In pitched roof – when the line passes above the building a vertical
clearance of 8 feet immediately under the lines and When the line passes
adjacent to the building a horizontal clearance of 4 feet.
Clearance from building for high and extra – high voltage lines
On the basis of maximum sag a vertical clearance under such lines of not less
than,
(i) for high voltage lines upto and including 33,000 volts - 12 feet
(ii) for extra high voltage lines - 12 ft. plus 1 foot
for every additional 33,000 volts or part thereof
Horizontal clearance (On the basis of maximum deflection due to wind
pressure)
(i) for High voltage 11,000 volts - 4 ft
(ii) 11,000 volts to 33,000 volts - 6 ft
(iii) for extra high voltage lines - 6 ft plus 1 foot for every
additional 33,000 volts or part thereof
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4.7 WIRE JOINTS, CONNECTIONS AND TESTING INSTALLATIONS

The jointing and terminations must be mechanically and electrically sound,
otherwise it may result in disconnection and sparking.
Note
(i) Jointing of Wires in house wiring should be avoided.
(ii) The jointing of wires is never permitted in conduit run.
For joining of insulated conductors the outer braid should be removed by
slicing with a pocket knife. The length of insulation to be removed depends upon
the size of wire and type of joint. The knife blade should not be made to cut the
insulation at right angle to the wire as the wire is liable to be weekend by being
nicked. The wire should then be scraped and cleaned brightly to ensure good
electrical contact between the ends of the wires and to get the solder to adhere
properly. Following are the various types of joints:
1. A simple Twist joint:
The joint is completed in four steps which are:
i. Removing insulation.
ii. Mechanically jointing the conductors
iii. Soldering the joint
iv. Tapping the soldered joint
2. Marnied joint: For the wires having a number of strands
3. Single strand “T” Joint: This type of joint is necessary where it is required
to tap the energy from the running line
4. Three strand ‘T’ joint
5. Tee joint on T – strand
6. Britannia straight joint
7. Double Branch splice
8. Pig tail joint of two solid conductor
9. Termination of wires at terminal screws.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY – TESTING INSTALLATIONS
The Need for Tests
 To ensure that the installations are safe and will not constitute danger
 To ensure that the installation is free from faults and is in accordance with
Electricity rules.
 To know the cause of failure and to locate the exact position of breakdown
 To ensure by periodic tests that the installation remains to good and sound
working condition.
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Tests to be made on a new Electrical instllation before it is switched on

1. Insulation Resistance test between installation and Earth. Testing
set is Megger.
2. Insulation resistance test between conductors (testing set is megger)
3. Testing of Polarity (By neon tube tester)
4. Testing of Earth continuity paths (BY megger)
5. Earth Resistance tests – By Megger
 Voltmeter and Ammeter
 Ohmmeter
 Earth loop tester
4.8 STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity or Static charges are generated by way of friction between two
bodies. It is a low current high voltage surface phenomenon with contact or
separation of two surfaces. Surface contact, separation and movement involving
poorly conducting materials are the intrinsic feature of many Industrial processes.
E.g. flow of high resistivity liquids like petroleum products, filtration of liquids,
movement of powder in grinding, blending and sieving operation, pneumatic
transfer of powder, movement of vehicles or people across insulating floors,
movement of transmission belts on pulleys and other sheet materials passing over
pulleys or rollers.
A few more industrial operations like crushing, grinding, screening mixing,
pumping of petrol, naphtha, light solvent, kerosene, manufacturing of cotton silk
rayon, woolen fabrics etc. also generate static charge.
Static charge is considered as possible hazard for fire and explosion in some
specific Industries like Petroleum, chemicals etc., engaged with the above
mentioned operations which involve frictional processes.
Safety precautions against static charge hazards
Static electricity can cause fire or explosion only when the surrounding
atmosphere is of explosive or flammable nature and sufficient static charge
generates and accumulates on the products, equipment or personnel so as to bring
up high potential greater than the breakdown voltage of the surrounding medium to
produce, spark for ignition.
Fire or explosion can be prevented either by minimizing static generation or
accumulation or diluting surrounding flammable atmosphere. The following
methods are adopted to eliminate or minimize the ill-effect of static charge in
Industries.
I) Control charge generation by
1. Eliminating or minimizing unnecessary frictional processes
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2. Controlling flow velocity in pipeline – A steady flow instead of turbulance

flow
3. Avoiding free fall of liquid in storage tank by sub-surface filling or extended
inlet pipe upto near the bottom of tank / reservoir
II) Reduce charge accumulation by
1. Doing Bonding and grounding by connecting two metal containers to each
other and to the earth.
2. Maintaining minimum relative humidity of 60 - 70 % at work area to
provide conductive path for dissipation of charge.
3. Ionizing the surrounding atmosphere with proper care to dissipate the
generated charge.
III) Eliminate flammable atmosphere by dilution with better ventilation
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE
This is most dangerous hazard. The electrical equipment for use in hazardous
locations must satisfy some recognized codes for the class, division and group of
chemicals and gases involved. The type of electrical equipment could be flame –
proof (explosion proof), increased safety intrinsically safe, pressurized, oil-
immersed, sand filled or some special type of such as hermetically sealed,
encapsulation etc. or suitable dust ignition proof equipment, if the environment
calls for such apparatus. Each of these works in a different manner and their
methods of giving protection must be studied, to help make proper decisions in
their selection.
Hazards (Fire & Explosion) areas must be suitably segregated by partition
walls, by pressurized air locks in case with inter departmental handling is involved
or by giving the required margin of safety by distance alone and these should
conform to standard codes, statutory requirements and also requirements of Fire
Insurance Regional Committees.
4.9 QUESTIONS
1. Explain Electrical works and hazards encountered with them.
2. How will you ensure safety of electrical installations in your factory?
3. Explain the terms short circuit, Earth fault, Overload, Electrical Earthing.
4. Explain different hazards in electrical installation and works. Give a brief
note on Electrical safety devices.
5. What is the principle of Protection by fuses? Explain the phenomenon of
electrical fires and safety measures.
Suggested Reading
1. “Electrical Estimating Costing” – by Surjit Singh, Dhanpat Rai & Co.

83
UNIT – V
CONTENT
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Radiation and Matter
5.3 Radioactivity
5.4 Safety in the Non-Ionising Radiation
5.5 Radiation Hazards Control
5.6 Industrial Noises – Causes and Control
5.7 Vibration
5.8 Questions
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Most Industrial plants are designed and built such that they are inherently
safe. Neverthless emergencies do occur in plants. Emergencies can arise in
Industries due to a variety of reasons, which include Radiation. The Radiation
effects are prolonged and Extensive and could be even disastrous.
Health impairments are due to adverse physical conditions. High Noise level is
one adverse condition in the work place environment.
In this lesson, the above two are discussed in brief.
Objectives
To take up greater care than normal based on technical information and
knowledge.
Key words
“HERTZ” : Sound waves are charaterised by their frequency and intensity. The
frequency is the number of pulsations (cycles) per second. This is known HERTZ
(Hz).
“LASER” : Light amplifications by stimulated emission of Radiations.
5.2 RADIATION AND MATTER
All observable Basic particles matter is built up with the following elementary
particles.
1. Proton: It has a unit positive charge as nearly the same mass as a hydrogen
atom (This is known as one atomic mass unit)
2. Electron: It has a unit negative charge compared to Proton it is very light under
certain circumstances, this is also called as beta particle or Beta – ray
3. Neutron: This is a neutral particle i.e., it has zero charge. Mass is the same as
proton but slightly higher. Free neutron is not a stable particle with time, it
decays into a proton and an electron.
Radiation
We denote all carriers of energy as radiation. The three basic particles
mentioned above, when they are carrying sufficient Kinetic energy (i.e. moving very
84
fast) will be considered as Radiation. In addition another entity known as alpha

particle is a cluster of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. When an alpha particle is moving
very fast it is also called as alpha radiation.
Besides the above, we also have X-rays and gamma rays. There are nothing
but electromagnetic radiation, quite similar to light rays but carrying much more
energy. In radiation Physics the basic unit of energy is an electron-volt (ev). This is
the energy acquired by an electron while moving through a potential difference of 1
volt.
Atomic Structure
If we go on breaking an element into smaller and smaller pieces, the smallest
piece retaining the identity of the element is called the atom. The atoms themselves
are not unbreakable; they are built with the three basic particles mentioned earlier,
that is protons, newtons and electrons these three basic particles are arranged in
the following way in an atom.
 Protons and neutrons are together at the central part of the atom called
nucleus.
 Electrons are moving around the nucleus in different orbits like the planets
circling around the Sun in their orbits.
 In an atom the number of orbital electrons equals the number of protons in he
nucleus. Thus the net charge in the atom is zero and in general atoms are
neutral.
Atomic Number
Atoms of different elements differ from each and other by having different
protons in the nucleus and elements can be identified by the number of protons in
the nucleus. For example an atom having 6 protons in the nucleus is always an
atom of carbon. Similarly an atom having only one Proton in the nucleus is always
an atom of Hydrogen.
The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the Atomic
number. The atomic number can be used to identify the atom.
5.3 RADIOACTIVITY
Most of the substances we come across in our daily life are made up of atoms
which are stable i.e. they do not change with time. However some of the very heavy
substances occurring in nature are not stable even without any external influence,
their atoms disintegrate and change themselves to some other elements. This
process is known as ‘Radioactivity’. In this process the disintegrating atoms also
emit alpha and beta and gama radiations. This process goes on resulting in a chain
of radioactive elements until it ends up in a stable element.
In addition to naturally occurring radioactive substance, there is also artificial
or induced radioactivity. This is produced by man-made processes. For instance, if
a stable substance is exposed to neutrons, the stable atoms absorb neutrons and
became radioactive. This process is known as “Neutron activation” and it is one of
85
the most prevalent method of producing artificial radioactivity. Examples of

artificial radioactivity are:
Stable Sodium(Na) + Neutron(n) Radioactive sodium (Na)
Stable Iron(Fe) + neutron(n) Radioactive Iron (Fe)
Nuclear Radiations and their Properties
Alfa ray – It is helium atom stripped out of two electrons. Originates from
nucleus. Energy 4 MeV onwards (4 Million Electron volts)
Beta Ray – High energy electrons.
Energy range a kev (103 ev) to few kev originates from nucleus
Gama ray – Electromagnetic radiation originates from nucleus, energy from a
few key onwards.
X- ray – Electromagnetic radiation; quite similar to gama radiation but
generally available as continuous spectrum produced by the deceleration of high
energy electrons.
Ionisation
The most important property of the nuclear radiations is their ability to
produce “Ionisation” either directly or indirectly during their passage through
matter. Ionization means removal of one or more electrons from a neutral atom
thereby producing free electrons and electron deficient atoms called as “Positive
ions”.
Fig. 5.1 Mechanism of Ionisation
To illustrate the process of Ionisation let us consider an alpha particle passing
very rapidly near an atom as shown in the figure 5.1. The orbital electron of the
atom would the attracted towards the alpha particle (Opposite charge). Hence the
electron would be pulled left-upwards as the alpha particle is approaching the atom
and right upwards as the particle is moving away. Since the alpha particle is
moving very fast, the left and right components of the attraction nearly cancel,
resulting in an upward pull. If this is sufficiently strong, the electron is taken out of
its atomic orbit leaving behind a positive ion, Beta particle also produce ionization
86
in similar way except that the force for removing the electron from its atomic orbit
reset from repulsion. In the case of gama rays, there is no interaction the gama rays
knocks out an electron from the orbit by direct interaction and the electron thus
knocked out would produce ionization as described earlier.
Radio Active Wastes
There is significant increase in the use of nuclear energy. Atomic power
stations contribute to nuclear wastes. Radioactive materials are toxic and
carcinogenic and workers can be exposed to radioactive contamination due to
leakage in pipes and improper discharge of coolant water. Plutonium has a half-life
of 25,000 years. Steel drums and other containers in which low-level wastes are
stored are radioactive and pose problems of safe disposal, also to worn out parts of
nuclear apparatus which require special care to make it environmentally safe.
5.4 SAFETY IN THE NON-IONISING RADIATION
The various sources of Non-ionising radiation are
1. Radio waves: Sources: Electrical circuits, magnetrons etc
Users: Radio, TV, Navigations, Radar
2. Microwave: Source: Klystrons, magnetrons
Users: Radar, Communication, medical, Cooking oven,
drying
3. Infra Red: Source: Gas welding, glass blowing, Ovens, lamps
4. Users: Drying, Baking, Spot heating
5. Visible: Source: Lamps, Arc discharge
6. Users: Illumination, Search light.
7. Ultra Violet: Source: Arc discharge, lamps
8. Users: Medical, Germicidal lamps
9. X-rays: Source: X-ray
10. Users: Medical
11. Gamma rays: Source: Radioactive materials
12. Users: Medical, Cancer therapy, Sterilization, Radiography
Safety

Avoid, as a general Rule all unnecessary exposures.
 Do not look directly into MW or UV beam
 Use Goggles for the type of radiation used test before use. Shield high level
sources
 Avoid exposing skin
Microwave and Radio frequency waves
Factors important for hazard assessment
87
 Frequency of the radiation

 Power output. Pulsed or continuous
 Reflection characteristics of recipient subject.
 Temperature in which subject is placed
 Water content of human body, lean or fat
Biological Effects
MW radiation penetrates skin appears as heat and absorbed in the muscles.
Low level exposure: Causes fatigue, headache sleeplessness, irritability, loss of
appetite, anxiety, neuroses.
High Level Exposure: Damage to Brain cell and CNS
Infra Red Radiation
Shorter wavelengths penetrates into the eye and very short wavelength can be
absorbed by the whole eye. The absorbed energy raises the temperature of the eye
and its interior parts.
Ultraviolet Radiation
Skin: Skin darkening, late effect is interference with growth of cells in skin.
Mouth: Mucous membrane damage.
Eye: Most sensitive, reddening, “Sand in the Eye” feeling, continuous exposure
causes cataract.
5.5 RADIATION HAZARDS CONTROL
5.5.1 Dose Equivalent Limits
The aim of radiation protection is to prevent the non-stochastic effects and to
limit the probability of the stochastic effects to the acceptable levels. With this
objective in view, a system of dose limitation is evolved by the International
commission on Radiological Protection(ICRP) an advisory body consisting of experts
in the field of radiological protection. ICRP has recommended annual dose
equivalent limits for occupational persons and for the public.
a) Occupational Limits
The annual dose equivalent limit for the case of whole body irradiation has
been set based on the stochastic effect. The limit is 50 msv per year (5 rem per
year). Annamalai University
Based on the non-stochastic effects, limits have been set to the individual
organs in excess of the dose equivalent limit given for the whole body. For the lens
of the eye this limit is 0.15 Sv/y (15 rem/y) and for all other tissues it has been
fixed at 0.5 Sv/y (50 rem/y). however, in the case of gonads, breasts, lungs and red
bone marrow, the stochastic effects predominate and the limits are to be calculated
using a formula involving weighting factors.
88
These limits tend to be less than the non-stochastic limit of 0.5 Sv/y (50
rem/y). hence, for these organs the calculated lower annual dose equivalent limits
are applicable.
5.5.2 Internal Radiation Hazards
Radionuclides will be potentially much more harmful when they get deposited
inside the human body, than when they are outside or external to the body because
of the following reasons:-
1. Internal sources irradiate the body tissues 24 hours a day until they
have been eliminated from the body by excretion and decay.
2. Many radionuclides remain in the body for years and in many cases it is
difficult, if not impossible to increase their rate of elimination from the
body.
3. It is difficult to determine the quantity and the distribution of many of
the radio radionuclides, when they are contained in the body and
therefore the dose rate con not be assessed accurately.
4. Some radionuclides get concentrated in certain organs of the body, thus
increasing the probability of injury to that organ.
a) Mode of entry into the body
Radionuclides can get deposited inside our body by any of the following modes:
 Inhalation of the active gases or dusts
 Ingestion through food and water
 Absorption through skin and through wounds.
b) Annual limits on Intake (ALI)
To prevent significant exposure from internal sources, a limit is placed on the
rate of intake of radiouclides. This limit is called the Annual limit on Intake (ALI).
The ICRP has recommended the ALI for various radionuclides. The limit is derived
based on the fact that continuous intake of the radionuclides at these ALI levels
over life time of the individual (50 years) will not result in any non-stochastic and
stochastic effects. To regulate the intake of radionuclides “Derived Air
Concentrations (DAC) have been recommended. These are obtained using ALI
values and the amount of air intake by an individual.
5.5.3 Radiation Protection
The basic objective of a radiation protection programme in any establishment
is to keep the exposure of personnel as low as reasonably achievable and in any
case, within the permissible limits.
To ensure that the total exposure is minimum it/is necessary to control both
external and internal exposures. The differences between the hazards due to
external and internal exposures have already been discussed. The methods of
minimizing the exposure are described here:
89
External Exposure control

Broadly speaking, radiation exposure due to sources outside the body can be
minimized by judicious use of any one or all of the following four means:
1. Time
2. Decay
3. Distance
4. Shielding
a) TIME
Radiation exposure can be controlled by limiting the length of time one spends
in a radiation area. For Example, if in an area the radiation level is 1.2 mSv/h (120
mrem/h) and the dose limit to the person is 0.2 mSv (20 mrem) then the time limit
is given by.
Time = dose limit

dose rate
= 1.0.2 mSv
2(mSv /h)
= 1/6 h
= 10 min.
However, it should be remembered that the work to be done in the radiation
field should be completed as quickly as possible in a safe manner. The operation
should be planned before it is started. A good plan of action results in an efficient
execution of the job thereby minimizing the time involved and hence reducing the
exposure.
b) Decay
Another way of reducing exposure is to allow the source to decay to some
extent before starting work.
This is a good approach when a work has to be done in a radiation area where
the dose rate decreases rapidly with time.
c) Distance
Increasing the distance between the person and the source reduces the dose
rate and the exposure to the person.
For a point source the intensity varies inversely as the square of the distance.
These sources can give very high doses at short distances. Hence, care should be
exercised in handling experimental sources. Generally, remote handling techniques
are employed while working with these sources.
d) Shielding
Since Alpha rays have very small penetrating power, shielding against them is
not generally required. Beta rays have considerable range in the air depending on
their energy and the hazard is mainly to the skin. Aluminium etc. can be used as
shields. The Gama rays can penetrate much greater depth in materials. No amount
of shielding can completely stop these rays but the intensity can be greatly reduced
90
by proper shielding. Load, concrete, iron etc can be used as shield materials. For
neutrons, water, paraffin, polystyrene, boron and cadium are good shields.
Concrete is also used.
Internal Exposure Control
Internal exposure hazards are kept under control by keeping the air activity
under check and by preventing the spread of surface contamination. Control of air
borne activity is achieved by dividing a radioactive installation into different zones
and creating inter-zonal partitioning.
Ventilation is provided to control air activity build up in these areas. Air
activity monitoring is regularly done to assess the concentration. Persons are not
allowed to work in the areas where the air activity exceeds the allowable limits.
Persons who have to enter areas where air activity is in excess of the limit are
protected with personal protective equipment like respirators and plastic suits.
Radioactive contamination can spread from place to place, mainly through
movement of persons to and from contaminated areas. They can carry loose
radioactive material on their clothing, shoes and persons and spread the
contamination to other areas. To control this hazard, persons working in
radioactive areas are required to wear protective clothing or work clothes in the
change room before entering the active areas. Even inside the active areas, spread
of contamination is controlled by change of shoes/shoe covers, clothing at the
inter-zonal barriers. In the case of contamination on the person, personal
decontamination is done.
5.6 INDUSTRIAL NOISES – CAUSES AND CONTROL
Noise
Noise is an undesired sound that intrudes into and interface with our hearing
the sounds we prefer to hear.
The International labour office as part of its activities aimed at improving the
work environment of workers adopted a code of practice for noise and vibration
control in its 192nd session in early 74 and published it in March 75.
The code says lays down guidelines for Governments, employees and workers.
It empahasises the importance of noise and vibration control. Which among others
are two major factors that pollute the work environment with detrimental effects on
workers health. Annamalai University
Noise and vibration, exceeding certain thresholds impair work capacity, the
effects ranging from minor mental and physical inconvenience to severe organic
disorders eliminations of noise and vibration in machinery, equipment and
buildings at the design stage is vital to effective noise pollution control.
The first step in noise control is to measure sound levels at various locations
in the work place and to analyze the same to determine exactly which areas
hazardous to hearing. Audiometric testing is a procedure for checking a person’s
hearing. If the noise level is of 85dB (decibels) or higher the employee must control
91
the noise level. Controlling noise at source by engineering measures, use of

acoustic material to absorb noise with path and use of ear protection would enable
many noise problems to be solved.
Sources of Industrial noise
The various machines and processes which are the industrial sources of noise,
classified into the groups depending on how the noise energy is generated are given
below.
Impact: a sudden application of force such as a hammer blow or lost motion in
parts of a mechanism.
Friction: Generated such as in squealing of breaks and clutches, grinding, sanding
and other operations that involve relative movement with one surface in contact
with another.
Unbalanced force: Met with in crankshafts and other rotating equipment.
Air turbulence: Rapid variations in air pressure caused by turbulence from high
velocity air, steam or gases escaping from a nozzle or a valve common examples are
the exhaust from pneumatic tools and jet engines.
Other noises: Whining noise from turbines and humming noise from transformers
fall under this group.
It will be seen from the above that most of the noises in industry are
continuous and therefore steady state type except the impact noises such as
pressing, shearing which may come under the impulse type. Other impact noises
are occasional may be either isolated explosions or noise caused by blow off valves
and pressure relief valves.
5.6.1 Approach to Noise Control
A good way to handle a noise problem is to adopt a “System approach” that
consists of looking at the problem in a total perspective of the source, paths and
receivers that are involved.
Noise paths
Noise energy requires a medium for conveying it to other places. This would be
the air surrounding the object radiating noise or the solid structures that are set
into vibration due to contact with the source. Frequently it is a combination of
both.
The Receiver
This is usually the human ear where a relative quiet is desirable but where the
noise impinge causing annoyance, hearing loss and other undesirable results.
NOISE CONTROL METHODS
Operational Planning
Industrial noise control often involves a large reduction in the level of sound
energy which can be accomplished either at the source, path or at the receiver as
mentioned earlier. Often it is advantageous to consider the problem at the planning
stage itself since modifications are both difficult and costly to bring about after a
92
plant has started functioning. Some of the steps that could be taken during the
planning stage are set out below.
1. Selection of Process
Operations involving impact such as revetting, chiseling, stamping, and cold
forming would be Noisy. This is to be considered whether a quieter process can be
substituted for a noisy process. Some examples of substitution include.
1. Welding instead of riveting
2. Hydraulic riveting instead of pneumatic riveting
3. Grinding instead of chipping ( for cleaning castings)
4. Belt drives instead of gear drive, helical gears instead of spur gears.
5. Hot working of metals instead of cold working.
6. Electrical limit switches in place of air cylinders
It is possible to substitute materials by those that are less prone to vibration
examples include use of rubber or other materials for conveyers and containers.
At the planning stage, tolerable noise levels of noise from a machine that is
being purchased should be specified. Test reports from the manufacturers on noise
generated from the machine should be obtained.
2. Segregation
If noisy processes cannot be substituted, an attempt could be made to
segregate the machines that produce the longest levels of noise. This will confin
noise to a smaller area and consequently result in reduced costs of control.
3. Others
Under this category can be included methods like automating noisy processes
to avoid or reduce exposure.
CONTROL AT SOURCE
Noise can be reduced at the source itself. The following are the methods that
are usually followed.
Reducing the size of the work reduces the energy radiated. Impact forces can
be reduced by extending the time of application of the force, as for example by the
use of stepped punches in a multiple stamping operation. Some of the other
methods that can be tried are:
1. Reduction of speed of operation
2. Reduction of flow velocities of gases and liquids.
3. Coupled with muffles where possible
4. Reduction of rattling and loose motion by Properly securing the parts
and providing adequate lubrication
5. Reducing imbalance by proper dynamic balancing of rotating parts like
impellers and armatures.
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ISOLATION AND DAMPING

Vibrations: Almost all machinery transmit vibrations to adjust structures
which in turn will radiate secondary noise.
It is possible to reduce the secondary noise (1) by isolating the machinery from
the supporting structures by he use of proper materials like rubber, felt and cork.
Such materials provide good isolation against high frequency vibrations. For
vibrations of low frequency, steel springs which provide large deflections offer a
good choice and find application in the isolation of vibrations from equipment like
reciprocating compressors where heavy forces are involved, isolations would be
more effective if the inertia of the system is increased one method of doing this is to
mount the equipment on concrete blocks. Isolators reduce structure borne
vibration. It would help to reduce noise in adjustment rooms which are shielded
from direct radiation.
DAMPING
Damping is another method of noise reduction that reduces noise radiated
from structures vibrating in resonance. Asphalt base mastic material is used for
damping purposes in many situations.
Control at Path
Noise can be controlled by changing its path from the source to the receiver by
the application of the following methods.
By Attenuation
Introducing a barrier or enclosure such as a wall in the path. Barrier can be
prepared from plywood, wallboard of adequate strength. Enclosing a machine
protects other workers from its noise, but does not benefit the worker employed on
the machine itself.
Depending on the need enclosures may be complete or partial to provide a
shadow to the worker who would otherwise be directly exposed to noise. Complete
enclosures have been tried on power presses deburring machines, paper shredding
machines where large deduction of noise level ranging from 20 to 40dB have even
obtained.
BY ABSORPTION
Noise incident on surfaces can be prevented from being reflected by using
absorbents which are usually porous materials that convert incident sound energy
to heat. Sound absorbing materials are asbestos fibers, glass, mineral wool, hard
porous plasters like absorbing materials are usually placed at a distance from the
source, consequently the machine operator may not derive protection but those
working elsewhere would be benefited.
BY USE OF MUFFLERS OR SILENCERS
The velocity and pressure of the air get reduced when it is routed through
devices paths in the muffler components.
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CONTROL AT THE RECEIVER

These are ear defenders to the workmen
1. Hearing protection consists of ear plugs and ear muffs.
2. Medical supervision
In order that dangerous exposures to noise are prevented in time, it is
necessary to check the hearing capacity of employees periodically beginning with an
examination at the time of employment. This will not merely enable the
management to evaluate the effectiveness of control measures but would also help
remove an affected employee from exposures to high levels before his hearing is
damaged.
It is important to control noise by suitable measures so that the health and
welfare of the Industrial employee are not adversely affected/
PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LEVELS OF NOISE
(a) Continuous Noise (b)Impulsive or Impact noise.
Total Time of Max allowable Peak sound Permitted No. of
exposure per day sound level in dB(A) pressure level in dB impulses or
In hours impacts per day
8 90 140 100
6 92 135 315
4 95 130 1000
3 97 125 3160
2 100 120 10000
1½ 102
1 105
3/4 107
1/2 110
1/4 115
No exposure is excess of 115 dB(A) No exposure is excess of peak sound
140dB is to be permitted pressure level is permitted.
(Source: Factories Act 1948 and Rules framed there under).
5.6.2 Noise – Health Hazards

The most serious health hazard caused by noise is occupational deafness.
Sudden noises also affect the circulation of the blood, the startle reaction causing
release of adrenalin into the blood stream, tightening of the blood vessels and
fatigue and headache.
Noise also interferes with the digestive system and it seriously interferes with
sleep. The tiredness of the workers deprived of proper sleep is a contributing cause
of accidents. Noise is also a more direct contributing cause of accidents in
interfering with communications.
Deafness of Hearing loss
Noise induced hearing loss is a form of nerve deafness and is most marked at
about 4000Hz.
95
Noise induced hearing loss depends on:

 The noise intensity
 Frequency content of the noise.
 The length of exposure
 The individual response.
Acoustic trauma or instantaneous damage from a short exposure to high
intensity noise such as nearby explosions, which could result in a ruptured ear
drum, damaged hair cells in the inner ear or dislocation of the bones of the middle
ear.
Tinnitus
Ringing in the ears. This has many causes and is often taken as a warning
symptom of noise induced hearing loss.
Noise and hearing instruments
These instruments are used for noise and audiometric measurement; they are
 Sound level meters
 Personal noise dosemeters
 Audiometers for checking the hearing of noise-exposed employees.
Industrial grade Sound level meters are used for measuring the sound from
individual machines or sound sources. The main components of sound level meters
are.
 A microphone
 Amplifier
 Sound filters
PERSONAL NOISE DOSEMENTS are designed to be carried in a workers
pocket with a microphone which may be clipped on to his hat ear muffs or coat
collar
Audiometers
Audiometers are available to check the hearing of workers before employment
and at regular intervals subsequently to determine changes in their hearing
threshold. Regular checking of employees hearing forms an essential part of
hearing conservation programme in a company.
Ear Protection
Hearing protectors range from simple earplugs through more efficient earmuffs
to noise helmets for noisiest situations.
Ear plugs
These are mainly for workers continuously exposed to noise levels of 90 to 100
dBA. Several types are available they are to be fitted hygienically without risk of
infection.
96
EAR MUFFS
Earmuffs provide more protection than earplugs and are generally suitable for
noise levels upto 120dBA.
There are two types, circumaural and superaural. Circumaural muffs are more
common. They enclose the ears and seal against the side of the head. They consist
of two semi-rigid cups containing sound absorbent liners. Superaural earmuffs are
smaller than the circumaural and seal against the ears themselves. They are less
effective than the circumaural type.
Noise Helmets
These enclose the neck and skull and are used by persons exposed to very
high noise levels e.g. above 115dBA. They insulate the bones of the skull and neck
which can transmit high noise intensities to the ears.
5.7 VIBRATION (Effects, Measurements and Control Measures)
Monitoring of machine vibration is widely used in providing early warning of
failure and in diagnosing faults, but monitoring the vibration experienced by
workers is in its early stages. However since vibration is transmitted by oscillating
or out-of-balance machinery, the problem is best tackled at source by concentrating
on the machine and the transmission paths between it and the worker.
Many different techniques are used to measure vibration, using one of the
three following parameters.
 Displacement
 Velocity
 Acceleration
Human exposure to vibration is based on acceleration and frequency
Accelerometers measure acceleration. This is sometimes referred to as a
‘Pickup’ may be attached to the vibrating surface. The accelerometer is connected
by a short length of special cable to an amplifier, analyzer and recorded or dial
instrument.
Specially designed human response vibration meters are available for
measuring three categories of vibration:
 Annamalai University
Whole body vibration with frequency range 1 to 80 Hertz
 Hand arm vibration in the frequency range 4 to 2000 Hertz
 Whole body vibration at very low frequencies which causes ‘motion

sickness’
Hazards
Exposure of the human body to too much vibration is recognized as a health
hazard whole body vibration is found at frequencies 0.1Hz to 30Hz. The result may
be loss of co-ordination, giddiness, spinal disorder, nervous disorder, headache,
97
bone damage. Reciprocating engine give rise to vibrations at several frequencies

which affect in different ways.
 Vibration at frequencies of 10 to 20 Hz
 can damage lungs
 Blood in the urine
 Heart failure in extreme causes
 Vibration at 20Hz can cause resonance of internal head organs.
 Vibration in the range of 30-40 may affect vision
 Drivers of heavy construction equipment are prone to heart disease,

muscle and bone problems.
Hand and arm Vibration at frequency range 4 to 2000 Hz. Hand and arm
vibration is suffered by the users of reciprocating and some rotary hand-held tools
particularly pneumatic drills used for breaking concrete and masonry. It can lead to
several type of occupational disease. ‘white fingers’ or ‘dead fingers’ is the common
disease which leads to loss of feeling and partial loss of the use of fingers.
Low frequency vibration is caused by movement of a ship at sea sometimes of
cars and aeroplanes and of tall structures in high winds which affects human
balancing organ.
Hazard control
 Limitation of spells of work
 Pre-employment medical screening and employment only fit persons
 Use of specially-designed tools to minimize vibration and recoil
 Provision of shock absorbers
 Use of gloves in keeping hands warm and promoting blood circulation.
This serves to reduce susceptibility to vibration indeed white finger
Monitoring vibrations at machines and preventing action.
For the machines
Vibration is also a hazard to safety and mechanical integrity. It can lead to
fatigue and failure in metals, loosen nuts and bolts on machines and structures
and dislodge tools and solid objects placed on structures with risk of injury to those
below, vibration also affects peoples ability to read instruments and written
instructions. This can lead to hazards in the operation of plant and machinery.
5.8 QUESTIONS
1. Explain (i) Mechanism of Ionisation
(ii) Radiation Exposure control
2. What is Radioactivity and Radioactive contamination? Briefly explain
Radiation exposure control.
98
3. Noise is termed as “Hazard”. Explain how and why?

4. Explain different methods to control Noise at working environment.
Suggested Readings
1. “Construction hazard and safety Hand Book”, R W King, R Hudson,
Butterworth & Co Publishers (UK).
2. “Major Hazard Control” – A Practical Manual, ILO, Geneva, NSC, India.

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i

Diploma in Industrial Safety

DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

COURSE - I : INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS

Unit No. Page No.

f. Defective colour schemes

Colour Psychological effects

4. Arms close to the body

e) Compressed Gas cylinders

Annamalai University free & wide enough

7. Safety Adequacy of personal protective

1.5 WELDING SAFETY

General Work Area Hazards

1.6 SAFETY IN HAND AND PORTABLE TOOLS

4. Write short notes on

Occupational Asthema Cotton dust, flour dust.

Extrinsic Allergic Alveolitis Due to fungal spores (eg) Bird fanciers

Occupational lung Cancer Asbestos, Chromium.

THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES OF SOME TOXIC CHEMICALS (EXAMPLES)

4. Protection of the workers from exposure

 Readily combustible substances

Some materials react with water moisture to produce flammable vapours.

Oygen Black None

USE OF WRONG GAS Annamalai University

PRECAUTIONS FOR RECEIVING AND USE OF GAS CYLINDERS

Based on the findings, the following action plans to be organized.

(ii) Use of Wet Methods

The ventilation system could be classified into two major groups:

 Installation of fixtures and fittings

supervisors tradesman as scaffolders, concrete workers, carpenters, ground

 Divers, tunnel workers

Pile Driving Operators

Fall Arrest Devices

 Security of ropes, pulleys and fittings on rope operated extension ladders

 A safety belt to be worn and it should be clipped to the ladder.

Vacuum Relief / Rupture Disc

 Fatigue due to stress reversals or cyclic changes of pressure and

Rope Haulage Installations

prevented by the observance of reasonable safety precautions, effective supervision

Fig. 4.1: Illustration of Fault Current through Earth

Larger Power stations 0.5 Ohms

4.2.2 Electrical Shock

b) The body Resistance

Condition of body Electric resistance of body in ohms

(i) Contact Burns

4.4.1 Wires, Cables and Conductors

2. There should be a good insulating path for the fuse.

4.7 WIRE JOINTS, CONNECTIONS AND TESTING INSTALLATIONS

Tests to be made on a new Electrical instllation before it is switched on

2. Controlling flow velocity in pipeline – A steady flow instead of turbulance

fast) will be considered as Radiation. In addition another entity known as alpha

the most prevalent method of producing artificial radioactivity. Examples of

 Frequency of the radiation

External Exposure control

Time = dose limit

the noise level. Controlling noise at source by engineering measures, use of

ISOLATION AND DAMPING

CONTROL AT THE RECEIVER

140dB is to be permitted pressure level is permitted.

(Source: Factories Act 1948 and Rules framed there under).

5.6.2 Noise – Health Hazards

Noise induced hearing loss depends on:

 Hand arm vibration in the frequency range 4 to 2000 Hertz