PROCESS TECHNOLOGY LEVEL 2

Unit Title: Plant and Plant Services

Lesson 2: Pipework II

PT2-6-2

© University of Teesside 2005

 Published by COLU for University of Teesside

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________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION
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In this lesson we will describe the main components forming a pipework

system and the methods used to join pipes together. We will also
describe the ways in which protection is applied, internally and
externally, to pipelines.

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YOUR AIMS
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By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

• identify and describe the basic components forming a pipeline

• state the methods used for joining pipes together

• describe the methods used to protect pipelines, internally and

externally.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF A PIPELINE

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Please refer to FIGURE 1 below.

F F

Pump Vessel

S F F
F F S S

F = Flange
S S
S = Support

F F A = Anchor Point

E = Expansion Loop

F F A = Lagging
S

Detail to larger scale shows 'tracing'

Lagging

Pipewall

Steam
tracing

FIG. 1

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FIGURE 1 shows, in schematic form, a pipeline used for conveying hot

liquid from a pump to a vessel. This pipeline incorporates:

• flanges to join successive lengths of pipe

• supports to take the weight of the pipes and their contents

• an anchor point to locate the line

• an expansion loop to accommodate thermal expansion

• lagging which incorporates steam 'tracing' to prevent contents from

solidifying.

No valves are shown since valves form a separate lesson.

Let us look at some of these pipeline components in more detail.

(a) Flanges

We will discuss these in detail later in this lesson, under 'Joining of

pipes'.

(b) Supports

Supports must carry the weight of the pipeline and contents while
allowing the line freedom to expand and contract under thermal
expansion. They must be close enough together to keep the stresses
in the pipeline within permissible limits.

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Two types of support, also known as 'brackets' or 'hangers', are shown

in FIGURES 2(a) and 2(b) respectively. Notice the rollers which permit
the pipe to move longitudinally.

[a] [b]

FIG. 2 Typical Examples of Pipe Support

(c) Anchor points

These are points on a pipework system where the pipe is firmly fixed to
a support. They protect weaker portions of the system by limiting the
movement of the pipeline due to weather conditions (i.e. wind),
additional weight of materials within the pipe and vibrations. They can
also be used to direct any thermal expansion forces (see next section)
into sections of the pipeline specifically designed to absorb these forces.
FIGURE 3 shows two examples of anchor points used on a pipeline.

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Lug Lug
Strap

FIG. 3 Anchor Brackets for a Steam Pipeline

(d) Expansion loops

When most materials are heated they expand (get larger in size). The
amount of expansion depends upon:

• temperature change
• the original size of the material
• the nature of the material.

It is found that the amount of expansion can be calculated from the

equation:

x = α l δT

where x = amount of expansion

α = coefficient of linear expansion [α – pronounced alpha]

l = original length

δT = temperature change [δT – pronounced delta T ]

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The coefficient of linear expansion, α, is defined as the increase in

length (metres) of a bar 1 metre in length when its temperature is
increased by 1 °C. Typical values for this coefficient for several metals
are:

Material Cast Iron Aluminium Brass Copper

α 11 × 10 –6 24 × 10 –6 20 × 10 –6 17 × 10 –6

 –6
1 
note 10 means 1 000 000 


These may seem to be very small values to you and therefore not of
importance. However, let's do a calculation to obtain the actual
expansion caused.

Example

A cast iron pipe 20 m long at 20 °C connects a pump to a storage

vessel. On plant start up, the pipe is used to transfer hot oil at 140 °C
from the pump to the storage vessel. By how much will the pipe
expand? (α for cast iron is 11 × 10–6).

Using x = α l δT

when α = 11 × 10 –6 = 0.000 011

l = 20 metres

δT = [140 – 20]°C = 120 °C

then x = 0.000 011 × 20 × 120 = 0.0264 metres

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This may seem a very small amount but as expansion cannot be

prevented, the pipe must now become 2.64 cm longer. The only way
the pipe can expand is by either forcing the pump and vessel further
apart or by the pipe bending. Both of these are undesirable situations
as they can result in damage to either pump/vessel or pipeline.

In order to limit the effect of the forces caused by the expansion of

pipelines, expansion loops are often built into them. These allow
expansion to occur without causing damage, by absorbing any
movement within a preformed shape which has 'elastic' properties, (i.e.
will change shape when a force is applied but will return to its original
shape once the force is removed).

Two types of expansion loop are shown in FIGURES 4(a) and (b).

(a) Full Loop Type

(b) Lyre Tyre

FIG. 4 Typical Pipeline Expansion Loops

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In the full loop type, the loop uncoils as the pipe expands whilst the
'horse shoe' of the lyre type closes up.

(e) Lagging

It is necessary to prevent excessive heat loss from hot fluids as they

pass along pipelines. This is essential if liquids are not to solidify or
gases condense and if running costs, in terms of energy wasted, are to
be kept low. For this purpose the outside of pipes carrying hot fluids
are covered with a layer of material having a low heat-conducting
ability, known as lagging.

Some of the materials used for this purpose are:

• glass wool
• magnesia
• foam plastics
• vermiculite.

These materials can be applied as preformed rigid sections, as

'mattresses', or as a thick, sprayed-on coating.

After application, the insulating material should be protected against the

weather and mechanical damage by an outer sheathing such as
aluminium sheet.

Lagging also protects operators from burns sustained by accidental

contact with hot pipes.

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(f) Tracing

It is sometimes necessary to apply heat to the outside of a pipeline so

that, in cold weather, the contents will not solidify and stop the process.
This can be done by winding an electric heating element around the
pipe beneath the lagging, or by similarly running a small diameter
steam pipe around or along the pipe. (Our illustration in FIGURE 1
shows a steam pipe running around the pipeline.) The heat supplied
should only be sufficient to replace any heat loss from the lagging and
should not increase the temperature of the pipe contents.

That concludes our study of pipeline components. Let's now move on

to look at methods of joining pipes.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

JOINING OF PIPES
________________________________________________________________________________________

Most piping is made in lengths of about 3 metres to 12 metres.

Obviously these pipe lengths must be joined together to form a
continuous line, and this part of the lesson will deal with the more usual
ways of doing this.

There are seven principal methods of joining pipes:

• welding
• brazing
• cementing
• flanging
• socket-and-spigot jointing
• joining by unions and couplings
• flared and compression-type fittings.

We will outline each of these methods in turn.

(a) Welding

This joins pipes by raising the temperature at the joint such that the
materials fuse (melt and resolidify) together, with or without extra
material being added. Welding is used on steel and some plastic
piping. It is a very convenient and relatively cheap technique.
However, it calls for careful workmanship and inspection, and it cannot
be easily removed for inspection and alteration.

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(b) Brazing

This is the joining together of pipes by melting and solidifying a lower

melting point material into and around the joint, without melting the pipe
material itself. Brazing is generally done using a gas-welding torch and
a filler wire chosen to suit the parent materials to be joined. It is
generally used on copper and copper alloy materials, or on small
diameter steel lines.

(c) Cementing

Plastic piping made of PVC or ABS is easily and securely joined using
special solvent cements.

(d) Flanging

There are very many flanging systems in use throughout the world.
FIGURE 5 shows a few of these – please read the notes which follow in
conjunction with the diagrams.

The basis of all flanged joints is shown in FIGURE 5(a). A gasket of

softer material is trapped between two flat surfaces which are clamped
together by bolts. The flanges can be fixed to the pipes by several
methods, the most important ones being screwed-on flanges and
welded-on flanges. These are shown in FIGURES 5(b), 5(c) and 5(d).
Cast iron pipes are sometimes made with integrally cast flanges as
shown in FIGURE 5(a).

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Gasket
Nut and washer Flange
Flange

Bolt
Pipe Pipe

[a] Basic flange system [b] Screwed-on flange

Flange

Flange
Weld
Pipe
Neck
Pipe
Weld

[c] 'Slip-on' welded-on flange Weld

[d] 'Weld-neck' welded-on flange

Pipe

Gasket
Female Male
flange flange
[e] Spigotted flange

FIG. 5

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The flanges may be flat-faced, as in FIGURES 5(a) – (d), or may be

spigotted, as shown in FIGURE 5(e), to prevent the gasket from being
blown out at high pressures. Gaskets used to be of a s b e s t o s - b a s e d
materials, but, for health and safety reasons, synthetic materials such
as glass fibre and mineral wool are used nowadays.

The gasket material chosen must:

• resist attack by the contents of the pipe

• be able to withstand the operating pressure
• be able to withstand the operating temperature.

Flanged joints have a greater tendency to leak, but they can be more
easily erected and dismantled than welded joints.

(e) Socket-and-Spigot Joint

This type of joint, shown in Figure 6, is mainly used on cast iron or

ceramic piping.

Special
cement
Socket end

Pipe 1 Spigot Pipe 2

end

Packing

FIG. 6 Socket-and-Spigot Joint

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The socket-and-spigot system permits the pipeline to accept some

misalignment without causing leakage. Also, since this type of piping is
generally installed below ground, the avoidance of flange nuts and
bolts, which can corrode, is beneficial.

(f) Union and Coupling Joints

Much of the piping in general purpose plant use, at diameters of 7 cm

or less, will be mild steel piping, assembled by the use of screwed
fittings. Such connections are easily and cheaply made by screwing
the outside or inside ends of standard lengths of pipe on site (using a
portable screwing machine) and then assembling them using the
appropriate internally or externally screwed fittings. The threads
formed on the pipe by the portable machine are tapered so that twisting
on the parallel-threaded fittings leads to automatic tightening. To make
a good seal a thin wrapping of PTFE is usually put onto the male
threads before the fittings are screwed on. FIGURE 7 shows a typical
connection of two lengths of pipe (externally threaded) using an 'equal
union' which is internally threaded.

Union
Pipe 1 Pipe 2

FIG. 7 Two Pipes Joined by Internally-Threaded Union

FIGURE 8, opposite, shows a group of fittings which can be used to

assemble a complete pipework system by this technique. Similar
fittings are also available for use with other jointing methods.

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[a] Equal union [b] Reducing union

[internally threaded] [internally threaded]

[c] Barrel nipple [d] Hexagonal nipple

[externally threaded] [externally threaded]

[e] 90° elbow [f] Equal tee

[internally threaded] [internally threaded]

[h] Square headed plug

[externally threaded]

[g] Equal cross

[internally threaded]

FIG. 8 Fittings for use with Union and Coupling Jointed Pipes

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(g) Flared and Compression-Type Fittings

These two types of joint are found on flexible plastic lines and copper
piping. FIGURE 9 shows a typical flared-fitting joint.

Loose cone 1 Loose cone 2

Nut 1 Nut 2

Flared
Pipe 1 Pipe 2
tube ends

Hexaganol
nipple

FIG. 9 Flared-Tube Connection

The joint is made between the inner faces of the flared ends of the
tubes and the conical ends of the nipple. The nuts force the loose
cones and the flared ends against the nipple. Flared fittings are more
resistant to vibration and temperature variations than compression-type
fittings, but require a tube with a smooth bore and a wall thin enough to
form a flare without cracking.

FIGURE 10 shows a compression-type joint. It is cheaper to buy and fit

than the flared connection and does not require a thin wall. However, it
is not as resistant to vibration and temperature variations as the flared
connection.

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Olive 1 Olive 2
Nut 1 Nut 2

Pipe 1 Pipe 2

Hexaganol
nipple

FIG. 10 Typical Compression Fittings

The seal is formed between the inside of the olives and the outside of
the pipe. The compressive force needed to force the olive bore into
tight contact with the pipe surface is provided by the wedging action of
the conical bores on the nuts and the nipple.

That concludes our study of the joining of pipes. We will now move on
to examine pipe coatings and protection.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

PIPE COATINGS AND PROTECTION

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INTERNAL COATINGS

In Lesson 1 we noted the need to ensure that the pipe material chosen
for a particular duty was resistant to corrosion by the material which it
conveyed. We also emphasised the need to control pipeline costs.
Sometimes this latter aim can be achieved by selecting a cheap pipe
material which may be attacked by the material conveyed, and then
coating its bore with a corrosion-resistant substance. Examples of this
practice are as follows.

• Rubber-lined mild steel piping is used where good abrasion

resistance is required; for example, where the liquid carried
contains hard particles. The rubber lining turns up over the face of
each flange and thus automatically forms a gasket.

• Mild steel pipes with phenolic resin-coated bores are used to deal
with the difficult problems of handling concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Special arrangements are necessary to ensure continuity of
coating protection at joints.

• For large water mains, cement-lined mild steel pipes are used.
The thickness of cement lining varies from 6 mm to 12 mm,
according to the size of the pipes.

• Mild steel pipes lined with PVC represent an economical solution to

the problems of conveying highly corrosive substances such as
nitric, acetic and hydrochloric acids. The outer metal pipe is
flanged at the joints, and the inner PVC lining is solvent cement
sealed.

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• For handling especially difficult chemicals, where the use of

expensive metals such as titanium is required, it is more
economical to use a thin, corrosion-resistant titanium lining inside a
robust mild steel outer. Great care is needed in workmanship,
inspection and testing and the cost of this tends to work against the
original saving. Any leakage at the lining joints results in
disastrous failures and can result in a complete plant shutdown.

• Cast iron pipes are often bitumen-coated internally, particularly

when required to handle corrosive waters.

EXTERNAL COATINGS

We have already seen the need to lag hot pipes to save energy. Pipes
will also need protection against external corrosion.

• Piping in industrial plants needs protection against atmospheric

corrosion.

• Piping for buried services will need protection against corrosion

from the covering soil.

There are three main types of protection in general use:

(a) Painting

Painting is effective but careful cleaning and preparation is needed if

the paint is not to flake off. Also, painting must be renewed at intervals,
and this is an expensive and ongoing cost.

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(b) Bituminous Coating

Bituminous coating is generally used on mild steel and cast iron piping.
It is a good and cheap way of protecting buried lines, but care is
needed in laying to avoid damage to the coating from lifting chains and
stones in the soil. A recent tendency is to apply a thicker coating
consisting of 40% bitumen/60% fine sand.

(c) Impregnated Tapes

These are a convenient and cheap form of external protection. The

tape generally consists of strips of hessian, soaked in heavy grease,
wound helically around the pipe. Care must be taken to ensure an
overlap and it is difficult to protect flanges by this method.

Types (a) and (c) are often used above ground; types (b) and (c) tend
to be used for buried pipelines.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH PIPEWORK

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The main purpose of pipework is to safely convey material from one

place to another without loss or contamination. A 'perfect' pipework
system should therefore create no hazards. However, no system is
perfect.

The main hazard associated with the transfer of materials by pipeline is

the generation of static electricity caused by the moving contact of non-
conducting materials. The build up of static electricity can produce high
voltages which in turn can discharge by creating sparks or by giving
anyone who comes close to the store of static electricity a nasty shock.
All pipework should, therefore, be suitably earthed to prevent the build
up of static electricity.

The other main hazards associated with pipework arise from the
materials within the pipe escaping into the surrounding space where
their physical properties (e.g. temperature, pressure, viscosity) and
chemical properties (e.g. flammability, corrosiveness, toxicity) can then
cause danger (e.g. burns, explosions). The major causes of pipe
contents escaping are:

• joints leaking, due to poor choice of materials used, poor

workmanship or excessive vibration

• maintenance of plant equipment without isolating or draining

pipework

• using temporary hoses as if they were permanent pipework.

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Any material escaping from pipework should be treated with the utmost
respect until its nature has been determined. In areas where
hazardous materials are being transferred suitable protective clothing
should be worn. Leaks should be reported as soon as they are noticed.
Any maintenance work should be carried out only when the correct
paperwork has been completed and everyone working in the area is
aware of the status of the plant to be maintained.

The Factories Act and the Health and Safety at Work Act have sections
which specifically cover safety associated with pipework systems.

Now you have finished working through this lesson, try to answer the
Self-Assessment Questions on page 24.

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NOTES
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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
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1. State four components found in process plant pipelines.

2. What are the loads which pipe supports must carry?

3. State why anchor points are needed in a pipeline.

4. Name two forms of expansion loop and sketch one of them.

5. What is meant by 'tracing' a pipeline? Describe two methods by

which it can be done.

6. Sketch a typical pipe hanger.

7. State three reasons for lagging a pipeline. Name two materials

which can be used for lagging.

8. State three ways of joining pipes together.

9. State a reason for using each of these pipeline internal coatings:

(a) mild steel, rubber lined

(b) mild steel, with phenolic resin coating

(c) cast iron, bitumen coated.

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10. State three methods by which the outside of pipelines may be

protected from corrosion. State one advantage and one
disadvantage of each method.

11. State two hazards associated with pipework systems and briefly
explain how they arise and their effects.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Four from: flanges – supports – anchor points – expansion loops –

lagging.

2. Supports must carry the load due to the weight of the pipeline plus
the weight of its contents.

3. Anchor points are required to locate the pipe and direct the forces
arising in pipelines from thermal expansion to sections of the pipe
which can cope with them.

4. Two types of expansion loop are: full loop type and lyre type.
Please refer to FIGURES 4(a) and (b) to check your sketch.

5. 'Tracing' is a method of preventing the contents of a pipeline from

solidifying by adding heat along the length of the line. Two
methods by which this can be done are:

(a) by wrapping an electrical heating tape around the pipe in a

helix

(b) by running a small bore steam pipe alongside or helically

around the process pipeline.

6. Please refer to FIGURES 2(a) and (b) to check your answer.

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7. Reasons for lagging a pipeline:

Three from:

(a) prevention of heat loss

(b) prevention of solidification
(c) prevention of condensation
(d) saving of energy and hence costs
(e) protection of personnel from burns.

Materials used for lagging:

Two from:

(a) glass wool

(b) magnesia
(c) foam plastics
(d) vermiculite.

8. Three methods from:

• welding
• brazing
• cementing
• flanging
• socket-and-spigot
• unions and couplings
• flared and compression-type fittings.

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9. (a) Rubber lining is abrasion resistant.

(b) Phenolic lining resists concentrated hydrochloric acid.

(c) Bitumen lining resists corrosive waters.

10. Three methods of protecting the outside of pipelines are:

(c) painting
(c) bituminous coating
(c) impregnated tape.

Painting is initially cheap but needs renewing.

Bituminous coating is very corrosion resistant when laid in soil but

is easily damaged.

Impregnated tape is cheap but is difficult to apply at flanges.

11. (i) Static electricity is produced by the movement of non-

conducting materials. It can cause sparks or give a person a
nasty shock.

(ii) Hazards associated with the material escaping from the

pipeline through faulty joints, during maintenance or by
incorrect use of temporary hoses and fittings. Depending on
the nature of the material various hazards could arise, e.g.

• if toxic – death could result on inhalation

• if flammable – fires/explosions
• if hot – burns to operators.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SUMMARY
________________________________________________________________________________________

The field of pipework engineering is quite specialised. Piping engineers

need to be aware of the various problems involved in conveying fluids
in long pipelines. In this lesson we have introduced some aspects of
pipework engineering, illustrating commonly-used fittings for pipe
connections and supports, and describing methods of pipe protection.

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