03 Sensor Circuits 3c Voltage Notes

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Circuit Components: Self Generating (Voltage) Sensors Overview
• Modulating/Passive sensors
– Resistive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Inductive Sensors
• Self Generating/Active sensors
– Tachometric generators
– Hall-effect Sensors
– Thermoelectric Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors
– Photoelectric Sensors
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Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect
Effect based on Lorentz force F = qvXB

F = qvXB Lorentz force causes charge carriers to
Interaction between moving charge accumulate on one side
carriers and external magnetic field In this example
q is electron charge • Electrons in conductor to right
B is magnetic field • Holes in semiconductor to left
v is velocity of electron (v = EL) Results in transversal electric force which
 is carrier mobility balances the magnetic force
EL is longitudinal electric field Fe = q EH and Fm = qvdB
Hence EH = vdB
Note: v, electron velocity, is in and VH = EHd = vd B d
opposite direction to current – d is the width of the conductor
– vd is the drift velocity
VH = EHd = vd B d vd = I/neA hence
VH = vd B d = IBd/neA = IB/net
• e is charge of electron
• t is thickness of Hall-effect sensor
VH = KH IB/t
• KH : Hall-effect coeff. d
• KH = 1 / ne (or 1 / nq)
• Units m3/C t
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VH = KH IB/t • Linearity
VH = KH IB/t
• Like active sensors, Hall sensor
generates voltage VH
• It also needs external control current
- like modulating sensors
• Sensor can be used to measure
– Weak Magnetic quantities (B, )
and changes therein d
– Position,
– Orientation,.. t
Relationship between magnetic field, B, and measure Hall voltage,
VH, is quite linear
Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Example
Hall device is simply a piece of material with wires & A Cu strip of cross sectional area 5.0 x 0.02 cm carries a current
plates attached to appropriate spots so that the Hall of 20 A in a magnetic field of 1.5 T.
effect may be observed. K = 5 × 10−11 m3/C
What is the Hall voltage? V = K IB/t
A current or voltage is applied between one pair of H H
parallel faces and the Hall voltage is measured across
the other pair. • Ans = 7.5 V, a very small effect!
VH = KH IB/t
The larger the Hall coefficient of the material, the more

sensitive the Hall device.
Clearly, copper is not a vary good material for Hall devices. Change in distance between sensor and an object with a magnet
Fortunately, there are more suitable materials. • “Head on” movement
Some values of K
Very Nonlinear
Key factor determining sensitivity of Hall effect sensors is high

electron mobility  in semiconductors.
Especially suitable materials for Hall effect sensors:
gallium arsenide (GaAs); indium arsenide (InAs)
indium phosphide (InP); indium antimonide (InSb);..
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Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect
Change in distance between sensor and an object with a magnet

• Lateral movement
Very Nonlinear
More linear
Linear
Some Improvements – Pole Pieces. Some Improvements – Bias Magnet.

Use of a soft iron “pole piece” tends to help focus the magnetic Even better is the use of a “bias magnet” to focus the magnetic
field through the Hall Effect Sensor field through the Hall Effect Sensor
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Some Improvements – double magnets.
Push-pull configuration Push-pull configuration

Greater field strengths Greater field strengths
Increased field strengths
Some Improvements – double magnets.
Push-pull configuration Push-Push

Greater field strengths Bipolar output voltage characteristic is fairly linear
Increased field strengths
Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect
Some Improvements – “Bipolar, push-pull”.
This configuration produces a strong field with reversal of direction in center.

Quite linear position sensor
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• Applications • Applications Some examples

Many!!
Any situation which results in change in magnetic field
Change in distance, orientation, rotation,…
Your imagination is the limit!
• Applications Some examples • Applications
• Monitoring distance – liquid level • Monitoring distance – Pressure .. or Temperature
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Gear-shift lever incorporates a magnet (red cylinder). Brushless motor must monitor rotor position in order to properly
When driver moves the lever, the magnet is moved past series of time sequencing of currents in stator windings.
Hall sensors. Since it is the magnetic pole of the rotor that forms point of
Sensors close to magnet activate, more remote devices remain reference, a Hall sensor positioned near rotor may be used to
turned-off. sense its position.
Position of gear-shift lever accurately known Other possibilities
Contactless
Diametrically magnetized ring magnet can be rotated above (a) Rotary Hall effect sensors becoming very popular for replacing
hall sensor(s). resistive film or potentiometer mechanical devices.
Output of sensor(s) depends on relative orientation between Used in automotive applications
rotating magnet and the fixed sensor(s) Also be used for detecting the dial position in home appliances
Effectively reflects orientation (angle) of shaft and magnet
Contactless
Hall sensor output depends on “angle of incidence” of incident B As seen earlier, passage of gear teeth modulates the reluctance
field and hence the flux density
Exploited in the design of contactless “joystick” With Hall Sensor, this flux is sensed directly rather than by its
rate of change.
Note magnet placed

behind Hall sensor.
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• Flow Rate Meter

Hall sensors can also be used to measure flow rate.
Two Hall sensors measure rotational velocity of metal rotor that
relates to flow rate of a liquid transmitted through a pipe.
Hall effect sensors can be used to detect/measure current Hall effect sensors can be used to detect/measure current
Contactless
B = μoI/(2πr),
Hence B  I for r = const
As VH  B  I
VH  I
Simple construction,
Good linearity
Typical high-current sensing system with concentrator


• Advantages/Disadvantages • What additional circuitry would you need?
 Versatile; rotary or linear
 Accurate current or voltage source
 Non-contacting
 Wear free  Voltage detector
 Have virtually infinite life  Differential Amplifier
 Highly reliable.  Drift Compensation, ..
 Suitable for harsh environments - immune to dust, dirt, water,.
 Pre-programmable electrical angles and outputs.
 Offer high speed operation.
 Higher initial cost
 Low output signal
 Large offset voltage
 Temperature Drift
 Affected by external interfering magnetic fields
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Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple
• Seebeck effect
Free electrons act somewhat as a gas.

If a metal rod is hot at one end and cold at the other, electrons
flow from hot to cold.
dV dT
Temperature gradient leads to a voltage gradient: 
dx dx
Where  is the absolute Seebeck coefficient of the material.
Units: V/C
Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple or V/C
• Seebeck effect Charge Carriers move towards cold end • Seebeck coefficients - metals
Or Metal
dV dT

dx dx
Similar effect for Metal and N-type semiconductors

For P-Type semiconductor “cold” end become positive
Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple or V/C Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple
• Seebeck coefficients – semiconductors • Seebeck coefficients
Much larger values! If we connect two identical materials together, subjected to the
two same temperatures (T1 and T2) at their extremities, the
same voltage will be dropped across them and no net current
will flow in circuit
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Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Material

Seebeck coefficient
relative to platinum (μV/K)
Selenium 900
• Seebeck coefficients Tellurium 500
How do you go about measuring the Seebeck coefficient for a Silicon 440
Germanium 330
single metal? Antimony 47
Nichrome 25
Molybdenum 10
Cadmium, tungsten 7.5
Gold, silver, copper 6.5
Rhodium 6.0
Tantalum 4.5
Lead 4.0
Aluminium 3.5
Carbon 3.0
Mercury 0.6
Platinum 0 (definition)
Sodium -2.0
Potassium -9.0
Nickel -15
Constantan -35
Bismuth -72
• Seebeck coefficients • Seebeck Effect

Seebeck discovered this by observing a compass needle being
If we connect two materials with widely differing coefficients, deflected when a closed loop was formed with two different
A and B, especially if one is positive and one is negative, metals or semiconductors.
the voltages & currents will not be equal and will not cancel Seebeck initially believed that it was due to magnetism induced
A net current will flow around the circuit by the temperature differences – “thermo-magnetic” effect.
Hans Christian Orsted realized that it was an induced electrical
current in the circuit which deflected the magnet.
• Seebeck Effect • Seebeck Effect

To help “see” this, think of two batteries connected in parallel. If I cut the circuit, no current can flow
Assume that there are resistances in the circuit The open circuit voltage, anywhere, is simply Ԑ1 - Ԑ2
Current will flow in this case, proportional to the difference in As we will see, it is similar for a thermocouple
emfs
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• Seebeck effect • Seebeck effect

A A
Summary:
When two materials with different  coefficients B
are joined in a loop, there is a mis-match If circuit of wires is now opened, anywhere, an emf will appear
between the temperature-induced emfs. across the open circuit.
A net thermoelectric current will flow through It is this emf that is measured in a thermocouple sensor.
the closed circuit
At junctions 1 and 2:
As we will see:
emfA = A T2  T1 emfB = B T2  T1
The differential Seebeck coefficient is: AB = A - B Total emf anywhere in circuit:
Units: V/C emf T = emfA  emfB = A  B T2  T1 = AB T2  T1
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• Seebeck effect • Seebeck effect A

Eric’s intuitive illustration!
Think in terms of
1) A “distributed resistive battery” along each wire
B
2) Modified version of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law You can even open the circuit at the reference junction
= same measured emf at any point in the “loop”  as long as you ensure that the two reference junction points
are maintained at the same reference temperature T2.
Emf = |V1 - V2|
Voltages are across wires, not

across individual junctions
• Seebeck coefficients • “Types”: i.e. standard combinations of materials

For example Overall Range 0.1°C
Type Composition Sensitivity
‒ For Bismuth (Bi),  = -79 V/K (°C) Resolution
‒ For Copper (Cu),  = + 1.7 V/K B Platinum / Rhodium 100 – 1800 1030 – 1800 10 V/° C
Hence AB = Cu - Bi = 1.7 + 79 = 80.7 V/K E

Chromel /
-270 – 790 -240 – 790 68 V/° C
Constantan
J Iron / Constantan -210 – 1050 -210 – 1050 45 V/° C
K Chromel / Alumel -270 – 1370 -220 – 1370 41 V/° C
‒ For Antimony (Sb),  = + 43 V/K
N Nicrosil / Nisil -260 – 1300 -210 – 1300 10 V/ C
Hence for Antimony and Bismuth
R Platinum / Rhodium -50 – 1760 330 – 1760 10 V/° C
AB = Sb - Bi = 43 + 79 = 122 V/K
S Platinum / Rhodium -50 – 1760 250 – 1760 10 V/° C
Common thermocouple types, composition, measurable range, resolution & sensitivity
Of all the types, type K is the most common.
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Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

Differing
composition, • “Types”: i.e. standard combinations of materials
properties &
applications. Steeper the slope, the
more sensitive the
combination
and  is larger
 Type E
Very wide range of
temperature possible
Not totally linear over
complete range
• Seebeck effect E.g. the T – type thermocouple (see later) has characteristics
The net voltage is dVAB   AB dT V  a0  a1T  a2T 2 T is in fact T, measured
relative to, say 0 °C
dV Where the a’s are material properties
So the differential Seebeck coefficient is  AB  AB
dT One such thermocouple has, lets say, the following characteristic.
Thermocouples are not necessarily linear in response, nor is the V  0.0543  4.094 102 T  2.874 105 T 2
Seebeck coefficient always constant with temperature. 
Sensitivity is the differential Seebeck coefficient
In general
dVAB
Induced emf  E   (T1  T2 )   (T12  T22 )  ....   (T1  T2 )  AB   a1  2a2T  4.094 102  5.748 105 T
dT
Where the constants , ,…. are material properties NOTE: Sensitivity is only function of materials and temperature.
[So far we have ignored  and higher terms]
For a copper/constantan thermocouple (T type) the calibration 2. Suppose you ignore the non-linearity of the thermocouple
curve is somewhat nonlinear. and simply assume the calibration factor valid at 0 °C.
The Sensitivity is not constant and is given in this case by What would the temperature error be at 40 °C?
Microvolts per degree = 38.58 + 0.0428T (°C )
1. Estimate the signal (in microvolts) produced by this
thermocouple when measuring an air temperature of 40 C.
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• Linearity • Linearity
TC output not perfectly linear Ideal linear thermocouple would have constant Seebeck
Depends on Type and coefficient (sensitivity)  NOT the case
Temperature range

Obtained
by taking
slope of
this data

Plot of nominal Seebeck coeff.

Plot of voltage versus temperature versus temperature for the three
for three types of thermocouple types of thermocouple

Thermocouples
• Linearity Estimate the sensitivity for
Select a thermocouple for a particular temperature range, one the J-type thermocouple
whose Seebeck coeff. varies as little as possible over that range
If one junction is at 0°C and
the other at 45°C, what is the
For range between output voltage?
250C to 500 C
For range between

400C to 750 C
Type S has wider

range of quite useful
temperature
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Thermocouples Thermocouples
Same J-type thermocouple An Iron-Constantan thermocouple (Type J) is used to

measure a temperature difference between 0 oC and 300 oC
One junction is at 10°C and
for which it generates 5268 μV.
the other we do not know. It is then used to measure the voltage difference between a
reference junction (Tc) at 20 o C and a second junction of
Output voltage is 5 mV
unknown temperature (Th). The output voltage is 12500 μV
Estimate the unknown junction temperature.
What is the temperature of
the second junction?
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Thermocouples
A K type thermo-couple is assumed to have a linear

• Standard Tables
operation range up to 1100 oC , with emf (0 oC reference) Tables of thermocouple electromotive force (emf) versus
equal to 45.14 mV at this temperature. temperature have been produced for convenience
The thermocouple is exposed to a temperature of 840 o C. All letter-designated thermocouple types are manufactured to
The meter used as a cold junction and its temperature is match these standards to within specified tolerances.
kept at 25 o C. For standardization purposes it has been agreed to take 0.00 C
Calculate the output. as the reference temperature for the tables.
.
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Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Thermocouple Question
• Standard Tables A J-type thermocouple circuit has one junction at 0 C and the
For example, Table for a Copper/Constantan (a Copper-Nickel alloy) other at 45 C. What is its open circuit emf?
Thermocouple (i.e. type T).
For measured Emf

of 4137 µV
T = 97 °C
(line 90,
column 7).
• Thermocouple Laws • Thermocouple Laws

Homogeneous Circuit law:
Homogeneous Circuit law:

A circuit composed of a single homogeneous metal, cannot A change in cross section of a wire, or a change in the temperature
generate an emf, even if it is at different temperatures and at different places along the wires, will not produce a voltage.
thicknesses throughout. Above, along the thermocouple wires, temperature is T3 and T4.
In other words, a thermocouple must be made from at least two The thermocouple emf is, however, still a function of only the
different materials in order to generate a measurable voltage. temperature gradient between junctions, T2 – T1.
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• Thermocouple Laws
Intermediate Metal Law:
A third (or more) metal section(s) may be inserted into

a thermocouple system without affecting the emf generated, if,
and only if, the junctions with the third metal are kept at the
same temperature and the material is homogeneous
This makes it possible to use lead wire connections, soldering etc
• Thermocouple Laws • Thermocouple Laws

Intermediate Temperature Law: Intermediate Metal Law (b):
Sum of the emfs developed by a thermocouple with its junctions

at temperatures T1 & T2, and at temperatures T2 & T3, will be A corollary of this law is that if the thermal relationship between
the same as the emf developed if the thermocouple junctions each of two materials (A & B) and a third one (C) is known,
are at temperatures T1 & T3. then it is possible to deduce the relationship between the two
– Calibration curves derived for a given reference-junction temperature can
first ones (AB).
be used to determine calibration curves for other reference temperature
• Thermopile • Thermopile
Thermocouple produces relatively low
output signal ( 50 V/C).
Adding more thermocouple pairs in
series increases magnitude of voltage
output.
n thermocouples in series electrically
In parallel thermally
Output is n times the output of a
single thermocouple
V = n AB (T1 – T2)

T1 T2
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• Thermopile • Thermopile
V = n AB (T1 – T2) n thermocouples in parallel electrically
Not only does the amplitude increase by “n”, the sensitivity is now Allows for spatial averaging
AB(Thermopile) = n AB(Thermocouple)
• Measurement Setups
Several thermocouples are used to measure exhaust gas

temperature (EGT) or turbine inlet temperature (TIT)
Spaced at intervals around the perimeter of the engine
turbine casing or exhaust duct.
Indicate average temperature in this case
• Traditional Measurement • Traditional Measurement

The voltage generated by a thermocouple is a function of the  Cumbersome,
temperature difference between the measurement and  Requires frequent maintenance
reference junctions.  One of the wires must be very long
Traditionally the reference junction was held at 0C by an ice
bath – or 100 C in boiling water
T1 T1
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• Traditional Measurement • Traditional Measurement

 Law of intermediate metals solves wiring problem at least  Law of intermediate metals solves wiring problem at least
 If connecting wires are both copper, same as the meter’s  If connecting wires are both copper, same as the meter’s
circuitry, there is no junction emfs at the meter circuitry, there is no junction emfs at the meter
 References (iced water) still involved.  References (iced water) still involved.
reference junction
• Modern Measurement • Modern Measurement

Handling ice baths are a bother and they are replaced by a ‒ New junctions are maintained at the same temperature
reference junction compensation arrangement. ‒ Common reference junction temperature measured with an
Normally, if thermocouple , involving 2 metals A and B, alternate temperature sensor (typically an RTD or thermistor)
connected directly to copper circuitry of meter, 2 new thermo- ‒ Correcting voltage applied to measured thermocouple
couple junctions are created. (only one if A or B is copper) voltage before scaling to temperature.
Additional reference junction(s) produce voltage(s) that add to
or subtract from voltage produced by measuring junction.
reference junction
• Modern Measurement
Common reference junction does not need to be at 0C
Involves a “thermal mass”
– Maintains same temperature for both reference junctions
– Relatively long thermal time constant that assumes the
average temperature of the surrounding environment
– Reasonably constant
– Temp monitored by additional sensor
reference junction
Effectively we are combining T2, T3 & T4, now just T2’

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• Modern Measurement • Modern Measurement

Reference junction block inside a Fluke If a thermistor is used for compensation anyway, why do we
CNX t3000 temperature meter. bother with a thermocouple in the first place?!!
Two white wires connect to a Thermistors are used in a narrow temperature range, usually
thermistor (embedded in white below 200oC.
thermal compound) to measure the Thermocouples can be used to measure temperatures as high as
reference junctions' temperature. 1800oC, and as low as -270oC.
Integrated Thermistor Integrated Thermistor
In a thermocouple, where is voltage measured?. We must repair a temperature-measuring system whose manual
is not available.
Option A. At both junctions.
We deduce that the circuit is as shown and that metal A is iron
Option B. At the “hot” junction. and metal B is constantan - a type J thermocouple.
Option C. At the “cold” junction. Determine temperatures T1 and T2 for the temperature-
controlled chambers in order to obtain a voltage reading
dependent on T but not on T1 and T2.
• Probe design • Probe design

Generally one uses a single probe to measure “hot” junction Range of commercial tip designs,
temperature vis a vis a reference inbuilt in the monitor. insulation and housings
Basically, a junction is just two metal wires connected in some
way together
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• Probe design • Advantages/Disadvantages

Generally one uses a single probe to measure “hot” junction  Advantages:  Disadvantages:
temperature vis a vis a reference inbuilt in the monitor. –Self Powered (no current or –Low Voltage output (mV)
Basically, a junction is just to metal wires connected in some way voltage source) –Low sensitivity
together – Fast response time (Tc: 1 ms) –Low stability (depends on Type)
–Long-term stability –Need for reference
–Simple, low cost temperature
–Ease of fabrication –Sensitive to external noise
–Inexpensive
–Rugged – withstand shock,
high temps,
–Small size (Diameter: 12 m)
• Applications
• Applications • Applications
‒ Measure Temperatures over very wide ranges ‒ Measure Temperatures over very wide ranges
 Very High Temperatures  Very High Temperatures
Two common aviation applications 2) Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) in turbine engines.
1. Measurement of cylinder head
Engine temperature too hot
temperature (CHT) in
Sensors mounted on turbine inlet
reciprocating engines
or outlet case and extend through
CHT is residual heat from
case into gas stream.
combustion
Usually K-type thermocouple Numerous sensors placed around
perimeter of engine turbine casing
mounted under the spark plug.
or exhaust duct.
Bayonet thermocouples fit into a
Parallel Thermopile arrangement
hole or well in a cylinder head
for robust average value.
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EGT indicating system • Applications

provides visual ‒ Measure Temperatures over very wide ranges
temperature indication in
Often signal used to take some action (turn on or off a furnace,
cockpit of turbine exhaust
detect pilot flame before turning on the gas, etc.)
gases as they leave the
turbine unit.
Instrument’s scale ranges
from 0 C to  1,200 C
Self Generating Sensors – Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple
‒ Measure AC Current ‒ Generate Electricity
a.c. voltage signal to be measured is ‒ Seebeck engines currently not very efficient (10-70µV/C),
applied to a heater element but are much more reliable than heat engines.
‒ Small resistances  relatively large voltages
Thermocouple senses temperature of ‒ Use Thermopiles to increase output
heater due to heat generated ( I rms
2
)
‒ Used by NASA for nuclear powered deep-space probes.
d.c. voltage generated in thermo-couple ‒ Converting waste heat into additional electrical power in
applied to a moving-coil meter power plants
Thermocouple meter calibrated to ‒ Body-heat-powered smartwatch
read current (Irms)
AC with frequencies up to 100 MHz can Schematic of a
be measured thermocouple meter.
‒ Generate Electricity ‒ Generate Electricity
‒ Body-heat-powered smartwatch ‒ Early Pacemaker
What looks like decorative grills on Many thermocouples arranged in

PowerWatch are heatsinks that help series/parallel to form a thermopile
to keep the case cool and at a with useful power levels.
different temperature to the skin One of the junctions of each
thermocouple is exposed to the
heat generated by the decay of the
Pu-238, the other junction,
connected to casing, is at body
temp.
Seiko
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‒ Generate Electricity ‒ Generate Electricity
‒ Used by NASA for nuclear powered deep-space probes. ‒ Thermoelectric waste heat recovery.
More than 60 % of energy

produced by cars, machines, and
industry around the world is lost
as waste heat
Thermoelectric technologies
could potentially save vast
amounts of energy.
Curiosity’s multi-mission radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on Mars.
‒ Heat Pump ‒ Radiation Sensor
Thermocouple can function in reverse.

If current is passed through a thermocouple circuit, one junction
will cool and the other warm, depending on direction of current
Known as Peltier Effect and is used in small cooling systems.
Thermopiles used for measuring intensity of incident radiation,

typically visible or infrared light
Heats hot junctions, while cold junctions are on a heat sink
• Applications • What additional circuitry would you need?

‒ Gas Sensors  Voltage detector
Pulsed and filtered IR light applied to thermopile  Differential Amplifier
Gases absorb specific frequencies in the infrared spectrum,  Additional Temperature Sensor
which can be used for gas analysis.  Compensation
A filter focuses on particular wavelength  Noise Filters
E.g. for CO2 filter set for 4.3 μm only.  ..
Carbon dioxide has a very

strong absorption band filtering and amplification
between 4200 nm - 4320 nm of the thermocouple signal
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Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric
“Piezo” comes from Greek word piezein,

which means to squeeze or press.
Piezoelectric effect first discovered in 1880 by
brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie.
Piezoelectric Material will generate electric
potential when subjected to some kind of
mechanical stress.
Normally, piezoelectric crystals are electrically neutral. In some materials, dipoles are largely aligned
Positive charge in one place cancels out a negative charge nearby. As a result, net positive and negative charges appear across
However, squeezing piezoelectric crystal deforms lattices and opposing outer surfaces of the crystal
forces some of the atoms closer together or further apart in such Surfaces affected depend on material lattices – parallel or
a way as to upset the balance of charges. perpendicular to force
Results in net dipoles
For quartz, stress in

x-direction results in
potential difference in
y-direction.
For quartz, stress in
Other materials differ x-direction results in
potential difference in
y-direction.
Other materials differ
In some materials, dipoles are oriented randomly – no Piezoelectricity encountered in certain classes of crystalline
piezoelectricity materials.
In some cases, dipoles can be “poled” into desired alignment. • Naturally occurring crystals:
Most often “thermal poling” Berlinite (AlPO4), cane sugar, Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, dry
‒ Heat up crystalline material to just under Curie Temp. bone (apatite crystals),…
‒ Apply strong electric field (aligns dipoles) • Man-made crystals:
‒ Cool down material Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14)
‒ Remove electric field • Man-made ceramics:
‒ Dipoles “frozen” in new alignment Barium titanate (BaTiO3), Lead titanate (PbTiO3), ..etc
• Polymers:
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),..
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- - - - - - - - - -
V V
x = distance between opposite sides,
A = area of crystal electrodes
+ + + + + + + + + +
Surface charge per unit area (C/m2) proportional to applied stress V = Q/C = (d·F·x)/(ε0·εr·A)
(N/m2) x = distance between opposite sides, A = area of crystal
Q = d·F • d for Quartz = 2.3 pC/N
where d = piezoelectric const for material • d for barium titanate  140 pC/N
Units C/N (typically pC/N, a material property)
For piezoelectric sensor of 1-cm2 area and 1-mm thickness with an
Material behaves as a parallel plate capacitor with Q = C V applied force due to a 10-g weight, the output voltage V is
Hence Voltage is 0.23 mV for quartz crystal
V = Q/C = (d·F·x)/(ε0·εr·A) 14 mV for barium titanate crystal.
Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelelectric

- - - - -
V Summary
x = distance between opposite sides,
• Charge sensitivity on Displacement,
A = area of crystal electrodes
+ + + + +
𝛿𝑄
K= (C/m)
Using Hooke’s law (F = kFx) can also express generated charge as 𝛿𝑥
Q = d·F = d·kF x = K x
where K is a constant, charge sensitivity on displacement, (C/m) • Voltage sensitivity on Displacement,
Also 𝛿𝑉
KV = (V/m)
V = Q/C = (K/C) x = KV x 𝛿𝑥
KV , voltage sensitivity on displacement, has units V/m K 𝛿𝑄
• Ratio of displacement sensitivities, K = =C
Voltage is linearly dependent on x, change in crystal thickness V 𝛿𝑉
Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelelectric Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelelectric
We saw Summary
V = Q/C = (d·F·x)/(ε0·εr·A) • Voltage sensitivity (on Pressure),
Letting g = d/ε0·εr and noting that P = F/A
1 𝛿𝑉
V = (d·F·x)/(ε0·εr·A) = (g·F·x)/A = g x P SV = g = (V·m/N)
𝑥 𝛿𝑃
Where Note: People often forget the “x” term (crystal) thickness
– P = impressed pressure
• Charge sensitivity (on Force/Pressure)
– g = voltage sensitivity on Pressure (V/m)/(N/m2) = Vm/N
𝛿𝑄 1 𝛿𝑄
Reminder: Q = d·F = dAP SQ = d = = (C/N)
𝛿𝐹 𝐴 𝛿𝑃
Where
SQ g 𝑥 𝛿𝑄 𝑥
SV = d = 𝐴 𝛿𝑉 = 𝐴C = 
– d= charge sensitivity on Force (C/m2)/(N/m2) = C/N • Ratio of sensitivities,
Note: d (charge sensitivity) = g (voltage sensitivity) x ε
SQ =  SV d=g
22
11/10/2020
charge voltage
Sensitivities differ due to dielectric properties sensitivity sensitivity
on Force on Pressure
A piezoelectric sensor is made by fitting a 2.5 cm × 1 cm

rectangular quartz between two metal plates.
The plates can transmit the force to the piezoelectric element
and also serve as electrodes to collect the electric charges
yielded for output. The quartz has a piezoelectric charge
coefficient, d, of 2.3 × 10−12 C ⋅ N−1 at 20°C.
If a 100 N force is applied, find
(1) the stress σ of the sensor,
(2) the charge density on the plates, and hence
(3) the resultant charge Q on the plates
(4) the resultant Voltage across the plates
A piezoelectric sensor is made by fitting a 2.5 cm × 1 cm A piezoelectric sensor is made by fitting a 2.5 cm × 1 cm
rectangular quartz between two metal plates. rectangular quartz between two metal plates.
The plates can transmit the force to the piezoelectric element The plates can transmit the force to the piezoelectric element
and also serve as electrodes to collect the electric charges and also serve as electrodes to collect the electric charges
yielded for output. The quartz has a piezoelectric charge yielded for output. The quartz has a piezoelectric charge
coefficient, d, of 2.3 × 10−12 C ⋅ N−1 at 20°C. coefficient, d, of 2.3 × 10−12 C ⋅ N−1 at 20°C.
If a 100 N force is applied, find If a 100 N force is applied, find
(1) the stress σ of the sensor, (2) the charge density on the plates
Charge Density, σCD = |Q|/A = d·F/A = d· (stress)
23
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A piezoelectric sensor is made by fitting a 2.5 cm × 1 cm A piezoelectric sensor is made by fitting a 2.5 cm × 1 cm
rectangular quartz between two metal plates. rectangular quartz between two metal plates.
The plates can transmit the force to the piezoelectric element The plates can transmit the force to the piezoelectric element
and also serve as electrodes to collect the electric charges and also serve as electrodes to collect the electric charges
yielded for output. The quartz has a piezoelectric charge yielded for output. The quartz has a piezoelectric charge
coefficient, d, of 2.3 × 10−12 C ⋅ N−1 at 20°C. coefficient, d, of 2.3 × 10−12 C ⋅ N−1 at 20°C.
If a 100 N force is applied, find If a 100 N force is applied, find
(3) the resultant charge Q on the plates (4) the resultant Voltage across the plates
Resultant charge on plates To work out the resultant Voltage across the plates
Q = d·F (or Charge Density x Area) V = Q/C = (d·F·x)/(ε0·εr·A)
we would need to know the capacitance of the sensor
i.e. the dielectric constant, , and thickness, x, of the quartz
These are not given
We have a cube of Lead Titanate with 1 cm sides.

A force of 1000 N is applied across two opposing surfaces. Surface Charge Density & Electrical Field
d, the charge sensitivity on Force = 44pC/N
, the dielectric constant = 600o = 600 x 8.85x 10-12 • Reminder
Electric field between plates is taken as
What is the value of the Electric field produced between uniform, perpendicular to the surfaces
two metal plates located on the cube? and given by
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
 is the surface charge density, Q/A.
 is permittivity of the material
between the conductive plates, a
measure of resistance encountered
when forming electric field in medium
We have a cube of Lead Titanate with 1 cm sides. We have a cube of Lead Titanate with 1 cm sides.
A force of 1000 N is applied across two opposing surfaces. A force of 1000 N is applied across two opposing surfaces.
d, the charge sensitivity on Force = 44pC/N d, the charge sensitivity on Force = 44pC/N
, the dielectric constant = 600o = 600 x 8.85x 10-12 , the dielectric constant = 600o = 600 x 8.85x 10-12
What is the value of the Electric field produced between What is the value of the Voltage produced across two
two metal plates located on the cube? metal plates located on the cube?
𝜎 𝑑·𝐹/𝐴
𝑑·𝐹·𝑥
Electric field, 𝐸 = 𝐶𝐷 Voltage, 𝑉 =𝐸·𝑥 =
 =  𝐴
= 82.9 kV/m = 829 V
Note: 1000 Newtons of force is what you experience when a rather large person
(weighing about 100 kg/220 lbs) is standing on the tip of your toe.
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We have a cube of Lead Titanate with 1 cm sides. We have a cube of Lead Titanate with 1 cm sides.
A force of 1000 N is applied across two opposing surfaces. A force of 1000 N is applied across two opposing surfaces.
d, the charge sensitivity on Force = 44pC/N d, the charge sensitivity on Force = 44pC/N
, the dielectric constant = 600o = 600 x 8.85x 10-12 , the dielectric constant = 600o = 600 x 8.85x 10-12
What is the value of the Pressure acting on the cube What is the value of the Pressure acting on the cube
and what is the value of g, the voltage sensitivity on and what is the value of g, the voltage sensitivity on
Pressure (V·m/N)? Pressure (V·m/N)?
𝐹 1000 g = 8.29 x 10-3 (V·m/N)
Pressure = = = 1 x 107 (N/m2)
𝐴 (0.01)2
Check using V = g x P
44 x 10 −12(C/N)
g = d/ε0·εr = = 8.29 x 10-3 (V·m/N) 829 (V)
600 x 8.85x 10−12 (F/m) g= = 8.29 x 10-3 (V·m/N)
1 x 107 (N/m2) x 1 x 10−2(m)
Pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N/m 2, or kg. m. s−2). x = distance between opposite sides, i.e. 1 cm
QED
We have a cube of Lead Titanate with 1 cm sides.

A force of 1000 N is applied across two opposing surfaces.
d, the charge sensitivity on Force = 44pC/N
, the dielectric constant = 600o = 600 x 8.85x 10-12
d
What is the value of the piezoelectric’s capacitance?
C = (ε0·εr·A)/x
What is the voltage sensitivity, g, of a 1 mm thick, BaTiO3 sensor
600 x 8.85 x 10−12 x 1 x 10−4
C= = 5.31 x 10-11 F with an electrode area of 1 square cm?
1 x 10−2
Very small due to the rather large thickness

Generally of the order of nF
• Piezoelectric as an actuator • The process is reversible.

Small voltages can be applied, resulting in tiny change in
dimensions of crystal.
• Deform to get voltage • Apply voltage to deform
Range of potential applications!
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• Discharging of Piezoelectric sensor. • Discharging of Piezoelectric sensor.

Surface charges generated by applied force tend to leak away Simple Equivalent circuit to facilitate study.
for a variety of reasons
Piezoelectric sensor basically a capacitor
 Airborne charges with pressure-induced charge
 Input resistance of connected electronics Can be modeled as
 Current leakage due to non-zero conductivity of the crystal
• a charge source in parallel with the
capacitance, OR
As a result, piezoelectric sensors cannot be used to measure a • a voltage source in series with the
constant force sensor's capacitance
Both models give same results
• Discharging due to connected electronics • Discharging due to connected electronics

For the following calculations, we will use the second model In absence of any load, a force applied to crystal should develop
Equivalent electrical circuit of this arrangement is a voltage a charge which would remain as long as force is present.
source and a series capacitance. However, in the case where a load (resistance) is present, an
Voltage source represents voltage that develops due to the electrical circuit is formed which allows the generated charge to
excess surface charge on the crystal. dissipate – NOT a constant Voltage source like a battery
Capacitor represents capacitor formed by the metallic plates of Rapidly reduces measured voltage.
the sensor.
• Discharging due to connected electronics • Discharging due to connected electronics

When a force is applied to crystal, (only) a transient voltage or Typical capacitance values for common piezo sensors  2.4 nF,
current response exists in the attached circuitry typical input impedances for measuring devices  10 M.
– Capacitor effectively blocks dc, I(t )  0 & VO(t )  0 Resulting time constant   24 ms.
Piezo sensors cannot be used to measure a constant force, but Steady state after 5  120 ms
rather only useful for dynamic forces. Forces that are constant, or vary slowly, generate very short
duration sensor voltages.
In contrast, forces which vary
rapidly are easier to detect
VO(t 0) = Q/C  F
VO(t) = V e-t/τ VO(t) = V e-t/τ
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• Discharging due to Crystal Resistance • Discharging due to Crystal Resistance

Piezoelectric materials are not perfect dielectrics and have large Piezoelectric resistances are typically between 1010 and 1012 
leakage resistance, effectively in parallel with the capacitance Although large, the resultant time constant,  = RC, is of the
Charge (and resultant voltage) generated across capacitor will order of seconds
gradually decrease. Crystal will self discharge rapidly
Note: V = Q/C = (K/C) x = KV x
Minimized by increasing time constant  =RC
VO = (K/C) x = KV x
x x
Decay due to the finite Decay due to the finite

internal resistance of PZT internal resistance of PZT
Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric Sensor Circuits: Complex impedance REMINDER

• Discharging due to Crystal and Circuitry • Transfer Function
Effects of self discharge plus connected circuitry will be additive
Crystal leakage resistance will appear in parallel with the load Clearly the transfer function is
resistance
Two parallel resistances  decreases total resistance vo ZR R 1
  
 decreases time constant further v i Z R  ZC R  j 1 1  j 1
Transient voltage output decreases even more rapidly C CR
What is the gain as 0?

Gain  0
What is the gain as ?

Gain  1
Sensor Circuits: Complex impedance REMINDER Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric
• Transfer Function • Frequency Response of Piezo sensors Intuitive Approach

Frequency domain is related to time domain
vo ZR R 1
   Frequency f  1/t .
v i Z R  ZC R  j 1 1  j 1
C CR Very short time response is equivalent to very fast frequency
response: t  0, f   (and of course, when t  , f  0)
Denominator has real and imaginary parts, magnitude of Characteristic time constant, , has its equivalent in the
the voltage gain is frequency domain, the “cutoff” frequency, fc  1/ . More Later
1 Plot of frequency response of piezoelectric sensor and its load
Voltage gain  resistance is shown
2
 1 
1 
2

 CR  VO = KV x
Cutoff frequency Where c = 2fc = 1/
C = 2fC = 1/RC
c
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• Frequency Response of Piezo sensors Intuitive Approach • Frequency Response of Piezo sensors Intuitive Approach
For forces applied at frequencies below fc, sensor output tends For sensor mentioned above, capacitance of 2.4 nF and a load
to zero. resistance of 10 M, cutoff frequency is equal to 6.6 Hz.
Above the cutoff frequency fc (equivalent to times much shorter A force varying at a frequency of 6.6 Hz or less results in a
than circuit’s time constant, ), the sensor output reflects the measured voltage which is significantly less than a more rapidly
crystal’s force-induced voltage (= Q/C) varying force with the same amplitude.
At high frequencies, capacitance is effectively a short circuit In many applications it is important to make cutoff frequency
and crystal voltage appears un-attenuated across load as low as possible.
In order to do this, one must make the input impedance of
measuring circuit as high as possible.
VO = Q/C = (K/C) x = KV x Non-inverting amplifier is connected to
piezo output - see later
c
Question Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric
• Frequency Response of Piezo sensors Circuit Approach

A piezoelectric sensor has C = 500 pF. Using a parallel charge/current generator (instead of a series
voltage generator)
Sensor leakage resistance is 10 GΩ.
The amplifier input impedance is 5 MΩ. Q = d·F = d kF x = K x and
What is the cutoff frequency, fc? is  ic  iR
ic  is i R
 dV  dx Vo
C o   K  a 1st order diff eqn
 dt  dt R
Note: KV = K/C
165 Institut des Nanotechnologies de Lyon UMR CNRS 5270 – Equipe Capteurs Biomédicaux Ali Işın 2014
BME 301 Lecture Note 2 -http://inl.cnrs.fr Institut des Nanotechnologies de Lyon UMR CNRS 5270 – Equipe Capteurs Biomédicaux http://inl.cnrs.fr
• Frequency Response of Piezo sensors Circuit Approach • Frequency Response of Piezo sensors Circuit Approach
You obtain the same equation if you use the other equivalent
circuit for a piezoelectric.
This is the transfer function of a high-pass filter

• When   C,
with VS = KV x 1
VO/Input (Force or x)
and
• When   C,
Note: KV = K/C
28
11/10/2020
• Frequency Response of Piezo sensors • Extra Note

At higher frequencies, mechanical resonance limits the We saw that additional resistances can appear in parallel, across
piezoelectric sensor’s usable range as a linear sensor. the sensor leakage resistance, say due to any connected load.
However, this resonance exploited These resistances are in parallel and can be grouped together to
• As generator, Piezoelectric energy harvesting form one single (smaller) resistance
• As actuator, most efficient conversion of electrical energy Similarly, additional capacitances, say for example due to the
input into mechanical energy. cables and the load, appear in parallel with the sensor capacitance
These also can be combined to form on single (larger) capacitance
VO/Input (Force or x)
• Advantages • Disadvantages • Advantages

Low cost High output Impedance
High sensitivity Low Power
High mechanical stiffness Poor DC characteristics
Broad frequency range Resonance
Fast response Drift with temperature and pressure
Large temperature range Curie Temperature
Exceptional linearity
Excellent repeatability
Unidirectional sensitivity
Small size
Reversible (Actuator) Large response Low Threshold Wide operating range
Piezoelectric Sensors: Applications Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric

• Applications
29
11/10/2020
Piezoelectric Sensor Applications Self Generating Sensors - Piezoelectric
SENSING • Applications: Intro – Bimorph

 Force, flexure, .. sensors
 Pressure sensors When force is applied to a long piezoelectric cantilever beam,
 Accelerometers (used with a seismic mass) – vibration, sound,.. one side is in tension, the other in compression.
Overall, the effects cancel. No out put from bending
GENERATOR
 Energy harvesting
ACTUATOR
 micromovement, …motor,
OTHER
 Microphones and loudspeakers (small loudspeakers with poor audio
characteristics = beepers)
 Ultrasonic transmitters and receivers.
 Frequency references.
 Temperature sensors (resonant frequency changes with temperature)
• Applications: Intro - Bimorph • Applications: Intro - Bimorph

A bimorph is a cantilever used for actuation or sensing which A bimorph is a cantilever used for actuation or sensing which
consists of two active layers. consists of two active layers.
Sensing: Bimorph cantilevers used as

Sensitive to compression and micromechanical linear actuator:
to bending 1 - substrate
2 - piezoelectric layer
3 - passive layer
4 - mechanical contact area
5 - track
In sensing applications, bending the bimorph produces net
voltage which can for example be used to measure displacement In actuator applications, field applied in opposite directions to
or acceleration. PE layers.
Can also be used for energy harvesting One layer contracts and the other expands, thus bimorph bends.
• Applications: Sensing • Applications: Sensing - Force
Layer compressed,
giving rise to voltage
Low cutoff frequency, can NOT be used for static load

Good at high frequency
High resolution
Compact size, light
30
11/10/2020
• Applications: Sensing - Force • Applications: Sensing - Pressure
Pressure = Force/Area
Pressure of gas, fluid
Detect pressure changes by
displacement of thin metal or
One layer stretches, semiconductor diaphragm
second contracts Pressure applied over diaphragm
causes force on piezoelectric crystal
Crystal generates output voltage
Voltage is proportional to applied
pressure
High frequency measurements
• Applications: Sensing - Pressure • Applications: Sensing – Bending/flexion
cantilever.
simple beam
• Applications: Sensing – Accelerometer • Applications: Sensing – Shear Accelerometer
Inertia of “seismic” mass Shear mode accelerometers

compresses PE crystal(s) stress internal piezoelectric
Voltage reflects acceleration crystal in a shear, rather than a
compressed, manner.
Crystals are “sandwiched”
Available in ranges up to ±1000g, between a center post and
where g is accel. due to gravity. mass (or masses)
Very high values of natural Most modern accelerometers
frequency up to 125 kHz. now use shear designs
Can measure up to 25 kHz. Significant performance
advantages
31
11/10/2020
• Applications: Sensing – Accelerometer • Applications: Sensing – Accelerometer

 Piezoelectric Velocity Sensor:
Sensor detects intensity of shock from collision (pressure) and
Combines piezoelectric accelerometer and an integrating
sends electrical signal which triggers release of airbag. amplifier that performs an integration of the signal.
Since this stage of integration is done inside the “velometer”, the
signal output is given directly in velocity units
• Applications: Sensing – Accelerometer • Applications: Sensing – Vibration

 Piezoelectric Displacement transducer:
Combines piezoelectric accelerometer and an integrating
amplifier that performs an integration of the signal.
Displacement is obtained by using a double integration of
piezoelectric accelerometer.
Detection of sounds/vibrations in pipework etc.

indicative of malfunctions
Example: unbalanced shaft in turbine engine
• Applications: Sensing – Vibration • Applications: Sensing – Vibration
Piezoelectric pickups.
“Contact microphone.”
Transducer captures
mechanical vibrations from
suitably equipped instruments.
Converts vibrations to an
electrical signal that is
amplified, recorded, or
Piezoelectric microphones broadcast.
Sound waves vibrate the diaphram
and hence the PE crystal, creating
a changing voltage
32
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• Applications: Sensing – Vibration • Applications: Sensing - Tactile

Thin silicone rubber film sandwiched between two thin PVDF
When used to count vehicles, sensor is
inserted into groove in road's surface
films.
Some buried to provide measurements Active or passive
of weight – total, by axle, etc. Active: tactile sandwich is compressed, mechanical coupling in
PVDF/rubber/PVDF sandwich changes, measured AC signal
changes, demodulation output voltage changes
• Applications: Generator • Applications: Generator

Piezoelectric ceramics can generate voltages sufficient to create
a spark across a gap.
Used in fuel lighters, gas stoves, welding equipment

In France, piezo sidewalks power a town’s street lights
as people walk over the piezo elements and deform
them.
33
11/10/2020

In Israel, same principle scaled up to a stretch of
highway that converts energy from cars driving over
the piezo elements in the road to collect power for a
nearby small town.

Imagine charging your phone as you walk, thanks to a
paper-thin generator embedded in sole of your shoe.
34
11/10/2020

Piezoelectric Sensors can be built into any article of
CAR
clothing that is compressed (e.g. shoe soles) or bent
Researchers created tiny flexible

piezoelectric generators that can
be embedded in fabric.
As you move throughout the day,
clothes can generate enough
power for small electronic devices
such as calculators and phones.

A Jaguar concept car has a thin coating of piezoelectric materials Huge amount of pressure is generated on various parts (i.e.
on the outside of the body. engines, wing surfaces, fuselage etc.) when aircraft flies
When the car moves, air moving past it deforms piezoelectric Using this pressure we could generate power - for sensors etc
materials, generating electricity to recharge the car battery.
Design has potential to develop into electric cars with unlimited
range!
• Applications: Actuator • Applications: Actuator

Piezoelectric actuator converts an electrical signal into a
precisely controlled physical displacement (stroke).
If displacement is prevented, a useable force (blocking force)
will develop.
The precise movement control afforded by piezoelectric
actuators is used to finely adjust/position machining tools,
lenses, mirrors, or other equipment.
A piezo actuator can be used to control hydraulic valves, act as a
small-volume pump or special-purpose motor, and in other
applications requiring movement or force.
Wide range of awesome possibilities
35
11/10/2020
• Applications: Actuator • Applications: Actuator

Piezoelectric motor is a type of electric motor based upon the
change in shape of a PE material when electric field is applied.
Material produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations in order to
produce a linear or rotary motion.
One example, elongation in a single plane used to make a series
stretches and position holds, similar to way a caterpillar moves
• Applications: Ultrasound • Applications: Ultrasound

Voltage difference across crystal leads to small displacement
With right materials, an ultrasound wave with a certain
frequency can be generated.
PE transducers used for
• ultrasonic cleaning,
• atomising liquids,
• drilling or milling ceramics
• welding plastics,
• …

As PE effect is reversible, transducer can both generate an Medical Application, Ultrasound for measuring tissue
ultrasonic signal from applied electrical input and convert the Due to finite speed of the sound, ultrasound waves are reflected
(reflected) incoming sound into an electrical signal. by different areas at different times
Used in Depth (distance to probe) is related to time difference between
• Burglar alarm systems sending and receiving
• Anti-collision/ parking assist sensors Amplitude of received wave is related to tissue composition
• Medical Diagnostics
• …
36
11/10/2020

Medical Application, Blood flow Parking Assist
Sound wave is reflected by moving blood cells
Reflected wave causes voltage Special sensors integrated
difference across crystal into car bumpers
Frequency of reflected sound wave Scan area around car.
related to blood flow rate due to If park assist activated, system
Doppler effect calculates optimum path into
space, steering movements
necessary, and number of
maneuvers needed.
Park assist then takes control

Aircraft Structural Health Monitoring Aircraft Structural Health Monitoring
Built-in sensor networks on an aircraft structure can provide Guided waves used for damage detection are introduced into a
crucial information regarding the condition, damage state structure at one point by a piezoelectric actuator
and/or service environment of the structure. Sensed by another piezoelectric sensor at a different position
Among the various types of transducers used for SHM, (pitch-catch), or the same piezoelectric element (pulse-echo)
piezoelectric materials are widely used
• Applications: Ultrasound • What additional circuitry would you need?

Aircraft Structural Health Monitoring
Concept still at early stages
"This system enables damage to the material, caused by impact
for instance, to be detected at a very early stage--practically as it
arises.” Dr. Ursula Eul, strategic manager of Fraunhofer LBF
37
11/10/2020
• What additional circuitry would you need? • What additional circuitry would you need?
 Amplifier  Integrated Electronic Piezoelectric (IEPE)
‒ A special “charge” amplifier - produces voltage Most piezoelectric accelerometers have an integrated
output proportional to integrated value of the electronics circuit to convert the high impedance output
input current. (high voltage, low current) of the piezoelectric to a low
‒ Gives a constant value for a changing input impedance (low voltage, high current) voltage signal.
R
Sensors require current excitation,  4 mA
is
C
dqs/ dt = is = K dx/dt 
uo
isC isR
+ FET
1 t1 Kdx Kx
C 0 dt
vo   dt  
Piezo-electric C
sensor
38

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11/10/2020

Circuit Components: Self Generating (Voltage) Sensors Overview

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Effect based on Lorentz force F = qvXB

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

VH = EHd = vd B d vd = I/neA hence

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Example

The larger the Hall coefficient of the material, the more

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Key factor determining sensitivity of Hall effect sensors is high

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Change in distance between sensor and an object with a magnet

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Some Improvements – Pole Pieces. Some Improvements – Bias Magnet.

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Some Improvements – double magnets.

Push-pull configuration Push-pull configuration

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Some Improvements – double magnets.

Push-pull configuration Push-Push

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Some Improvements – “Bipolar, push-pull”.

This configuration produces a strong field with reversal of direction in center.

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

• Applications • Applications Some examples

Your imagination is the limit!

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

• Applications Some examples • Applications

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

• Monitoring distance – liquid level • Monitoring distance – Pressure .. or Temperature

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Note magnet placed

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

• Flow Rate Meter

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Typical high-current sensing system with concentrator

Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect Self Generating Sensors - Hall-effect

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

Free electrons act somewhat as a gas.

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple or V/C

Similar effect for Metal and N-type semiconductors

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple or V/C Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

• Seebeck coefficients – semiconductors • Seebeck coefficients

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Material

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

• Seebeck coefficients • Seebeck Effect

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

• Seebeck Effect • Seebeck Effect

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

• Seebeck effect • Seebeck effect

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

• Seebeck effect • Seebeck effect A

Emf = |V1 - V2|

Voltages are across wires, not

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

• Seebeck coefficients • “Types”: i.e. standard combinations of materials

Hence AB = Cu - Bi = 1.7 + 79 = 80.7 V/K E

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple Self Generating Sensors - Thermocouple

Plot of nominal Seebeck coeff.