Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Barc RT Book

    Uploaded by

    nikhil
    7 views164 pages

    Original Title

    Barc Rt Book

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    7 views164 pages

    Barc RT Book

    Uploaded by

    nikhil

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 164
    1 8. A CONTENTS Non-Destructive Testing Methods . Properties of Materials . Defects in Materials D. B. c A B. A B. ‘Material Defects and Failures in Service Xray Technology Radiation Sources Gamma Radiography Equipment Photographic and Non-Photographic Recording Lead and Fluorescent Screens ‘Work Parameters and Conditions Evaluation of Radiographic Quality Defectology Selection of Radiography Techniques Radiographic Standards and Selection of Test Methods Advances in Radiography 1A, NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS INTRODUCTION ‘Non-destructve testing (NDT’-is testing materils without destroying them, The materials after inspection do not change in their size, shape, physical or chemical properties, There are six major NDT methods viz., visual and optical aids, radiography testing, ultrasonic ‘esting, eddy current testing, magnetic particle testing and dye peneirant testing. These are regularly used by industry, Each of these methods, has its own flaw detection capability and therefore no method can lace other methods. ‘These methods are discussed in brief, 21 TYPES OF NDT METHODS ‘Commonly employed NDT methods can be broadly divided into two groups ‘ |) Methods for destotion of internal defeess i) Methods for inspection of surface/sub-surface dees 3: METHODS FOR INTERNAL FLAWS. 3.1 : Radiographic Method Basie principle of radiographic testing is showa in figure 1.1. The radiation transmitted ‘through a material, i recorded on an X-ray ll. In this method, diferent types of radiations and films are used, depending upon the type of information required Source 7M TAN JANN ry + Object Defect } FE wccimtin ot HHT reromtted ineonstey IEbrough the shee Fig. 1.1 : Principle of Radiography Testing, 3.1.1 : X and Gamma Radiography Radiography testing is most widely used in industry for inspection of welds, castings and assemblies, ‘The image of a material produoed on an X-ray film shows optical density (degree of blackening) variation depending on the internal structure of the object. Industrial X-ray machines in the range of 50-400 kV are used for inspection of metal thicknesses upto 7.5 em stel equivalents. Betatrons and linear accelerators upto 30 MeV are zed for higher thicknesses. Antficially produced radioisotopes, emitting gamma radiations, such as irdium-192 and cobalt-60 have many advantages over X-ray machines. Equipment used for gamma radiography is compact, rugged and ideal for field work. - Iridium-192 and eobalt-60 sources combined together can cover inspection range of 10-200 mm of ste equivalents 3.2 : Ultrasonic Method Ultrasound waves are genersted by piezo electric transducers which convert electrical energy two mechanical vibrations and vice-versa, These waves are made to fll on the material 0 be tested, As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected, refracted, scattered or transmitied depending upon the structure ofthe materia Longitudinal "waves Shear 1, Pusecho Method ». Transmission Method Fig. 1.2: Urasonie Methods Most commonly used frequeney range for industrial inspection is 0.5 - 25 mega hertz. Three important methods of ultrasonic testing ae pulse-echo, transmission and resonance techniques. 3.2.1 + Pulse-Heho Method In this method, evenly timed pulse waves are transmitted ino the material to be wsted. In @ homogeneous material, the wave travels through the material and gets reflected from the back surface. In case of a defect, the original pulse reflects back from the defect location and Tetuins to the transducer before the retun of back surface echo pulse as shown in figure 1.2 {A single teanaducer can serve both as transmiter and receiver. |, {Wo separate transducers are used on either side of the material, one as ‘ansmitter and the other as receiver (Fig. 1.26) Variation in intensity across the transmitted ‘beam indicates the soundness ofthe material. Attenuation ofthe sound beam i indicative of coarse grin structure ofthe material. When the wave length is comparable to the grain size fof the medium, seatring process predominates, Transmission method is less sensitive, 3. ‘Resonance Method ‘This metiod is mainly useful for measurement of thickness of plates or sheets and also in case of bonded materials. In this method, ultrasonic wave of contiuously varying frequency is fed into the material. The frequency is varied tila standing wave is set up within the material, causing it to resonate atthe fundamental frequency or multiples of it ata greater amplitude as shown in figare 1.3. The resonance is sensed by an instrument, Change in resonant frequency isan indication of dizcontinuty Fig. 1.3 : Principle of Resonance method. 4: METHODS FOR SURTACE/SUB-SURFACE INSPECTIONS 4.1 : Visual and Dye Penetrant Testing Methods Examination of cracks and other iregulaities on th surface under visible light the chespest, simplest and quickest NDT method. However, all defects cannot be seen, by unaided eyes. ‘Therefore, techniques to increase the contrast ofthe discontinuity to make i visible, are used. Coloured and fluorescent dyes are made to soap into the surface cracks to provide contrast against the background, 4.2 : Rayleigh Wave Testing Rayleigh waves are uluasonie shear waves propagated nea the surface of material. Waves of frequencies inthe range of 1-10 MHz. are used for detection of surface cracks and other defects. The technique is used, where acces is limited. 4,3 : Magnetic Particle Testing This method is applicable only to materials which can be magnetised. The object is magnetised by applying high alternate or direct currents (A.C or D.C) and flow of magnetic powders is observed elther in dry or wet process. Surface discontinuity, such as grinding racks, forging laps and seams, etc. can be easly detected, In some cases, sub-surface defees about one centimeter deep, can also be revealed, Fig, 1.4: Principe of Eddy Current Testing 4.4: Eddy Current Testing The method employs alternating currents inthe range (50-5000 kHz), and is useful for detection of surface and near surface defects in electrically conducting materials. When 2 coll carrying alternating curent is placed in the proximity of metal specimen, as shown in igure 1.4, eddy currents are induced on the surface layer. Strength of these eddy currents depends on a large rurmber of surface variables. Depth of inspection depends upon type of material and frequency of the alternating current and it Js about I-10 mm. 5; LEAK TESTING Leak testing method is used to check fabricated components and systems, for nuclear reactors, pressure vessels, electronic valves, vacuum equipment, gas containers, et. A lak is passage of «gas from one sie ofthe wal ofthe container to the ether side, under pressure or concentration ‘iffeence. It is measured as else. Depending upon the range of leak detection capability, a numberof est methods are avaiable, Some examples are; pressure drop/rise, ultrasonic leak detectors, bubble tests and ammonia sensitised paper, with detection capabilites upto 104 eelsee. Halogen diode sniffer, Helium ‘mass spectrometer and Argon mass spectrometer have detection sensitivities inthe range. 107-10" cofsee. 1B, PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION Selection of a material fora given job depends upon its physical and mechanical properties. “Most structural materials are subject to external forces, which generate internal mechanical stresies. The reaction of the part to these stresses can be critical to its continued functioning Hence, itis important forthe NDT personnel to know the normal material properties, 25 well ss effet of discontinuity upon the material serviceability. 2: TYPES OF PROPERTIES The application for which a material is used, detecmines which property is most important, 2.1 : Chemical Properties (Chemical properties (reaction wth other materials) are of interest, mainly because ofthe need for 2.2 : Physical Properties Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structures -eg., density, crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, melting pont, ete. 2.3 : Mechanical Properties “Mechanical properties of materials lke strength, hardnes, ae most im tin manufacturing procestes and for determining sizes and shapes necessary for carrying loads. 23. ‘Tensile Strength [A sires strain diagram is used to describe many ofthe mechanical properties important in the strength of a material, It shows the stress-strain behaviour of the material under gradually applied and increasing tensile stress. It indicates theee regions fa, Blastic Region at Low Stresses - indicates thatthe longitudinal stain produced by streses is quite small and is proportional to the applied stress », Plastic Region at Medium Stresses: indicates that ata certain sess level an abrupt ‘norease in strain occurs ad the materal is said (0 yield, ©, Necking Region at High Stresses : wherein, when the ultimate strength is reached, the material stars to neck into larger strains, until the material ruptures And reeks int two pars. Serains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unloading are called inelastic or plastic strains. Materials which undergo relatively large plastic strain to rupcure ae refered to as “ductile”. ‘Those which undergo litle or no plastic strain, prior to rupaure, are referred to as "brite". 2.3.2: Toughness and Notch-Toughness ‘The toughness of 2 material is defined as the ability of an unnotched member (e.g. a smooth round bes) to absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness ofa material is defined as the ability of a material so absorb energy in the presence of a sharp notch, when loaded very rapidly with an impact los 2.3.3: Creep, ‘Creep isthe flow of material over period of time, when under a load too smal. produce any ‘measurable plastic deformation atthe time of application. ‘The simplest type of creep test is ‘mace by just hanging a weight onthe test specimen end observing its elongation, ata function of time by using a microscope or other sensitive detector of stain. 2.3.4: Fatigue Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material wo withstand repeated applications of stress hich in itself sto small to produce appreciable plastic deformation. Fatigue, usually is a more critical design erterion than any other, forthe structural safety and reliability of machinery of structural component. 2.3.5: Hardness “The hardness of a material is measured by hardness tester, ‘Three types of hardness test are the scratch, rebound and penetration tests. Hardness measurements are extremely useful as a quick and rough indication ofthe mechanical properties ofa metal. 1C, DEFECTS IN MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION ‘A discontinuity ean cecur any time inthe history ofa piece of metal If iis introduced during the initial produetion from the molten state, ii termed as inherent discontinuity. If caused uring fucther processing, fabrication or finishing, itis ealled processing discontinuity Finally iit arses during the use of the end product either due to environment, load or both, it is called service discontinuity. 2: CASTING DEFECTS Casting isthe proces of causing liquid metal wo fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape. “The discontinuity that can oocur during casting process are given below ; 4. Non-metallic inclusions : Non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal, ae caused by the impurities in the starting material and most of the non-metallic matter being lighter, rise to the top of the ingot, but some are trapped within, because the molten metal above them hardens before it could reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape, ». Porosity: Its spherical or neatly spherical shaped and is caused by the entrapped gas inthe ‘molten material ¢. Pipe : The molten metal, after being poured into a mold, stars to cool and it solidifies. The Solidification process starts from the surface and travels towards the centre of the ingot. On Solidification, the molten metal contracts. Sine the cone ofthe ingot is the last to col and Soliify, most of the shrinkage is observed in the contre. This results ina cavity called “PIPE®, Tt may extend from the top towards te interior of the ingot along the axis 4. Cold-sut : Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When the metal is poured, i its the mold too hard and spattes small drops of metal. When these Arops of metal hit higher up on mold, they stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal ‘aches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts can also be formed by the lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces of molten material of different temperatures. , Hot ter (shrink crack) : ot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections fof a casting as the metal cools. In casting having light and heavy seotons, the ligt sections, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, as they ae nower and do not sink as fas. Shrinkage cavity : Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage ofthe solidifying meta, just as a “PIPE is formed in an ingot. It can be found anywhere in te cat product, unlike the “pipe” in he ingot, svhich always occurs only at the op portion ofthe ingot fg. Micro shrinkage : Shrinkage can also occur in the casting atthe mold gate, ie., atthe entrance tothe mold through which the molten metal is poured. Shrinkage occurs, if metal at the gate solidifies or is blocked off while some of the metal beneath is still molten. Shrinkage Which occurs atthe gate appear as 2 number of small holes called "micro shrinkage". Micro shrinkage can also occur deeper within the metal, ifthe mold is improperly designed, 1, Blow holes: Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and are caused by external gas emanating from the mold iself. 3: FORGING DEFECTS Forging isthe process of working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing Mos forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals can be cold forged. ‘The

    You might also like