the

MATRIX
connection:
Fibonacci and Inductive Proof
Tamara B. Veenstra and Catherine M. Miller

T
he Fibonacci numbers have fascinated
artists, scientists, and mathematicians
for centuries. Artists often use the
golden ratio (the limit of ratios of con-
secutive Fibonacci numbers) in their
work; scientists use these numbers to help classify
plants (phyllotaxis) that have distinctive spiral pat-
terns (the number of spirals in many plants is a Fi-
bonacci number). For a description of these and
other examples of the Fibonacci numbers in nature,
see Hoggatt’s book (1969) or Knott’s Web page listed
in the references. Some patterns in the Fibonacci
numbers are based solely on mathematical concepts.
The Fibonacci sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . . , where
each entry is formed by adding the two previous
ones, starting with 1 and 1 as the first two terms.
This sequence is named for Leonardo da Pisa (ca.
1170–1240), one of the most well-known mathemati-
cians from the Middle Ages. He is better known as Fi-
bonacci, which is short for “filius Bonacci,” meaning
“the son of Bonaccio.” Fibonacci wrote several books
on mathematics. In one of them, Liber abaci (1202), he
presented a problem about rabbits for his readers to
use when practicing arithmetic. The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, . . . gives the solution to this problem. The French
mathematician Edouard Lucas (1842–1891) later
named this sequence after Fibonacci and found many
other applications of the numbers. While Fibonacci is

328 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 99, No. 5 • December 2005/January 2006

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 TABLE 1
1. Consider the following sequence of numbers:
The Fibonacci Sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . . F1 1
F2 1
What number do you think would come next? F3 2
Why? Write your explanation in the space below.
F4 3
F5 5
2. Let’s call the sequence F, for Fibonacci. We F6 8
will use subscripts to identify a numbers place- F7 13
ment in the sequence. For example, F3 is 2 be- F8 21
cause 2 is the third number in the sequence. F9 34
Practice using this notation by filling in the table
F10 55
below. If n is any location in the sequence, Fn is
the corresponding Fibonacci number. F11 89
F12 144
N Fn
F13 233
3 2
F14 377
4 F15 610
7 F16 987
9 F17 1597
55 F18 2584
144
14
Using the list of Fibonacci numbers, evaluate the following
Fig. 1 Notation activity expressions for the given values of n. Find a formula relating
F2n
best known for the sequence that bears his name, he , Fn − 1 , and Fn + 1 .
Fn
was also one of the first mathematicians to introduce
the Hindu-Arabic number system into Europe. F2n
A surprising connection between matrices and N Fn F2n Fn – 1 Fn + 1 Fn – 1 + Fn + 1
Fn
Fibonacci numbers leads to some very elegant re-
sults. In this article, we present several activities 3
that will lead students to discover interesting con- 4
nections between matrices and Fibonacci numbers
5
while practicing various skills, including matrix
multiplication, pattern recognition, and proof by in- 6
duction. These activities could be used in an alge-
bra 2 course, once matrices have been introduced. Fig. 2 Factors of Fibonacci numbers
For precalculus students who have studied induc-
tion, proofs of these interesting patterns could be PATTERN ONE: FACTORS OF
discussed. AP Calculus teachers have used these ac- FIBONACCI NUMBERS
tivities to challenge their students during the In this activity, students can continue familiarizing
classes that follow the exam. themselves with subscript notation while discover-
If needed, begin by reviewing subscript notation ing an interesting pattern about factors of Fibonacci
with your students. The first exploration (see fig. 1) numbers. Have students complete the table shown
is designed to reintroduce this notation, which is use- in figure 2 and discuss their conjectures. Your stu-
ful when investigating patterns in the sequence of Fi- dents will discover that F2n is always a multiple of
bonacci numbers and where each number falls in the Fn. In particular, F2n is equal to Fn(Fn – 1 + Fn + 1). It is
sequence. For example, to say that the sixth number quite interesting that Fn is always a factor of F2n, but
in the Fibonacci sequence is 8, we write F6 = 8. Table it is even more interesting that we can determine its
1 shows the first 18 Fibonacci numbers and can be factorization in terms of other Fibonacci numbers.
duplicated or enlarged and posted in the classroom. The property of Fibonacci numbers described
Having the sequence available will help your students above generalizes nicely. Not only is Fn always a
recognize the patterns in the following explorations. factor of F2n, but Fn is always a factor of F3n and F4n

Vol. 99, No. 5 • December 2005/January 2006 | MATHEMATICS TEACHER 329

 n +1 n
and, in general, Fkn for any positive, natural num- ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ =⎜ ,
⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠
ber k. This means that we can easily determine if
one Fibonacci number is a multiple of another just
by knowing their positions in the sequence. For which is
example, multiples of 8 (the sixth Fibonacci num-
⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞
ber) are those numbers Fm, where m is a multiple .
⎜ ⎟
of 6 (F12, F18, F24, . . .). In general, Fm is a multiple ⎝ Fn Fn + 1 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠
of Fn if m is a multiple of n. (See Miller and Veen-
stra 2000 for a guided discovery activity students Multiplying matrices yields
can use to develop this conjecture.) This property
will be verified later in this article using matrices. ⎛ Fn Fn − 1 + Fn ⎞
⎜ ⎟.
⎝ Fn + 1 Fn + Fn + 1 ⎠
PATTERN TWO: MATRICES AND
FIBONACCI NUMBERS Now, using the recursive definition of the Fi-
Before beginning this exploration, reacquaint your bonacci numbers, we have
students with matrix multiplication. Consider the
n +1
matrix ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ F Fn + 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ =⎜ n ⎟.
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎝ Fn + 1 Fn + 2 ⎠
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠
Since our base case and inductive hypothesis are
and raise it to various powers. That is, compute true, we have shown that
2 3 4 n
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ , ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ , ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ , K . ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜ F ⎟.
⎝ n Fn + 1 ⎠

This can be done using a graphing calculator or is true for all whole numbers n ≥ 2.
other available tools. Instruct students to organize
the products in a table and to look for patterns using CONNECTIONS: USING MATRICES TO
the table of Fibonacci numbers (table 1). They will DERIVE FIBONACCI FORMULAS
discover the following lovely connection: In this section, we will use the matrix connection
n
obtained in pattern two to verify the formulas and
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞ conjectures in pattern one. We will first verify the
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜ F ⎟ formula F2n = Fn(Fn – 1 + Fn + 1). This proof should be
⎝ n Fn + 1 ⎠
accessible to all students. The second, more difficult
This conjecture can be proven using induction. proof, that Fn is always a factor of Fkn, is quite simi-
For the base case, let n = 2. We have lar but requires a bit more confidence with alge-
2
braic manipulations. This proof may be appropriate
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞ for more advanced students.
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 1 2⎟⎠ .
The Proof of Pattern One
Since F1 and F2 are both 1 and F3 is 2, we can con- To have your students verify the formula F2n =
clude that Fn(Fn – 1 + Fn + 1) ask them to compute
2
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞
2n

⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜ F ⎟ ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠
⎝ n Fn + 1 ⎠

for n = 2. For the inductive step, we assume two different ways. First, simply apply the formula
n
from pattern two:
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜ F ⎟.
2n
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛F F2n ⎞
⎝ n Fn + 1 ⎠ = ⎜ 2n − 1 ⎟.
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠
⎝ F2n F2n + 1 ⎠
We need to show that
n +1 The second way involves using properties of expo-
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ F Fn + 1 ⎞ nents to rewrite
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ =⎜ n ⎟.
⎝ Fn + 1 Fn + 2 ⎠ ⎛ 0 1⎞
2n
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞
n n

⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ as ⎜
⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠
Using the inductive hypothesis we have

330 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 99, No. 5 • December 2005/January 2006

and then applying the formula from pattern two. ⎛ 2 5⎞
1. Raise ⎜ to various powers.
⎝ 5 3⎟⎠
Doing this results in

n n
⎛ Fn − 1 Record your results in the table.
⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ 0 1⎞ Fn ⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ •
⎜⎝ 1 1⎠⎟ = ⎜ F ⎟ •⎜ ⎟ 2 3 4 5
⎝ n Fn + 1 ⎠ ⎝ Fn Fn + 1 ⎠ ⎛ 2 5⎞ ⎛ 2 5⎞ ⎛ 2 5⎞ ⎛ 2 5⎞
⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠
⎛ F2 + F2 Fn Fn − 1 + Fn Fn + 1 ⎞
n −1
=⎜ n
⎟.
⎝ Fn Fn − 1 + Fn Fn + 1 Fn2 + Fn2+ 1 ⎠

Combining these two equations leaves us with

2. Examine the matrices in your table. Which entries of the matrices
⎛ F2n − 1 F2n ⎞ ⎛ Fn2− 1 + Fn2 Fn Fn − 1 + Fn Fn + 1 ⎞ are multiples of 5?
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟.
⎝ F2n F2n + 1 ⎠ ⎝ Fn Fn − 1 + Fn Fn + 1 Fn2 + Fn2+ 1 ⎠ ⎛ 4 6⎞
3. Repeat the above process for the matrix ⎜ .
⎝ 6 1⎟⎠
Comparing the off-diagonal entries of both matrices,
we find that F2n = Fn(Fn – 1 + Fn + 1). The off-diagonal of That is, raise it to various powers and complete the table.
a matrix begins in the upper-right corner of the ma-
2 3 4 5
trix and continues diagonally to the lower-left entry. ⎛ 4 6⎞ ⎛ 4 6⎞ ⎛ 4 6⎞ ⎛ 4 6⎞
With the exploration above as a model, students ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠
can explore other patterns using the matrix. They
can develop their own conjectures and prove their
results. For example, in the previous matrix calcu-
lation we also see the Fibonacci identity
4. Examine all the matrices in your table. Which entries of the
F2nn − 1 = Fn2− 1 + Fn2
matrices are multiples of 6?

by comparing the upper-left entries of the matrices. 5. Make a conjecture about which entries of the following matrix
Students could similarly find formulas for F3n or will be multiples of b:
Fn + m. Other Fibonacci identities can be discovered k
⎛a b⎞
from the properties of matrix determinants. Many ⎜⎝ b
possibilities exist for students to discover and for- c ⎟⎠
mulate conjectures to be proved or disproved
through matrix manipulation. Fig. 3 Powers of matrices

The More Difficult Proof proof is left to the reader. Note: It is also true that
To understand why Fn is always a factor of Fkn re- bt = bu, but this is more difficult to prove.
quires an additional property of matrices. Have To see that Fn is a factor of Fkn we return to
students complete the activity in figure 3 and the relationship between Fibonacci numbers and
form a conjecture about the off-diagonal elements matrices. Recall that pattern two showed
of Ak for a given matrix A. This would be a good n
place to use calculators or some other form of ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞
technology, as the entries in the matrices become ⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜ F ⎟
⎝ n Fn + 1 ⎠
large rather quickly. Your students should dis-
cover the interesting property that if for any natural number n. Note that the nth Fi-
bonacci number appears in both entries of the off-
⎛a b⎞ diagonals. This provides a way to relate the nth
A=⎜ ,
⎝b c ⎟⎠ Fibonacci number to the n • kth number in the se-
quence by applying properties of exponents and
then the off-diagonals of Ak are multiples of b. That is, numerous applications of pattern two. Our first
k application of pattern two tells us
⎛a b⎞ ⎛ s bt ⎞
⎜⎝ b ⎟ =⎜
v ⎟⎠
nk
c⎠ ⎝ bu ⎛ 0 1⎞ ⎛F Fnk ⎞
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎜ nk − 1 ⎟.
⎝ Fnk Fnk + 1 ⎠
for some integers s, t, u, and v. (Answers to this and
other activities are given at the end of this article.) Now, using elementary properties of exponents
This can be proven using induction on k. This and pattern two for

Vol. 99, No. 5 • December 2005/January 2006 | MATHEMATICS TEACHER 331

 n
entries of the Fibonacci sequence. While students
⎛ 0 1⎞ consider this list of prime numbers, ask if they
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ think more prime numbers could be found later in
the sequence. That is, ask your students to form a
instead, we have conjecture about how many prime numbers are
k found in the Fibonacci sequence. This last question
⎛ 0 1⎞
nk
⎡⎛ 0 1⎞ n ⎤
is an unsolved problem in mathematics, but closing
⎜⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ = ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎝ 1 1⎟⎠ ⎥ with it can be a good way to introduce your stu-
⎣ ⎦
k
dents to the notion that there are new things to be
⎛F Fn ⎞ learned and to be accomplished in mathematics.
= ⎜ n −1 ⎟ .
⎝ Fn Fn + 1 ⎠ The mathematical patterns and proofs presented
in this article can provide a chance for your stu-
Combining these facts we find that dents to use matrix multiplication and inductive
k proof in a sophisticated mathematical exploration.
⎛ Fnk − 1 Fnk ⎞ ⎛ Fn − 1 Fn ⎞ Students will also have an opportunity to communi-
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ Fnk Fnk + 1 ⎠ ⎝ Fn Fn + 1 ⎠ cate mathematically about the Fibonacci sequence
and the reasoning used in the proofs. Moreover,
Our result about the off-diagonals of the matrices these patterns can serve to introduce your students
enables us to conclude that Fnk is a multiple of Fn. to the beauty of pure mathematics. The current em-
phasis on real-world mathematics helps students
EXTENSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS connect mathematics to their lives, but those stu-
You might complete your investigation of the Fi- dents who appreciate the beauty of patterns and
bonacci numbers by asking your students to iden- proofs may not have many opportunities to see the
tify the prime numbers contained in the first ten beauty of pure mathematics. Activities such as these
provide valuable insights into pure mathematics to
TABLE 2 future mathematicians in your classrooms.
Completed Table from Figure 2
SOLUTIONS
F2n Figure 1
N Fn F2n Fn – 1 Fn + 1 Fn – 1 + Fn + 1 1. The next number in the sequence is found by
Fn
adding the previous two numbers, which are 5 and
3 2 8 4 1 3 4 8 in this example. Table 1 shows the first 18 num-
4 3 21 7 2 5 7 bers in the sequence.
5 5 55 11 3 8 11
Figure 2
6 8 144 18 5 13 18
1. See table 2.

)
F2n
2.
Fn
(
= Fn − 1 + Fn + 1
TABLE 3
Solution to Figure 3, Question 1 Note: In class, you will use a version of this equation
2 3 4 5
(
F2n = Fn Fn − 1 + Fn + 1 .)
⎛ 2 5⎞ ⎛ 2 5⎞ ⎛ 2 5⎞ ⎛ 2 5⎞
⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 3⎟⎠ Figure 3
1. See table 3.
⎛ 29 25⎞ ⎛ 183 220⎞ ⎛ 1466 1575⎞ ⎛ 10807 12055⎞
⎜⎝ 25 34⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 220 227⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1575 1781⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12055 13218⎟⎠ 2. Entries on the off-diagonal

3. See table 4.
TABLE 4
Solution to Figure 3, Question 3 4. Entries on the off-diagonal
2 3 4 5
⎛ 4 6⎞ ⎛ 4 6⎞ ⎛ 4 6⎞ ⎛ 4 6⎞ 5. The entries on the off-diagonal of the matrix will
⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 1⎟⎠ be multiples of b.

⎛ 52 30⎞ ⎛ 388 342⎞ ⎛ 3604 2670⎞ ⎛ 30436 24294⎞ REFERENCES

⎜⎝ 30 37⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 342 217⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2670 2269⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 24294 18289
9⎟⎠ Hoggatt, Verner E. Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969.

332 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 99, No. 5 • December 2005/January 2006

Knott, Ron. “The Fibonacci Numbers and
the Golden Section.” www.mcs.surrey
.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fib
.html.
Miller, Catherine M., and Tamara B.
Veenstra. “Fibonacci: Beautiful
Patterns, Beautiful Mathematics.”
Mathematics Teaching in the Middle
School 7 (May 2000): 298–300. ∞
Editor’s note: For a combinatorics ap-
proach to some of the ideas presented here,
see “Delving Deeper,” p. 357.
Do You Have
Something to Add?
Share with readers and the Editorial
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articles or departments appearing in
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Reflections,” NCTM, 1906 Association
Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1502, or by
sending e-mail to mt@nctm.org.

TAMARA VEENSTRA,
Tamara.Veenstra@
redlands.edu, is a profes-
sor at the University of
Redlands in Redlands, CA
92373. She is interested
in number theory, espe-
cially Fibonacci numbers
and cryptography, and in developing
connections between number theory
and the middle and high school math-
ematics curricula. CATHERINE
MILLER, millerc@math.uni.edu, is a
professor at the University of
Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, IA
50614. Miller is interested in second-
ary school mathematics teachers’
acquisition of pedagogical content
knowledge and preservice teachers
developing this specialized knowledge
to inform their teaching. Photograph by
Sarah-Marie Belcastro; all rights reserved

Vol. 99, No. 5 • December 2005/January 2006 | MATHEMATICS TEACHER 333