Ans)1. Types of Piles.

Classification based on Function orUse

• Bearing Piles or End Bearing Piles

• Friction Piles or Skin Friction Piles Sheet Piles
• Tension Piles or Uplift Piles
• Anchor Piles
• Batter Piles
• Fender Piles
• Compaction Piles

Classification based on Materials

• Timber Piles
• Concrete Piles
1. Pre-cast Piles
2. Cast in situ Piles
3. Pre-stressed Concrete
4. Piles Composite Piles
• Steel Piles
1. H-Piles
2. Pipe-piles
3. Screw piles
4. Disc piles
5. Sand Piles
• Composite piles
• Sand piles

A. Concrete piles:
Pre-cast piles:-

Advantages of Pre-cast Piles:

Very effective
Simple quality control
Improves the entire area

Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles:

Limited in length
Difficult to transport
Not suitable for densely built up area

Cast-in-situ piles:-

Advantages of Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles:

Not limited in length

Can be cast at any place
Requires less equipment
Disadvantages of Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles:

Quality control is difficult

Load carrying is mostly done through end bearing Only
Skin frictional resistance is very low.

B. Steel piles:
H-piles:-

Strength: H-piles are created for being driven into the ground that is difficult for other piles to be driven
into.
Environmentally Friendly: H-piles can be used, extracted recycled, and reused.
Versatile: H-piles can be adapted on-site, cut to length to fit the job requirements.
Ideal for Urban settings: Because H-piles minimally disturb the surrounding area.

Box-piles:-
They can be conveniently introduced into a wall of standard sheet piles at any point where heavy loads
are applied.
Boxes may also be used as individual bearing piles for foundations or in open jetty
and dolphin construction.
Box piles can be driven into all normal soils, very compact ground and soft rocks

Pipe piles:-

A prebuilt steel pipe structure is driven into the ground.

The piles remain in place primarily through friction with the soil.
Because they are made of steel, they can handle extremely heavy loads.

Ans)2. Classification of piles based on use and execution:

Classification based on Function or Use

• Bearing Piles or End Bearing Piles

• Friction Piles or Skin Friction Piles

• Sheet Piles

• Tension Piles or Uplift Piles

 • Anchor Piles

• Batter Piles

• Fender Piles

• Compaction Piles

Ans)3. Methods of installation (Displacement piles)

• Dropping weight
• Diesel hammer
• Vibratory methods of pile driving
• Jacking methods of insertion

Dropping weight

The dropping weight or drop hammer is the most commonly used method of insertion of displacement piles. A
weight approximately half that of the pile is raised a suitable distance in a guide and released to strike the pile head.

Diesel hammer

Rapid controlled explosions can be produced by the diesel hammer. The explosions raise a ram which is used to drive
the pile into the ground. Although the ram is smaller than the weight used in the drop hammer the increased
frequency of the blows can make up for this inefficiency.

Vibratory methods of pile driving

Vibratory methods can prove to be very effective in driving piles through non cohesive granular soils. The vibration
of the pile excites the soil grains adjacent to the pile making the soil almost free flowing thus significantly reducing
friction along the pile shaft. However the large energy resulting from the vibrations can damage equipment, noise
and vibration propagation can also result in the settlement of nearby buildings.

Jacking methods of insertion

Jacked piles are most commonly used in underpinning existing structures. By excavating underneath a structure
short lengths of pile can be inserted and jacked into the ground using the underside of the existing structure as a
reaction.

Ans)4.

• Piles can be used individually, or they can be grouped together and linked by a reinforced concrete cap.
• Pile caps create a stable foundation and offer a larger area for the distribution of the building load onto
the piles.
• They act in a similar way to piled raft foundations, where a concrete slab rests on soil which may be
susceptible to movement, above a group of piles.

The number of piles in the group, and the spacing between them, determines the shape and plan dimensions of
the pile cap. The shapes of pile caps are typically either:

▪ Triangular (for 3 piles).

▪ Hexagonal (for 6-7 piles).
▪ Rectangular (for all other number of piles).

• As it is very difficult to bore or drive piles exactly vertically, the pile cap should be able to accommodate some
deviation in the final position of the pile heads.
• The pile cap should overhang the outer piles, typically by a distance of 100-150 mm on all sides, depending
on the size of the piles.

Ans)6. Cast-In-Situ Diaphragm Wall:

Diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete structure constructed in-situ panel by panel. The wall is usually designed to
reach very great depth, sometimes up to 50m, mechanical excavating method is thus employed. Typical sequence of
work includes:

a. Construct the guide wall

b. Excavation to form the diaphragm wall trench
c. Support the trench cutting using bentonite slurry
d. Inert reinforcement and placing of concrete to form the wall panel
Work sequences:

Guide wall – guide wall is two parallel concrete beams constructed along the side of the wall as a guide to the clamshell
which is used for the excavation of the diaphragm wall trenches.
Trench excavation – In normal soil condition excavation is done using a clamshell or grab suspended by cables to a
crane. The grab can easily cut through soft ground. In case of encountering boulders, a gravity hammer (chisel) will be
used to break the rock and then take the spoil out using the grab.
Reinforcement – reinforcement is inserted in the form of a steel cage, but may be required to lap a few sections in
order to reach the required length.
Concreting – placing of concrete is done using tremie pipes to avoid the segregation of concrete. As Concrete being
poured down, bentonite will be displaced due to its lower density than concrete. Bentonite is then collected and
reused.
Joining for the diaphragm wall panel – Diaphragm wall cannot be constructed continually for a very long section due
to limitation and size of the mechanical plant. The wall is usually constructed in alternative section. Two stop end tubes
will be placed at the ends of the excavated trench before concreting. The tubes are withdrawn at the same time of
concreting so that a semi-circular end section is formed. Wall sections are formed alternatively leaving an intermediate
section in between. The in-between sections are built similarly afterward but without the end tube. At the end a
continual diaphragm wall is constructed with the panel sections tightly joined by the semi-circular groove.

Ans)8. High-rise structural systems & Earthquake Resistant technologies:

1. BRACED-FRAME STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

This structural system refers to cantilevered vertical trusses that resist laterals, loads primarily diagonal members
together with girders, and forms the web of the vertical truss. This is more used in steel construction and is suitable
for multi-storey building in the low to mid-height range. This kind of system is also efficient and economical for
enhancing the lateral stiffness and resistance of a rigid-frame system.

2. RIGID-FRAME STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

In this kind of structure, beams and columns are constructed monolithically to withstand moments that are imposed
due to loads. A rigid-frame system is more suitable for reinforced concrete buildings. Although this system may also
be used in steel construction, the connections will be costly. However, there is the advantage of the likelihood of
planning and fitting of windows due to open rectangular arrangement.

3. WALL-FRAME SYSTEM (DUAL SYSTEM)

The wall-frame or dual system consists of a wall and frame that interact horizontally for a stronger and stiffer
system. In this system, the walls are usually solid and can be found around elevator shafts, stairwells and/or at the
perimeter of the building.
4. SHEAR WALL SYSTEM

This kind of system is a continuous vertical wall that’s constructed from reinforced concrete or masonry wall. Shear
walls are great at withstanding gravity and lateral loads, as well as acting as narrow-deep cantilever beams. This is
commonly constructed as a core of buildings. When it comes to bracing tall buildings that are either reinforced
concrete or steel structure, this system is highly suitable because shear walls are substantial in plane stiffness and
strength.

5. CORE AND OUTRIGGER STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

This structural system is designed for improving building overturning stiffness and strength by connecting the core or
spine to closely spaced outer columns. Basically, outrigger systems function by tying together two structural
systems—a core system and a perimeter system—and then render the building to behave as similar as a composite
cantilever. The outriggers are actually in the form of walls in a reinforced concrete building and trusses when it
comes to steel structures.
 Ans)9. Different types of excavation:

Full Open Cut Method

It divided into two major types including sloped full open cut and cantilever full open cut. The former is assumed to

be economical since the side of excavation would be sloped and does not need any support to held foundation wall.

However, if the slope is considerably gentle or the excavation is largely deep, it will costly.
 Fig.2: Full Open Cut Excavation with Side Slopes

The latter needs retaining wall to support foundation wall soil and prevent collapse of foundation wall but it neither

require backing nor slopes. Therefore, it cannot categorically be claimed that which method is more cost effect. The

economical method may be distinguished based on analysis, design, and evaluation result Remove App Used to Plan

Parties Amid Pandemic

Fig.3: Cantilevered Full Open Cut Excavation Method

Bracing Excavation Method

Bracing excavation is the placement of horizontal struts in front of retaining wall to held excavation wall material

pressure. Bracing system consist of wale, strut, center posts, end braces, and corner braces.
Earth pressure transfer to horizontal struts through wale, and the purpose of corner and end braces is to reduce

wale span without increasing strut number. Center posts prevent the failure of struts due to their own weight.

Fig.4: Bracing Excavation Method

Anchored Excavation Methods

In this technique, anchors are installed to counter act against earth pressure.

Bonded portion of the anchor provides anchoring force that works against earth pressure whereas unbonded part of

the anchored transfer pressure to the anchor head. Anchor head transfer loads to the retaining wall.

The anchoring force is greatly based on the soil strength. The higher the soil strength the greater the anchoring

forces. This technique is not suitable for clay and granular soil with high ground water table.

Fig.5: Anchored Excavation Method

 Fig.6: Configuration of Anchors and Different Parts of the System

Island Excavation Methods

In this method, the center of excavation area is dug and excavated material placed close to the retaining wall to

create a slope. After that, the major part of the structure would be constructed at the center of the excavation.

Then, the sloped soil will be excavated and struts will be placed between retaining wall and the main structure.

Finally, the struts will be removed and remaining parts of the structure will be constructed. Sometimes, it might be

required to use anchored or braced technique to removed slopes soil material, specifically when the excavation is

too deep.

Fig.7: Island excavation method explained, this method is suitable for sizable excavation area

Zoned Excavation Methods

Diaphragm walls are used as a retaining wall in the zoned excavation method. Deformation of the longer span wall

would greater than short span wall as explained Figure 8.

 Fig.8: Deformation of Longer Span Wall Compared to Shorter Span Ones

So, the deflections of longer span walls are declined by dividing excavation area into small area to decrease wall

deformation and settlement as shown in Figure 9.

Fig.9: Dividing total excavation area into two smaller area

The excavation will begin in area B while area A would be left to support the wall of area B. then struts in area B

would be installed and excavation starts in area A. This process will continue in stages till the whole excavation is

completed.

Top Down Excavation Methods

In this method, construction begins from the top to the bottom of excavation and superstructure construction starts

after the construction of the first slab is completed.

So, slabs are constructed after each stage of excavation is finished. The slabs play the same role as struts in holding

earth pressure.

Construction process order include retaining wall construction, pile construction under column of superstructure,

placing columns on piles, and installing formwork for the first slab at the top then other slabs of the would be

constructed after each excavation.

 Fig.10: Top Down Construction

Fig.11: Comparison between top down construction and bottom up construction

Ans)10.