Energy 41 (2012) 401e407

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Energy
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Stratified lean combustion characteristics of a spray-guided combustion

system in a gasoline direct injection engine
Cheolwoong Park a, *, Sungdae Kim a, Hongsuk Kim a, Yasuo Moriyoshi b
a
Department of Engine Research, Environmental and Energy Systems Research Division, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM), Republic of Korea
b
Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Gasoline direct injection (GDI) systems have higher power and fuel efficiency than multi-point injection
Received 8 July 2011 (MPI) systems. The direct injection of fuel into the combustion chamber leads to improved fuel economy
Received in revised form because intake air is cooled by fuel evaporation. Direct fuel injection also improves knock resistance and
6 February 2012
volume efficiency. Furthermore, spray-guided direct injection (DI) combustion systems allow stratified
Accepted 26 February 2012
Available online 29 March 2012
lean combustion operation due to their ability to eliminate wall-wetting and form ignitable stratified
mixtures near spark plugs.
In this research, a spray-guided combustion system with a piezo-type gasoline direct injector was
Keywords:
Gasoline direct injection
investigated for its applicability to stratified lean combustion engines. Tests were conducted at constant
Spray-guided type engine speeds and load conditions (2000 rpm, IMEP 0.28 MPa) that reflect typical operating conditions
Stratified lean combustion for passenger vehicles. Fuel economy and combustion stability were evaluated for various injection
Late injection pressures at each excess air ratio. It is possible to create a sufficiently rich mixture for ignition in the
Exhaust gas recirculation vicinity of the spark plug, even under overall ultra-lean mixture conditions (l ¼ 3.0). Exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) and retarded ignition timing were considered to achieve a reduction in nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions. EGR with optimized ignition timing was most effective when a spray-guided
combustion system was employed.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction However, several limitations make the practical realization of

Increased fossil fuel consumption, the enforcement of emission
regulations, and a reduction in fuel resources have caused a need
for improved combustion technology that offers enhanced fuel
economy along with the ability to comply with sufficiently high
brake power requirements. Engines with gasoline direct injection
(GDI) systems were originally introduced to achieve improved
efficiency and a required level of power [1e4]. GDI engines can
achieve lean combustion, which conserves fuel. During lean
combustion, direct injection into the cylinder significantly reduces
pumping loss during unthrottled operation. In addition, heat loss is
reduced from cooling due to the low combustion temperature. GDI
engines can operate with higher specific power and compression
ratios because intake air is cooled by the vaporization of directly-
injected fuel. Problems associated with harmful hydrocarbon
(UBHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions can also be mitigated
by atomizing fuels to yield homogeneous fuel-air mixtures [5,6].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ82 42 868 7928; fax: þ82 42 868 7305.
E-mail address: cwpark@kimm.re.kr (C. Park).
GDI engines difficult. The development of mode transition tech-
nology is needed for smooth transitions between early and late
injection, and to maximize fuel economy through an expansion of
the stratified combustion region. First generation wall- and air-
guided stratified direct injection (DI) combustion systems had
unfavorable emission, specific power, and fuel consumption char-
acteristics due to the impingement of directly-injected fuel on the
piston and cylinder wall [7e9]. The primary disadvantages of wall-
and air-guided systems are avoided with spray-guided DI
combustion systems. Such systems are characterized by the close
proximity of the spark plug to centrally-mounted injectors. In
engines with spray-guided DI combustion systems, wall-wetting is
eliminated and ignitable stratified mixtures are formed near the
spark plug. The process of combustion in these engines does not
depend on the air or mixture flow motion in the cylinder, but on the
spray characteristics determined by the injection system [10e15].
The production of hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx),
as well as low exhaust gas temperatures, are the major problems
associated with spray-guided DI combustion systems during
unthrottled stratified lean combustion operation. As such, the
potential fuel-savings associated with GDI engines are related to

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.060
402 C. Park et al. / Energy 41 (2012) 401e407
Table 1
Engine specifications.
Injection system Piezo-actuated gasoline direct injection
Bore 86 mm
Stroke 86 mm
Displacement 499 cc
Compression ratio 12:1
Valve actuation DOHC 4-valve
emissions levels. Oxidation treatments for control of HC emissions
from vehicles with gasoline engines are easier when compared to
controlling NOx emissions. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is an
effective solution to the NOx emissions problem and is known to be
an attractive means of improving fuel economy and reducing NOx
emissions from spark ignition engines. This is because EGR offers
the benefits of charge dilution while allowing stoichiometric
fueling to be retained in applications where three-way catalysts are
employed [16e18]. EGR can be very effective for reducing NOx
emissions by substituting fresh air for the EGR gas system during
unthrottled stratified lean combustion operation.
A single-cylinder GDI engine equipped with a spray-guided DI
combustion system was built in order to investigate the effects of
injection strategies and related combustion characteristics. Spray-
guided DI combustion was performed with an outward-opening
piezo-injector and a spark plug positioned near the centrally-
mounted injector. Experiments were carried out for a wide range of
injection parameters, including the injection pressure and injection
timing. The effects of ignition and injection timings were analyzed
separately, and the optimized results were applied to engine opera-
tion with EGR. The in-cylinder pressure, as well as the NOx, HC, and
smoke emissions were measured at various operating conditions.
2. Experimental work
2.1. Test engine and instrumentation
The engine used in the tests was a single-cylinder, direct
injection, 4-stroke gasoline engine equipped with an outward-
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental engine setup.
opening piezo-injection system that allows for very fast opening
of the injector needle. The specifications of the engine are listed in
Table 1. The outward-opening nozzle design is robust against
changes in the spray shape and injection rate due to coking [19].
The fuel injector produces a stable hollow cone-shaped spray with
low penetration, and a recirculation zone is created due to vortices
at the spark plug [20]. The injector can be operated at injection
pressures of up to 20 MPa.
A schematic drawing of the engine test bench employed in this
work is shown in Fig. 1. The engine speed and load were controlled
with a direct current (DC) dynamometer. The pressure regulator
valve of the fuel rail and the piezo-injector were driven by an
electronic operating system. A high-precision rotary encoder
(720 pulses/revolution) was used for engine control and data
acquisition. A wide band lambda meter (ETAS, LA4) was installed to
measure the excess air ratio. A sampling probe was installed in the
exhaust pipe, and exhaust gases were analyzed with a CO/carbon
dioxide (CO2) gas analyzer (MIR-2 M, Environment S.A.) and a total
hydrocarbon (THC) gas analyzer (PEMS 200D, EplusT Ltd.). An in-
line type opacimeter was employed to measure smoke emissions.
The opacity of the exhaust gas represented the smoke intensity, and
the opacity value could be translated to a Bosch smoke number
according to SAE J1667.
A piezoelectric pressure transducer (6052A, Kistler) was used to
measure the in-cylinder pressure. The indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEP), coefficient of variation of IMEP (COVIMEP), and heat
release rate were calculated with a combustion analyzer
(DEWE800CA2, Dewetron) using ensemble-averaged cylinder
pressure data over 200 engine cycles [18].
2.2. Experimental conditions
The test conditions were set at 2000 rpm and IMEP ¼ 0.28 MPa
(corresponding to a multi-cylinder engine brake mean effective
pressure (BMEP) of 0.2 MPa), reflecting typical operating condi-
tions for passenger vehicles. After the engine was sufficiently
warmed up, the cooling water temperature was controlled at
82.5  2.5  C. The engine operating conditions are summarized in
 C. Park et al. / Energy 41 (2012) 401e407 403

Table 2. The injection pressure was varied from 10 MPa to 20 MPa. 300
The excess air ratio was varied from l ¼ 1.0 to the lean burn limit
in increments of 0.5. At each test condition, the injection and
ignition times were swept to determine the minimum spark
290
advance for the best torque (MBT) requirements. The energizing
time for ignition was set at 900 micro-seconds. The indicated

ISFC (g/kWh)
specific fuel consumption (ISFC), emissions, and combustion
stability were assessed at each operation condition. The combus- 280
tion stability is represented by the cyclic variability derived from
pressure data (COVIMEP).
The EGR rate was varied by controlling the opening position of 270 λ = 1.0
the EGR valve. A close tolerance EGR system was employed for
λ = 1.5
accurate closed loop control of the EGR valve. To achieve its set λ = 2.0
point, the EGR system included a controller and an electronic EGR λ = 2.5
valve with a potentiometer. The EGR rate was calculated from the 260
λ = 3.0
measured CO2 concentrations at the inlet manifold, the exhaust,
and the ambient atmosphere [18] as follows 30 35 40 45 50
Ignition timing (BTDC CAD)
½CO2 In  ½CO2 ATM
EGR rate ¼
½CO2 Ex  ½CO2 ATM Fig. 2. ISFC according to the ignition timing with a 20 MPa injection pressure at each
excess air ratio.
where [CO2]In, [CO2]ATM, and [CO2]Ex are the CO2 concentrations at
the intake manifold, ambient atmosphere, and exhaust manifold,
respectively.
a constant injection pressure. Because retarded or advanced igni-
tion results in the formation of an inadequate mixture near the
3. Results and discussion
spark plug, the injection and ignition times were closely related and
sensitive to the combustion efficiency.
Mixture formation and an excess air ratio near the spark plug
It is expected that the MBT time advances due to a reduced
depend on spray characteristics that are influenced by the duration
combustion speed as the excess air ratio is increased. However, the
and timing of fuel injection [12]. The ignitable mixture is found
optimum injection and ignition timings remained at BTDC 40 CAD
between the rich mixture of the spray core and the lean mixture of
for an excess air ratio of l ¼ 2.0 or higher. This means that simple
the spray periphery due to differences in evaporation times.
control of the ignition time for the excess air ratio is not the only
Consequently, the most favorable ignition times should be deter-
determinant of efficient combustion; combustion also depends on
mined in terms of efficiency and combustion stability. The ISFC
control of the flame initiation and combustion phase, as well as the
values in Fig. 2 show changes in the efficiency with respect to the
amount of injected fuel. The optimum injection and ignition
ignition timing at a constant injection timing and an injection
timings for l ¼ 1.5 can be treated as a transition region at BTDC
pressure of 20 MPa. With the exception of the stoichiometric
38 CAD, which is later than that for l ¼ 2.0 or higher. The overall
condition (l ¼ 1.0), the injection and ignition timings were set so as
lean mixture led to misfires with early injection. Although stable
to yield the minimum ISFC at each excess air ratio. For the stoi-
combustion was possible with late injection and a locally rich area,
chiometric condition, a late injection strategy caused a time delay
fuel economy was worse due to the lower concentration of oxygen
between the injection pulse and ignition that was much shorter
in the reaction zone.
than that observed with early injection. Thus, it was difficult to
It is important to establish combustion stability under lean
attain stable combustion due to the richness of the mixture.
operation conditions for improved efficiency and emissions during
Therefore, the injection timing was fixed at before top dead center
lean burn combustion. This ensures that the stable lean burn range
(BTDC) 330 crank angle degrees (CAD), which provided sufficient
is expanded. Unstable lean operation may have caused deteriora-
time for mixing with air at a l ¼ 1.0 excess air ratio during the
tion in the efficiency and an increase in UBHC emissions. NOx
intake and compression strokes.
reduction was also limited by the narrow flammability limit. The
Under lean operating conditions, early injection caused a lean
COVIMEP values in Fig. 3 show changes in the combustion stability
mixture to form throughout the entire cylinder. Such a mixture was
with respect to the excess air ratio at injection pressures of
too lean to be ignited and thus, late injection timing was used [21].
10e20 MPa. For each test condition, the injection and ignition
The injection and ignition timings were set to BTDC 40 CAD for
timings were determined at a minimum ISFC value throughout
a minimum ISFC at a l ¼ 2.0 excess air ratio. If we consider 900
each time period. After setting a COVIMEP value of 5% as the stan-
micro-seconds of energizing time for ignition, the ignition spark
dard for operable stable combustion, it was observed that the
occurred after 10.8 CAD at an engine speed of 2000 rpm. The same
flammability limit was extended by extremely high excess air ratios
time delay of the injection pulse and ignition indicates that the time
(e.g., l ¼ 3.0) at an injection pressure of 20 MPa. This indicates that
required for the injected fuel to evaporate was constant at
it is possible to create a sufficiently rich mixture for ignition in the
vicinity of the spark plug, even with overall ultra-lean mixture
Table 2 conditions. However, the flammability limit was restricted to
Engine operating conditions. l ¼ 1.5 at an injection pressure of 10 MPa, and to l ¼ 2.0 at 15 MPa
Engine speed 2000 rpm
due to poor fuel atomization. In addition to ensuring that the spark
Engine load IMEP 0.28 MPa plug is in close proximity to the injector, it is believed that a high
Injection pressure 10, 15, 20 MPa injection pressure is needed to achieve stable stratified lean
Excess air ratio 1.0elean limit combustion.
Injection timing 20e360 BTDC CAD
ISFC values were obtained with respect to the excess air ratio as
Ignition timing 0e50 BTDC CAD
the injection pressure was varied; the results are shown in Fig. 4.
404 C. Park et al. / Energy 41 (2012) 401e407

20
2000 10 MPa
10 MPa
15 MPa
15 MPa
20 MPa
16 20 MPa

THC concentration (ppm)

1600

12
COVIMEP [ % ]

1200
8

800
4

0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Excess air ratio (λ)
Excess air ratio [ λ]
Fig. 6. Total tail-pipe hydrocarbon (THC) emissions with respect to the excess air ratio
Fig. 3. Combustion stability versus excess air ratio at different injection pressures. at different injection pressures.

310 If combustion stability was ensured, the ISFC decreased due to the
10 MPa increased thermal efficiency as the extent of the lean condition was
15 MPa increased. Notice that the ISFC at an injection pressure of 20 MPa
300
20 MPa and an air ratio in excess of the flammability limit was considerably
lower (6.8%) than that at the stoichiometric condition with a similar
290 ignition time. Although the excess air ratio increased, lean
ISFC [ g/kWh]

combustion at the same ignition time was effective for improving

the thermal efficiency because of the uniform combustion speed
280 that was induced by the spray-induced charge or mixture forma-
tion in the proximity of the spark plug. At relatively low injection
270 pressures (i.e., 10 or 15 MPa), the ISFC increased due to degradation
in the combustion stability when the excess air ratio exceeded
a certain lean condition level.
260 The NOx emissions, THC emissions, and opacity as a function of
changes in the excess air ratio under the same operating conditions
250
as in Fig. 4 are shown in Figs. 5e7, respectively. As illustrated in
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Fig. 5, the level of NOx decreased as the excess air ratio was
Excess air ratio [ λ] increased. Under certain excess air ratio conditions, the level of NOx
increased as the injection pressure increased due to activated
Fig. 4. Indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) versus excess air ratio at different combustion at higher peak temperatures. As shown in Fig. 6, the
injection pressures.

10 MPa
10 MPa 4 15 MPa
1600
15 MPa 20 MPa
20 MPa
1400 3
NOX concentration (ppm)

Opacity [ % ]

1200 2

1000 1

800 0

600
-1
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Excess air ratio [ λ]
Excess air ratio [ λ]
Fig. 7. Tail-pipe smoke emissions versus excess air ratio at different injection
Fig. 5. Tail-pipe NOx emissions versus excess air ratio at different injection pressures. pressures.
 C. Park et al. / Energy 41 (2012) 401e407 405

7
320 ISFC 280
COVIMEP
310 6

275
300
ISFC (g/kWh)

ISFC (g/kWh)
COVIMEP (%)
5
290
270

280 EGR 0%
4
EGR 5%
270
265 EGR 10%
EGR 15%
EGR 20%
260 3
20 24 28 32 36 40
260
Ignition timing (BTDC CAD) 38 40 42 44 46 48
Ignition Timing (BTDC CAD)
Fig. 8. ISFC and COVIMEP versus ignition time at a 20 MPa injection pressure and a 2.5
excess air ratio. Fig. 10. ISFC versus ignition time with different EGR rates at a 20 MPa injection
pressure and 2.5 excess air ratio.

characteristics of THC emissions were slightly different from those

of NOx emissions. While the level of THC for lean combustion As an after-treatment system, oxidation catalysts are superior to
conditions was lower than that observed under the stoichiometric De-NOx catalysts in terms of price and performance. Therefore,
condition, THC emissions increased as the excess air ratio achieving a reduction in THC emissions with oxidation catalysts is
increased. The increased amount of air at higher excess air ratios led considered to be the best way to meet emission regulations.
to leaner mixtures at the spray periphery when the fuel was dis- However, our results show that the level of NOx, even at l ¼ 3.0, is
charged. The increase in the frequency of local lean mixtures too high to be disposed of with after-treatment systems because
resulted in flame quenching and higher THC emissions at a higher NOx generation was maintained at constant ignition times, even
excess air ratio. The higher injection pressure led to finer atom- when the excess air ratio was high. If the conditions that yield the
ization of the fuel and an increase in THC emissions. One problem best efficiency (i.e., the lowest ISFC levels) are used, the mass
associated with direct injection combustion systems is an increase concentration of NOx emission is not likely to decrease due to
in smoke emissions due to an insufficient time for fuel evaporation a significant increase in the total mass of the exhaust gas. EGR or
[10]. The dependency of smoke formation on the injection strategy retarded ignition timing can solve the problem of NOx emissions by
is described in Fig. 7. In the lean combustion region with the late sacrificing fuel economy.
injection strategy, a reduction in smoke emissions was not achieved The obtained performance and emissions results for retarded
by increasing the injection pressure to 20 MPa. A decrease in fuel ignition timing at an injection pressure of 20 MPa and l ¼ 2.5 are
economy at l ¼ 1.5 resulted in the highest smoke emissions due to shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. Because the introduction of
the larger amount of injected fuel. If the excess air ratio was higher, EGR lowers the excess air ratio, the excess air ratio condition was
the spray would propagate at a higher back-pressure or density. set not at the flammability limit, but at a richer mixture condition
Even though the spray penetration decreased at higher back-
pressures, fuel impingement still caused the generation of smoke
emissions. For an effective reduction in smoke emissions, a gasoline
particulate filter system should be employed to satisfy stronger 4
λ=2.5 EGR 0%
emission regulations. λ=3.0 EGR 0%
λ=2.5 EGR 20%
Cylinder pressure (MPa)

1000 2000
2
NOx
THC
1800
800
1 12
THC concentration (ppm)
NOx concentration (ppm)

1600
Rate of heat release (J/CAD)

600 0 9

1400 6
400

3
1200

200
0
1000
20 24 28 32 36 40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Ignition timing (BTDC CAD) Crank angle degree (CAD)

Fig. 9. Tail-pipe NOx and THC emissions versus the ignition time at a 20 MPa injection Fig. 11. Comparison of the pressure trace and heat release rates according to the
pressure and a 2.5 excess air ratio. dilution.
406 C. Park et al. / Energy 41 (2012) 401e407

1200 NOx emissions can be achieved with some sacrifice in fuel economy.
Such a scenario is similar to the retarded ignition timing situation.
1100 Therefore, when using spray-guided combustion systems, EGR with
optimized ignition timing is more effective than retarded ignition
1000 timing at reducing harmful NOx and THC emissions.
NOX concentration (ppm)

A comparison of the strategies applicable under operable

900
800
700
600
500
400
38 40 42 44 46
Ignition Timing (BTDC CAD)
Fig. 12. Tail-pipe NOx emissions versus ignition time with different EGR rates at
a 20 MPa injection pressure and 2.5 excess air ratio.
so that a comparison with the effects of EGR could be made.
Although an improvement in the fuel economy nearly disappeared
and the combustion stability was slightly worse, it is apparent that
a NOx reduction of over 45% is possible. Generally, retarded ignition
timing offers the advantage of THC reduction because it promotes
after-burn in the cylinder. However, retarded injection timing
generates more fuel wetting at the piston, which causes increased
THC emissions.
As shown in Fig. 10, the ISFC increased as the EGR rate was
increased due to more frequent combustion fluctuations. Note that
EGR affected combustion phasing; this was not observed with an
increase in the excess air ratio. The associated pressure trace and
heat release rate curve is shown in Fig. 11. With EGR, the time of the
combustion peak of the heat release rate was delayed. Such
a slowing down of the combustion process may have caused a NOx
reduction. While an increase in the excess air ratio resulted in
a higher cylinder pressure peak, there was no change in the heat
release rate curve during the early phase of pre-mixed combustion.
When considering slower combustion speeds caused by the dilu-
tion effect of EGR, our results show that the MBT timing should be
advanced as the EGR rate is increased. As illustrated in Fig. 12, if the
ignition timing is fixed at BTDC 40 CAD, a significant reduction in
Retarded ignition timing
1.4
EGR 20% with optimized ignition time
maximum excess air ratio conditions is shown in Fig. 13. The ISFC,
COVIMEP, and emissions were normalized with respect to standard
data from the stoichiometric condition. At an EGR rate of 20%, NOx
emissions were decreased by 26.8% and the ISFC was increased by
EGR 0% 1.6% when compared to non-EGR operation. With a retarded igni-
EGR 5% tion time, NOx emissions were reduced by 45.2% and the ISFC was
EGR 10% increased by 5.9%.
EGR 15%
EGR 20% 4. Conclusions
48
We analyzed the effects of a spray-guided DI combustion system
on stratified lean combustion in a single-cylinder engine with
a piezo-injector. Fuel economy and combustion stability were also
evaluated at fixed engine speed and load conditions. Two strategies
to reduce NOx emissions were assessed with the purpose of
developing lean burn engines that can operate in the field.
The experimental results can be summarized as follows:
(1) The injection and ignition times were closely related and
sensitive to the combustion efficiency since retarded or
advanced ignition results in the formation of an inadequate
mixture near the spark plug. Under lean combustion conditions
at l ¼ 2.0 or leaner, the injection and ignition timings were set
to BTDC 40 CAD.
(2) At an injection pressure of 20 MPa, it is possible to create
a sufficiently rich mixture for ignition near the spark plug even
at ultra-lean mixture conditions. However, the flammability
limit is restricted to l ¼ 1.5 at 10 MPa, and to l ¼ 2.0 at 15 MPa
due to poor fuel atomization.
(3) In the lean combustion region with a late injection strategy,
reduced smoke emissions were not achieved when the injec-
tion pressure was increased to 20 MPa. Even though spray
penetration decreased at a higher back-pressure, fuel
impingement still caused smoke emissions. Gasoline particu-
late filter systems should be employed to meet emission
regulations.
(4) When applying a spray-guided combustion system, EGR with
optimized ignition timing reduced harmful NOx and THC
emissions more effectively than retarded ignition timing.
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