Education + Training

Emerald Article: Accessing and engaging vocational knowledge:

instructional media versus everyday practice
Stephen Billett

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To cite this document: Stephen Billett, (1996),"Accessing and engaging vocational knowledge: instructional media versus everyday
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Accessing and engaging
vocational knowledge:
instructional media
versus everyday
practice
Stephen Billett
The author
Stephen Billett is a Lecturer at the School of Vocational,
Community and Technology Education, Faculty of
Education, Griffith University, Australia.
Abstract
Analyses the development of vocational knowledge
through two contrasting approaches which are referred to
as the “instructional media” and everyday practice. The
former is the text-based approach currently favoured by
government and the latter is an approach to learning
through participation in everyday activities. Using data
from a study conducted in the workplace, appraises the
processes and outcomes of these two approaches to
learning. Indicates that everyday practice offers the
greatest likelihood of securing vocational knowledge.
Concludes that access to, and ongoing engagement with,
authentic learning activities are significant attributes to
this approach to the acquisition of vocational knowledge.
Education + Training
Volume 38 · Number 2 · 1996 · pp. 18–25
© MCB University Press · ISSN 0040-0912
18
Introduction
Currently, much of the curricular practice
within vocational education in Australia is
premissed on the development and imple-
mentation of modularized curriculum docu-
ments and materials. This practice is a prod-
uct of a governmental view that the develop-
ment of vocational skills is an important,
national, economic goal. Accompanying this
economic goal is a demand for accountability
from educators which extends to determining
how the educational component of this goal is
secured. The implication is that it is a matter
too important to be left to teachers. Curricu-
lum development has, therefore, become
increasingly top-down, with decisions about
content and approach determined by a gov-
ernment-led and industry stakeholder-based
framework which includes the mandatory use
of competence-based training. A characteris-
tic of this accountability model of curriculum
is the use of modularized units of instruction,
shaped by behavioural competence formats.
These modules are often accompanied by
print-based resources, with learners being
encouraged to use them independently. This
approach is attractive to those who seek to
find training solutions to secure the develop-
ment of vocational knowledge. However,
questions remain unanswered about the
effectiveness and consequences of this
approach to instruction. How do learners
interact with these resources and what are the
outcomes of that interaction? In what ways
does this attempt to control teaching and
learning provide the outcomes it seeks to
secure?
This paper analyses the findings of a study,
conducted in a workplace, which compared
the learners’ interaction with and outcomes of
engagement with print and text-based
resources with an alternative approach to
learning through participation in everyday
work practices[1]. Currently, there is interest
in workplace learning as a site to secure voca-
tional knowledge and also transfer the cost of
training to the private sector. These two
approaches are referred to here as instruction-
al media and everyday practice, respectively.
In this particular study, the former comprises
print-based modules, computer-based learn-
ing, appointed mentors and instructional
videos. This approach to accessing vocational
knowledge is contrasted with everyday prac-
tice comprising participation in everyday
workplace activities, the contributions offered
by the physical environment and interaction
with other workers, such as observation,
listening and direct instruction. Instructional
media is the intended curriculum, reinforced
by deliberately implemented instructional
strategies. Everyday practice emphasizes
ongoing participation in work activities, which
is not part of the intended curriculum. So,
although the Government is emphasizing a
prescriptive, modularized curriculum based
on text, this paper seeks to determine the
extent to which both the intended and unin-
tended curriculum influence learning.
Although no strong claims or conclusive proof
are offered from the findings of this study, it is
possible to advance some deductions about
the characteristics of these two approaches to
learning which may inform deliberations
about the means of securing vocational
knowledge. Significantly, these findings offer
an appraisal of the interaction with and the
consequences of text-based resources now
being favoured by governments and those
seeking cost-effective training solutions.
The structure of this paper is as follows.
Initially a brief overview of the forms of
knowledge required for vocational practice is
advanced. Next, a description of the study is
followed by the reporting of its findings. An
attempt is then made to determine the charac-
teristics of the two approaches which resulted
in these outcomes. Finally, a discussion out-
lines the particular contributions of these
different approaches to learning.
Forms of knowledge
In order to evaluate the consequences of
participating in either of these two approach-
es, it is necessary to delineate the forms of
knowledge that are to be secured in the devel-
opment of skilful knowledge. Two forms of
knowledge are referred to in this study –
propositional knowledge[2] (facts, concepts,
information and assertions) and procedural
knowledge[2] (techniques, skills and the
ability to secure goals). In addition, disposi-
tions[3], such as values[4], attitudes and
interest[5] are seen as having a key role in
underpinning the development and subse-
quent deployment of these forms of knowl-
edge in vocational practice.
Propositional or conceptual knowledge is
acknowledged as being differentiated by
depth, from simple factual knowledge down
19
to deep conceptual understanding. Depth of
understanding includes rich linkages with
other concepts which permit vocational
experts to address complex problems success-
fully. Procedural knowledge is concerned with
the securing of goals, achieved through specif-
ic procedures being deployed to undertake
particular vocational tasks with higher-order
procedures guiding, monitoring and regulat-
ing these activities. The deployment of proce-
dural and propositional knowledge is seen as
being interrelated and interdependent[6].
Within a domain of activity a highly devel-
oped base of these forms of knowledge is
viewed as being a key attribute of expertise[7].
Interdependently, these forms of knowledge
offer the depth of understanding and adapt-
able procedures required for complex perfor-
mance, including the ability to deploy knowl-
edge effectively to resolve new problem situa-
tions. This is a key characteristic of vocational
expertise. The development of these forms
and attributes of knowledge are, therefore,
offered as goals for vocational education.
The study
The study described here is an investigation of
the development of vocational knowledge at a
secondary processing plant in Australia,
which focused on the processes and outcomes
of workers participating in workplace learning
arrangements[1]. This investigation involved
eliciting data about and comparing the contri-
butions between the instructional media of
computer-based learning (CBL) materials,
print-based materials and videos, and partici-
pation in everyday work practice. Data about
everyday practice are elicited and analysed
under the categories of: other workers;
observing and listening; everyday work activi-
ties; direct instruction; and the work environ-
ment. These categories were generated in two
earlier workplace learning studies[8,9]. The
study, therefore, offers accounts of the same
subjects engaging in both forms of instruc-
tional practice.
The particular workplace is characterized
by self-managed teams, a lack of demarcation
between tasks and a flat organizational struc-
ture which encourages and permits a sharing
of knowledge about work. Fifteen workers at
the plant participated as subjects in this study
over a four-month period. The research
design comprised pre- and post-testing of
propositional knowledge as well as interviews
throughout the period of the investigation. Table I Frequency of utility of aids to learning during
These interviews included the stimulated critical incidents
recall of problem situations or critical inci-
Aid to learning 5a 4 3 2 1a
dents from work practice to elicit data about
the effectiveness of the learning Learning guides 6b 1 3 1 6b
arrangements. The participants were asked to Computer-based learning 1 4c
recall recent incidents: Video 1 2c
• in which they had enjoyed success; Mentors 15c 7 8 1 2
• in which they had had difficulty resolving Direct instruction 17c 9 9 3 3
the problem; Observing and listening 30c 10 3 5
• which were beyond their current capabili- Other workers 22c 7 17 3 2
ties.
Everyday activities 21c 8 11 5 3
This approach was adopted to counter some Work environment 11b 11b 10 4 3
criticisms of verbal data being mere opin- Notes:
ion[10]. arating from 5-1 = very useful through to not useful
Having recounted the incidents in some bbimodal
detail, subjects indicated the efficacy of cmode
elements of the learning arrangements in
© Australian Journal of Adult and Community
terms of their contribution to the problem
Education. Reprinted with permission
resolution. In addition, subjects also recount-
ed how the different elements of the learning
arrangements contributed to the development activity which included the clues and cues
of effective workers’ attributes identified at offered by the physical environment. Direct
that plant during an earlier study[9]. The interpersonal guidance was highly valued by
findings below refer first to what is reported as the subjects in assisting problem solving, and
the consequence of engagement with the its absence was seen as detrimental to resolv-
elements of both the instructional media and ing problems. The contributions of more
everyday practice. The data are then analysed indirect guidance within a workplace and the
to determine the efficacy of elements of each physical environment in which everyday
approach. activities occurred and work environment are
also highly valued (Table I).
Table II reports the frequency by which the
Findings: consequences of participation
elements of the learning arrangements provid-
Overall, everyday practice is consistently ed access to the development of three differ-
viewed as being more effective in offering ent forms of vocational knowledge (proposi-
access to the forms of knowledge which per- tional and procedural knowledge and disposi-
mit the resolution of workplace problems than tions). The basis for these data was a set of
the instructional media. Table I presents data workplace attributes, which had been generat-
about the efficacy of elements of the learning ed by workers at this site in an earlier
arrangements that are classified into media- study[9]. Each of these attributes was associ-
based, direct and indirect guidance. This ated with one of these forms of knowledge.
table permits an analysis and interpretation of Table II indicates the number of times that
the data from the critical incidents, with more than half of the subjects rated the partic-
subjects rating the efficacy of the aid to learn- ular element of the learning arrangements as
ing on a five-point scale from very useful (5) being “very useful” in developing the knowl-
to not useful (1). In the first grouping (see edge associated with each of these attributes.
Table I), instructional media, the modal Within the three forms of knowledge the
responses for CBL and videos are “not use- maximum mumber of propositional attributes
ful”. The learning guides produced a is 2, procedural attributes is 16, and 7 for
bi-modal response between “very useful” and dispositions. The findings reflected a similar
“not useful”. The overall account of the low pattern to those found in Table I, with ele-
efficacy of the instructional approach is con- ments of everyday practice being consistently
trasted with the frequency within the data of nominated by participants as providing high
learning experiences associated with direct levels of efficacy in developing the attributes
guidance and participation in everyday of effective workers.
20
Table II Frequency of learning aids reported as being “very useful” in devel- monitoring progress. This attribute, as well as
oping different knowledge types being alluded to in the cognitive literature, is
frequently referred to by subjects as being a
Propositional Procedural Dispositional
requirement of competent work practice. The
Learning aids knowledgea knowledgeb knowledgec
data presented in Table III reinforce the
Learning guides 1 3 0 pattern previously offered in Tables I
Computer-based learning 0 0 0 and II.
Video 0 0 0 The three tables offer consistent accounts
Mentors 2 5 0 of the efficacy of everyday practice and
Instruction 2 7 2 instructional media. The latter was not
Everyday activities 2 13 5 viewed as being as effective as everyday prac-
Observing and listening 2 15 5 tice in assisting subjects to solve problems or
Other workers 2 11 5 acquire important attributes for workplace
Workplace 2 3 6 practice. A diversity of accounts was tendered
Notes: about the purposefulness of print-based
Frequency of item scoring 4 or 5. Rating from 5 to 1 = very useful resources. However, CBL and videos were
through to not useful perceived to have performed quite weakly.
a Maximum possible for propositional knowledge = 2 The findings inform about the potential
b Maximum possible for procedural knowledge = 16 consequences of engaging with these two
c Maximum possible for dispositional knowledge = 7 approaches and how they are perceived to
secure forms of knowledge. However, it is
© Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education.
necessary to determine the nature of the
Reprinted with permission
efficacy of the different elements. To do this
the data from interviews are synthesized to
determine the contributions of different
The frequency of “everyday activities”, approaches to learning.
“observing and listening” and “other workers”,
offers substantiation of what was reported in
Table I. In a further analysis of the same data, Contributions of learning experiences
workplace attributes providing access to In this section an attempt is made to deter-
higher order procedural knowledge was iden- mine in what ways the different elements of
tified (Table III). An important facet of the two approaches contribute to the findings
accessing and developing these higher orders reported above.
of procedures is their role in the application of
existing knowledge to new situations[6]. These The instructional media
procedures are essential to vocational exper- Print-based modules
tise as they facilitate the response to new and Subjects described using print-based modules
complex situations by selecting strategies and in different ways. Some subjects read the
modules through and then used them in
conjunction with a work activity. The use of
Table III Frequency of 7 > when learning aids are reported these modules as references or a backup for
as developing higher order procedural knowledge reinforcement was also recounted. In all, the
Higher order procedural modules were used not in their own right but
Learning aids knowledge as an adjunct to everyday work activities
(Table IV). An initial reading of the print-
Learning guides 1
based modules was offered as providing infor-
Computer-based learning 0
mation (non-skill propositional knowledge),
Video 0
but as learners experienced situations of
Mentors 4
uncertainty, the guides were sometimes used
Instruction 5
as a resource to be accessed in order to clarify
Everyday activities 6
meaning and remove uncertainty. The mod-
Observing and listening 7
ules, however, were reported as not emphasiz-
Other workers 6
ing critical aspects of work performance. In
Workplace 2
this way, they can be seen as offering access to
© Australian Journal of Adult and Community sets of propositions about particular and
Education. Reprinted with permission specific goals which may be quite superficial.
21
 Engagement with the print-based modules
was differentiated, with the use of the manuals
also being influenced by either low levels of
literacy or a disinclination to participate. One
characteristic of interaction with the modules
was that some workers, even skilled workers,
looked up the answers in order not to be seen
to be giving the wrong answers. Hence, the
disinclination to participate is likely to be
linked to concerns about failure to produce
answers stated in the resources. In addition, as
shown in Table IV, it is predicted that superfi-
cial propositional knowledge and specific
procedures are likely to be the consequence of
engagement with these resources.
Computer-based learning
The novel, interactive and engaging nature of
the CBL material was reported to be more
interesting and active than reading the print-
based modules (see Table IV). The interest
was often not sustained after the initial
encounter. Subjects also claimed that CBL
provided greater depth of understanding in
some areas than the modules. The syntax
caused concern, frustration and, occasionally,
anger among users and also restricted
opportunities to access the knowledge in the
Table IV Utility and characteristics of instructional media
computer text. Such was the tightness of the
pre-specified questions and answers that only
comparatively trivial learning outcomes, such
as factual knowledge, can be accessed, thereby
limiting its effectiveness. Therefore, it appears
that CBL is limited in its ability to go beyond
offering access to some very specific proce-
dures and some conceptual knowledge. How-
ever, the graphical depictions of work process-
es made opaque conceptual knowledge acces-
sible. Subjects recounted using the CBL only
once, having worked through the program
they see little purpose in repeating this experi-
ence.
Videos
The videos were intended to be used in con-
junction with the text-based modules,
although it was recounted that participants
only used the videos once (see Table IV).
While videos are described as being visually
stimulating, they did not offer access to
knowledge which was different from that
which could be achieved more effectively
through observation of actual practice. In
summary, the contributions of the instruc-
tional media can be seen as giving access to
non-skilled propositional knowledge and
providing a basis for the development of
specific procedures.

Utility Characteristic Everyday practice

Other workers
Print-based modules
Other workers are described as being able to
Background information Has to be used in conjunction with
explain and make explicit that which was not
A resource authentic activities
immediately observable, thus providing a
Backup to authentic Lacked depth of concepts to respond to
useful contribution to the development of
activity problems
participants’ conceptual understanding of
Likely consequences work activities (see Table V). Useful mentors
Superficial propositions were reported as being those who provided
Specific procedures opportunities to engage in learning activities,
Computer-based learning monitor progress and provide close guidance.
Engaging and interactive Greater access to concepts than Other workers were reported as also model-
print-based modules ling dispositions that are conducive of effec-
Graphics offered access to Inflexibility with syntax meant specific tive work performance.
opaque production facts and simple propositions Everyday activities
processes predominate Ongoing practice provided by everyday work
Likely consequences activities is described as allowing work tasks to
Propositions about process Only accessed once become second nature. This is interpreted as
Specific procedures referring to knowledge becoming procedural-
ized or compiled for smooth performance[2].
Videos
Activities are contextualized by the require-
Not valued by participants Authentic access valued more
ments of work. Participants suggested that
Only accessed once
this context was useful for making explicit the
Likely consequences standards and values associated with work
Superficial propositions practice (see Table V).
22
Table V Utility and characteristics of everyday practice

Utility Characteristics
Other workers
Explanations, making explicit what is opaque Accessible
Access to tasks, direct guidance and monitoring Ongoing support
Modelling techniques and dispositions associated Approachability a determinant
with task completion
Likely consequences
Deeper concepts
Specific procedures
Authentic activities
Practice – becomes second nature Compilation of procedures – through approximation
of tasks
Goals for and solutions to problems accessible in Practise
everyday activities Conditions for task completion evidence in everyday
Making explicit standards of performance activities
Likely consequences
Deeper concepts
Specific and higher order procedures
Observing and listening
Indirect guidance and modelling Not a passive mode of learning, sourced in social
practice
Basis for generating goals Ongoing and continuous even extends to non-work
situations
Likely consequences
Concepts (goals)
Specific procedures
Direct instruction
Access to knowledge which would otherwise be Making explicit knowledge which might be hidden
inaccessible
Likely consequences
Deeper concepts
Specific procedures

Dispositions associated with work practice are
appropriated by learners through the engage-
ment in workplace activities and guided sup-
port of other workers. The repeated and
explicit nature of external reinforcement
offers a strong base for access to procedures
and further acquisition of the dispositions that
underpin skilful practice.
Observing and listening
The guidance of other workers does not
always involve direct interaction, with more
indirect forms of guidance reported as being
salient. Observing and listening are described
as providing a bridge between knowing about
something to knowing how it can be under-
taken (see Table V). Whereas observing and
listening in a classroom might be seen as
passive, in the workplace this form is
23
proposed as an active mode of engaging
knowledge as it is linked to actual vocational
activities. This ongoing and indirect form of
guidance is essential for the sharing of knowl-
edge which could not be accessed or commu-
nicated in other ways. Learning through
listening and observing was not restricted to
novices, with experienced workers reporting
its utility. Moreover, the informal nature of
learning from others was illustrated by the
communication with other workers in non-
work situations. This suggests that accessing
knowledge is not forced, but is a normal
component of discourse between workers,
even during work breaks.
Direct instruction
Direct instruction was described as offering
access to knowledge that would have
otherwise been inaccessible (see Table V). For
example, production processes that are
opaque can be made transparent. According
to Berryman[11] this will need to be increas-
ingly the case in skilled occupations as the
nature of work becomes more complex.
Explanations of an explicit nature were
described as being very useful when knowl-
edge was inaccessible. In these ways, the
subjects recounted how everyday practice had
contributed to their workplace problem solv-
ing and generated attributes required for
skilled work at that plant.
Discussion and conclusion
The findings from this study suggest that the
types of knowledge required for skilled work
were more likely to be secured through every-
day practice than the instructional media.
This is not to say that the print- and text-
based resources were without effect, but that
on their own they would be insufficient. The
text-based modules and computer-based
learning arrangements offer access to activi-
ties which are descriptive accounts, thereby
developing non-skill propositions. However,
little evidence is offered that they provide
access to the forms of knowledge required for
complex work performance. The characteris-
tics outlined above suggest that the use of
print- and text-based learning arrangements
only, without being associated with everyday
practice, would result in superficial outcomes.
However, why is it that everyday work activi-
ties in the actual workplace, the direct interac-
tion with more expert others and other work-
ers and, the less direct guidance provided
through observation and listening were
reported as being so effective? It is proposed
that the contribution of this approach can be
analysed in terms of access and engagement.
Access to different forms of knowledge is
distributed across elements of everyday prac-
tice. Engagement in activities that are authen-
tic, in terms of their application, is a key
source of this knowledge, with those more
embedded in practice offering access to richer
forms of knowledge than those that are not
(e.g. text-based resources). It is held that the
ongoing and continuous participation of
routine and non-routine problem solving,
which engages and presses the learner into
securing complex forms of knowledge, is a
significant attribute of everyday practice. This
ongoing development is referred to as micro-
24
genetic development – the moment-by-
moment learning – which contributes to
individuals’ ontogenetic development and
their life histories[12]. The instructional
media engages learners in ways that are quite
different from everyday practice: disembed-
ded knowledge, a lack of continuity and
engagement and access to authentic tasks.
However, both print and computer-based
learning aids offer access to propositional
knowledge, which may be less accessible in
everyday practice. As suggested in Table V,
everyday practice may have to be extended to
provide access to forms of conceptual knowl-
edge that are opaque. This might be
achieved by using discussions or graphic
representations to yield this knowledge. On
their own, the instructional media are not
sufficient for the development of skilful
knowledge – they have to be integrated with
authentic activities and guidance of more
expert others. The guidance of others, albeit
teachers or other workers, seems an
inevitable characteristic in the acquisition of
skilful knowledge.
In summary, what this article has attempt-
ed is to analyse the consequences and charac-
teristics of two different means of acquiring
vocational knowledge. The findings of the
study, although not generalizable, refer to
some fundamental differences in approaches
to, and consequences for, learning. These
findings confirm the need to consider what
forms of knowledge are likely to be accessed
by particular instructional activities, and what
the nature of the interaction is between indi-
viduals and the selected approach to learning.
In this study the print- and text-based media
were found to be limited in what they can
offer. This raises questions about the effec-
tiveness of the instructional media which are
increasingly favoured by the Government and
being introduced into vocational education
programmes as solutions to training. It is
apparent from an analysis of the
consequences of and engagement with both
these approaches that each has its own limita-
tions. However, some limitations are likely to
be more readily addressed than others. In
considering the use of print-based and com-
puter-based instructional media in formal
learning settings, the role of skilled others
provided by teachers becomes a necessary
one. Without that guidance the outcomes
from independent interaction with these
media alone may be quite limited. So, caution
should be exercised towards current interest
in the use of print-based and computer-based
learning methods as they offer access to a
limited range of disembedded knowledge.
These limitations appear to question the
ability of the instructional media to secure the
goals of developing skilful knowledge that
sponsors might claim.
5 Tobias, S., ”Interest, prior knowledge and learning“,
Review of Educational Research, Vol. 64 No. 1, 1994,
pp. 37-54.
6 Stevenson, J.C., “Cognitive structures for the teaching
of adaptability in vocational education”, in Evans, G.
(Ed.), Learning and Teaching Cognitive Skills, ACER,
Victoria, 1991, pp. 144-63.
7 Glaser, R., “Reemergence of learning theory within
instructional research”, American Psychologist,
Vol. 45 No. 1, 1990, pp. 29-39.

References 8 Billett, S.R., “Authenticating learning – learning in the

1 Billett, S., “Situated learning – a workplace experi-
ence”, Australian Journal of Adult and Community
Education, Vol. 34 No. 2, 1994, pp. 112-30.
2 Anderson, J.R., “Acquisition of cognitive skill”,
Psychological Review, Vol. 89 No. 4, 1982,
pp. 369-406.
3 Perkins, D., Jay, E. and Tishman, S., “Beyond abilities: a
dispositional theory of thinking”, Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, Vol. 39 No. 1, 1993, pp. 1-21.
4 Grusec, J.E. and Goodnow, J.J., “Impact of parental
discipline methods on the child’s internalisation of
values: a reconceptualisation of current points of
view”, Developmental Psychology, Vol. 30 No. 2,
1994, pp. 4-19.
workplace”, paper presented at the 1992 AARE &
NZARE Joint Conference, Educational Research:
Discipline and Diversity, Deakin University, Geelong,
Victoria, 22-26 November 1992.
9 Billett, S.R., Evaluating Modes of Skill Acquisition,
Centre for Skill Formation Research and Development,
Griffith University, Brisbane, 1993.
10 Ericsson, K.A. and Simon, H.A., Protocol Analysis –
Verbal Reports as Data, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1984.
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Research in Education, 1993, pp. 343-401.
12 Rogoff, B., Apprenticeship in Thinking – Cognitive
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