Electric Power sr Ula TES aa LU trode) Ce aS Scanned with CamScanner14 Distribution Systems CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ‘© Obtain an overview of electrical power distribution ification of distribution systems * Discuss design considerations © Provide cl © Provide an analysis of AC and DC distribution systems 14.1 INTRODUCTION The power generated is usually three-phase 50 Hz and 11 kV. The generated voltage is stepped up to 220 kV or 400 kV by means of step-up transformers. Then by means of three-phase transmission systems, the generated power is distributed to the various consumption points. Here, the voltage is stepped down to 132 kV or 33 kV and further carried through sub-transmission systems where the voltage is further stepped down to 11 kV. This voltage is again stepped down to 415 V or 230 V, either as three- phase or single-phase, respectively, for small consumption purposes. The distribution system is a part of the power system, existing between distribution sub-stations and the consumers. The distribution system is further classified on the basis of voltage as primary and secondary distribution systems (11 kV, 415 V/230 V). Distribution system is shown in Fig, 14.1. 14.2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION Scanned with CamScanner14.2.1 Primary DisTRIBUTION The part of the electrical-supply system existing between. the distribution substations and the distribution transformers is called the primary system. It is made of circuits, known as primary feeders or primary distribution feeders. The most commonly used nominal primary voltage is 11 kV. L | ‘Transformer ‘000/440 V — <> —— pistrbution Peo Cad etc eo Fig. 14.1 View of distribution system 14.2.2 Seconpary DistRIBUTION The secondary distribution system receives power from the secondary side of distribution transformers at low voltage and supplies power to various connected loads via service lines. The secondary distribution system is the final sub-system of the power system. The secondary distribution systems are generally of the radial type except for some specific service areas such as hospitals, business centres and military installations, Scanned with CamScannerwhich require highly reliable service, and therefore, may be of a grid or mesh type. — Substation iVbus Circuit —+[_] breeker anise rg — TY . mT aa fea = transformer |«—Secondarymairs ni eS Consumers. Fig. 14.2 Radial secondary distribution system configuration As shown in Fig, 14.2, the secondary transformer in a radial secondary circuit are located near the load centres. The primary-distribution transformer receives power from primary laterals via a fuse cut-out or a fuse switch, whereas the secondary side of the distribution transformer (DT) supplies power through secondary mains, service conductor to service meter. This includes the following: * A.separate service system for each customer with separate DT and secondary connection (e.g., single phase DT). ‘The radial system with a common secondary main which is supplied by one DT and feeding a group of customers (e.g., three-phase DT). © The parallel connection system with a common secondary main that is supplied by several DT's that are all fed like common primary feeders (eg. secondary banking of DT’). Scanned with CamScanner1. Why are LVDS systems being increasingly replaced by HVDS systems? 14.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM Good voltage regulation is the most important factor in a istribution system for delivering good service to the consumer. For this purpose, careful consideration is required for the design of feeders and distributor networks. Feeders are the conductors that connect substations to consumer ports and have large current-carrying capacity. The current loading of a feeder is uniform along the whole of its length since no tappings are taken from it, The design of a feeder is based mainly on the current that is to be carried. Distributors are the conductors, which run along a street or an area to supply power to consumers. These can be easily recognized by the number of tappings, which are taken from them for the supply to various consumer terminals. The current loading of a distributor is not uniform and it varies along the length while its design is largely influenced by the voltage drop along it. Service Mein and Sub Main The service mains are the conductors forming connecting links between distributors and metering points of the consumer's terminal. Figure 14.1 shows the layout of a distribution system. The term sub main refers to the several connections given to consumers from one service main. The area of cross-section of a sub-main conductor is greater than that of the service mains. 14.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LOSSES Tt has been established that 70% of the total losses occur in the primary and secondary distribution system, while transmission and sub-transmission lines account for only 30% of the total losses. Distribution losses amount to 15.5% of the generation capacity and the target level is Scanned with CamScannerto bring it down to 7.5%. Therefore, the primary and secondary distribution systems must be planned with care to ensure losses within acceptability limits. 14.4.1 Factors EFFectiNG DistriBUTION-SYSTEM Losses Factors contributing to the increase in line losses in the primary and secondary distribution systems are: Inadequate Size of Conductor As stated above, the rural load is usually seattered and fed by radial feeders. The conductor size of the feeders must be adequate. The size of the conductor should be selected on the basis of km-kVA capacity of the stranded conductors. Feeder Length In practice, 11 kV and 415 V lines in rural areas are hurriedly extended radially over long distances to feed loads scattered over large areas. This results in high line resistance, low voltage, and high current, and therefore, leads to high PR losses in the line. Location of Distribution Transformers Often the distribution transformers are not located centrally in relation to the intended customer. Consequently, the farthest customers obtain an extremely low voltage even though a reasonably good voltage level is maintained at the secondary transformer. This again leads to higher line losses. ‘Therefore, in order to reduce the voltage drop in the line transmitting power to consumers located farthest from the line, the DT should be located at the load center to keep the voltage drop within permissible limits. Low Voltage Whenever the voltage applied to an induction motor deviates from rated voltage, its performance is adversely affected. A reduced voltage, in case of an induction motor, results in higher currents drawn for the same output leading to higher losses. This can be overcome by adjusting the tap changer at power transformer and at distribution transformer, if available. Scanned with CamScannerUse of Over-rated Distribution Transformers Studies on 11 kV feeders have revealed that often the rating of distribution transformers (DT) is much higher than the maximum kVA demand on the LT feeder. An overrated transformer produces an unnecessarily high iron loss. From the above, it is clear that the rating should be judiciously selected to keep the losses within the permissible limits. Low Power Factor In most of the LT distribution systems, it is found that the power factor varies from as worse as 0.65 to 0.75. A low power factor contributes towards high distribution losses. For a given load, if the power factor is low, the current drawn is high, consequently the losses proportional to a square of the current, will be more. Thus, line losses owing to the poor power factor can be reduced by improving the power factor by using shunt capacitors for the purpose. 14.4.2 MetHops For THE REDUCTION oF LINE Losses As discussed in the previous section, the distribution- system losses are on the higher side in the Indian power em. The Government of India has decided to reduce sy the line losses and set a target for the reduction of transmission and distribution losses by 1% per annum in order to realize an overall reduction of 5% in the national average by the end of the 8th five-year plan. The following methods are adopted for the reduction of distribution-system losses: . HV distribution system Feeder reconfiguration . Reinforcement of the feeder Grading of conductor . Construction of new substation Reactive-pawer compensation Scanned with CamScanner