A conceptual framework for the adoption of

smartphones in a sports context

RESEARCH PAPER
Jae-Pil Ha
Assistant Professor, Sport Management Abstract
University of Arkansas, USA

Sun J. Kang This study proposes a conceptual model to

PhD candidate, Sport Administration comprehensively understand how sports fans perceive
University of Louisville, USA
and accept smartphones and applications in a
Jaehyun Ha (corresponding author) sport consumption context by developing a series of
Assistant Professor, Sport Marketing
Department of Sports Marketing
propositions. Theoretically based on the
Keimyung University, Daegu, South Korea 704-701 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the
Tel: 82-53-580-5758 Sport Website Acceptance Model (SWAM), this study
Fax: 82-53-580-5314
Email: jaehyunha@kmu.ac.kr provides fundamental groundwork to better
conceptualise sports fans’ decision making processes
Peer reviewed involving the latest technology used to consume sport.

Executive summary
Today’s technologies have changed the way sports fans
perceive and consume sport. In addition to various
devices that provide instant access to the internet,
mobile phones have evolved to be smart handheld
computers (known as smartphones) supporting a wide
range of services that can be accessed at any time
and from almost anywhere. For instance, the function
of a smartphone allows sports fans to instantly follow
their favourite games live and share sports information
with friends with ease using a mobile web browser or
sports-related applications. With the rapid increase in
the number of smartphone users and a greater degree
of integration into sports fans’ lives, smartphones
have the potential to significantly influence sport
experiences.
In order to better understand mobile fans, this
study specifically focused on smartphones’ built-in
hardware functions (e.g. web-browser, camera, touch

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 Smartphones & sports consumption
screen) and applications that are downloadable
through different platform stores (e.g. App Store
for iPhone). The conceptual model was developed
based on a series of 13 propositions suggesting
directional relationships between three main categories
(perceptions towards smartphones, sports-specific
factors and smartphone-specific factors) and users’
intention to consume sport using a smartphone.
First, we specified perceptions about smartphones
and sport applications consisting of three constructs
(i.e. perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use,
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perceived enjoyment) mainly driven from the
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)-based literature.
In considering these three core constructs, we have
suggested directional relationships between the
constructs as well as how it may influence users’
intention to use smartphones for sports consumption.
In addition, we have proposed that sports fans would
simultaneously perceive smartphones’ function
to be useful, easy and enjoyable especially when
smartphones are capable of supporting numerous
types of fan activities.
Second, we suggested that there are two sports-
specific salient factors (i.e. sports involvement,
commitment) influencing the use of smartphones for
sports consumption. Based on previous literature,
sports involvement factor was considered from a
perspective where sport itself served as a stimulus.
The commitment factor on the other hand involves
sports fans’ emotional or psychological attachment
towards sport. In applying these sport-specific factors
to the model, we have discussed the relationship
between sports involvement and the intention to
use smartphones and mediating effects of the sports
commitment. These two factors are what distinguish
this framework from other technology concepts as it
takes sports fan perspective into the consideration.
Finally, we provided support for three unique individual
factors (i.e. social influence, personal attachment,
media multi-tasking) influencing the use of
smartphones and applications for sports consumption,
in addition to the TAM-based perceptions and sports-
specific salient factors. The three factors are unique
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to any cutting-edge technologies that are capable of
serving a similar purpose to a smartphone.
The framework delivers several benefits for both
scholars and practitioners. Theoretically, the conceptual
model provided clear perspective beyond TAM, bridging
the gaps between unique smartphone functions and
consumers’ intention to accept such technology for
sport. In addition, the framework lays groundwork
for future researche to be conducted in the areas of
technology use for sports-specific content. For sports
marketers, gaining a deeper understanding of sports
fans’ decision making processes will provide ideas for
better services and sponsorship opportunities using the
current technologies.
Introduction
People in both developing and developed countries
are rapidly moving from traditional mobile phones to
smartphones. According to Gartner Inc a total of 225
million smartphones were sold in the second quarter
of 2013, accounting for 51.7% of total mobile phone
sales worldwide (Meulen & Rivera, 2013). The rapid
growth of smartphones presents alternative ways for
sports consumers to connect with their favourite sport
and sports teams. One of the driving forces behind
the growing popularity of smartphones is mobile
applications that provide an easy way to access sport
(referred to hereafter as apps). Smartphone users
can download various categories of apps including
entertainment (e.g. games), business, music, sport,
social networking, weather, books, photo and video.
The number of downloads at worldwide mobile app
stores surpassed 45.6 billion in 2012, up 82%
from an estimated 25 billion in 2011 and they
are expected to soar to 310 billion by 2016 (Petty
& Meulen, 2012). With the increasing number of
users and greater inclusion into one’s daily life, it
is not uncommon for people to actively engage in
activities that are specific to their smartphones such
as specialised information search, social networking,
emailing and purchasing products or services through
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either pre-installed web-browsers (e.g. Safari for
iPhones) or apps themselves on the smartphones.
Accordingly, mobile business has become an important
segment of the economy.
The rapid growth in the use of smartphones and
mobile apps has also created new opportunities for
the sports industry to connect with sports consumers.
For example, smartphones’ web-browsers and
apps allow sports fans to easily obtain news and
information about their favourite teams and players,
purchase game tickets and receive promotional offers
by one-click access almost anytime and anywhere
(Olson, 2010). Further, a smartphone provides an
opportunity for sports fans to communicate with each
other about sports-related issues using online social
media apps (e.g. Twitter, Facebook), text messaging
and online blogs without a computer. Indeed,
according to the Global Sports Media Consumption
Report (TV Sports Markets, 2013), approximately
56% and 80% of online sports fans in the U.S. and
China respectively employed internet-enabled mobile
devices (e.g. smartphones) to access sports content.
With the significant increase in smartphone use in
sports consumption, numerous sports organisations
are investing significant financial resources into
mobile marketing for smartphones and mobile apps
in order to generate a high level of fan engagement.
In addition, mobile marketing using smartphones
and apps can play a critical role in managing data for
fans, enhancing the secondary revenue stream from
sponsorship, advertising, promotions and fan services
both on and off the field (Olson, 2010).
Due to the ever-increasing popularity of the Internet
and its increased importance as a marketing operation
tool for sports organisations, a plethora of studies
have paid increasing attention to sports websites
in the realm of sports management. The topics
include, but are not limited to, motivations for sports
websites (Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007; Seo & Green,
2008), involvement, commitment and attributes of
sports websites (Hur, Ko, & Claussen, 2011, 2012),
sports website loyalty (Carlson & O’Cass, 2012) and
marketing opportunities (Filo & Funk, 2005; Ciletti,
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Lanasa, Ramos, Lunchs, & Lou, 2010). Smartphones
took the popularity of the Internet to the next level
as they broaden the horizon of the Internet as the
device allowed users to access the internet anytime,
anywhere. In considering unique aspects and
functionality of the smartphone, which is relatively
new to the field of sport and technology, it is critical to
explore various important factors influencing decision-
making processes of sports fans while consuming
sports products and services using smartphones.
Before exploring the factors, it is necessary to
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understand some of the differences that are associated
with the smartphones over the traditional computer-
based websites in the sports consumption process.
For the purpose of this study, smartphone functions
are defined broadly to include hardware functions
(e.g. camera, voice recognition, touch and 3G/4G
connection) as well as operating system’s software
functions (e.g. applications, internet browser, texting
and phone calls). With smartphones, sports fans
can easily and instantly access sports information
using short cuts and touch functions without access
restrictions, while fans accessing the same information
using computer-based internet need to type text, make
several clicks and must have access to an internet
server. In addition, smartphone users have access to
smartphone apps that are designed specifically for
devices with a touch function. Such apps (e.g. ESPN
ScoreCenter, MLB.com, At Bat) allow sports fans to
access customised sports-related information, meaning
that they are capable of receiving only information
and news about the teams, players and sports
leagues of their choice. The customisation function
of smartphones may lead sports fans to develop a
strong personal association with the smartphone as
they feel more attached to their favourite teams (see
Anthes, 2011; Bellman, Potter, Treleaven-Hassard,
Robinson, & Varan, 2011), which may not occur with
use of computer-based websites. Finally, mobility
of the smartphone provides users with convenient
ways to consume sport while they are on the move.
Unlike laptops, most smartphones are designed to fit
into a pocket or purse to be highly portable. Indeed,
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it was found that a key reason for following sport
on a smartphone was due to the ease of accessing
the Internet using 3G/4G while travelling (TV Sports
Market, 2013). Although traditional devices, such as
computers, may be able to provide information in a
similar manner, the additional functional advantages
of smartphones provide an alternative option for fans
to stay closely connected with sports. For instance, the
touch-enabled shortcut functions enable users to easily
access information while on the move or when rushed
to look up information. Considering the aforementioned
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advantages (i.e. instant access, customisability and
portability), it is implied that these perceptions driven
by function reflect perception towards the degree of
ease of smartphone use in a sports consumption
setting.
Recently, scholars in the fields of marketing,
consumer behaviour, information technology and
communication have started to pay attention to
smartphones and their apps, because it is assumed
that the new technologies have a great opportunity for
advertising, marketing, branding and mobile commerce
channels (Anthes, 2011; Bellman et al, 2011; Wang
et al, 2012). Although the importance of a smartphone
and apps as a new marketing device is emphasised
outside of the sports marketing field, little attention
is paid to the role of smartphones in understanding
various sports consumption behaviours. Generally,
because sports fans are incredibly passionate and
identify with their favourite teams and players (Olson,
2010) compared to general consumers, sports fans
are much more likely to accept large amounts of
sports-related information via smartphones. The rapid
growth and popularity in the use of smartphones
and sports apps has created new ways for sports
organisations to communicate and link with their fans
(Kang, Ha, Hambrick, & Greenwell, 2012). Thus,
we need to understand how sports fans perceive and
accept the rapidly developing technology in a sports
consumption setting. Given the paucity of academic
research on sports fans’ acceptance of smartphones
and sports apps, we developed a conceptual model
by identifying important factors influencing sports
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consumption behaviour. Specifically, drawing upon
the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis,
Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989; Venkatesh & Davis,
2000), the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA; Ajzen
& Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and the
Sport Website Acceptance Model (SWAM; Hur et al,
2011, 2012), the purpose of this study is to propose
a conceptual model to comprehensively explain how
sports fans perceive and accept smartphones in a
sports consumption context by developing a series
of propositions. In addition to the above theoretical
frameworks, we employed a network theory (Burt,
1980) and prior studies to incorporate three individual
factors unique to smartphones and mobile apps (e.g.
personal attachment, social influence and media multi-
tasking).
For the purpose of the current study, we regarded
sports consumption behaviour using a smartphone
as any sports-related activities (e.g. searching for
sports-related information, purchasing game tickets
and sports products) through either mobile websites
or sports-related apps. Given that every single activity
in a smartphone is based on a mobile technology (e.g.
pre-installed web-browser or sports-related app), it
is not reasonable to differentiate sports consumption
behaviour between the smartphones’ web-browsers
and sports-related apps. Therefore, we considered
functions of a smartphone comprehensively from
hardware and software perspectives.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
The TAM is conceptually grounded in Theory of
Reasoned Action (TRA; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975),
which has long been employed in predicting and
explaining fundamental human behaviour. The TRA
theorises the sequential links between attitudes,
subjective norms, behavioural intention and actual
behaviour. Specifically, an individual’s actual behaviour
is determined by his/her intention to perform the
behaviour. The behavioural intention is in turn
influenced by the individual’s attitudes and subjective
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norms associated with the behaviour. Based on the
TRA, Davis (1989) first developed TAM to explain how
individuals use and accept information technology.
During the past two decades, TAM has evolved through
evidence from numerous studies. Basically, TAM is
based on two key constructs (perceptions) – perceived
usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU) –
that are predictive of attitudes, behavioural intention
to use and the actual use of technology. Although the
TRA attitude construct was originally included in the
TAM, it was later eliminated in the TAM due to the
limited effect of attitude on behavioural intention (Davis
et al, 1989). While the TRA is employed to explain
general and fundamental human behaviours, the TAM
is more likely to explain variance in technology-related
behaviour.
Extensive research has been conducted to
empirically validate and support the TAM in the
field of information technology (Hong et al, 2006;
Moon & Kim, 2001;Van der Heijdenn, 2004). Some
scholars, however, have pointed out that the TAM
has been limited to account only for the number of
factors involved in explaining the use of information
technology systems. Due to the primary focus of the
TAM, it has been criticised for being too simple and
parsimonious (Park et al, 2008; Venkatesh, 2000).
In addition, Davis (1989) suggested that additional
variables influencing the use and acceptance of new
technologies should be explored, which may be
different across various technologies and contexts. With
these perspectives, Hur et al (2011) developed the
Sport Website Acceptance Model (SWAM) by arguing
that there are two sports-specific salient factors (i.e.
sports involvement and commitment) that influence
the use of sports-related websites, in addition to the
TAM-based constructs (e.g. PU and PEU). According
to Hur et al (2011), sports fans are likely to visit sports
websites and search for sports-related information
because they are interested in (sports involvement) or
committed to a specific team, player, or sport.
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Although the SWAM explained how new technologies
could be used and accepted by sports fans, the model
had limitations as it specifically addressed the use of
sports websites. As mentioned previously, the sports
consumption process through computer-based sports
websites share similar characteristics but are different
due to their distinctive functions. In fact, it is plausible
that there are unique factors such as social influence,
personal attachment and media multi-tasking that
would influences smartphone usage in a sports
consumption context (Kang, Ha, & Hambrick,
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2012). Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate the
unique factors for the use of smartphone as well as
TAM-based constructs and sport-specific factors into
a theoretical framework, which can comprehensively
explain the use of smartphone in a sports context.
A proposed conceptual framework
Based on Eisenhardt’s (1989) approach, our
conceptual framework is mainly built upon integration
of literature, common knowledge and past experience.
Briefly speaking, the proposed framework is composed
of three components. First, we specify that perceptions
about smartphones/sports apps consist of three
constructs (i.e. perceived usefulness, perceived ease
of use and perceived enjoyment) mainly derived
from TAM-based literature and we suggest that they
influence behavioural intention to use smartphones
for sports consumption. Second, there are two sport-
specific salient factors (i.e. sports involvement and
commitment) influencing the use of smartphones for
sports consumption. Lastly, we propose that there are
three unique individual factors (i.e. social influence,
personal attachment, media multi-tasking) influencing
the use of smartphones/apps for sports consumption.
At the end, the relationship between intention to use
a smartphone and actual use in a sports context was
explained (see Figure 1).
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FIGURE 1 Proposed conceptual framework for smartphones and mobile apps

PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS SMARTPHONE

PERCEIVED PERCEIVED PERCEIVED

USEFULNESS EASE OF USE ENJOYMENT
P2 P3

P1
P6 AGE OF
USER
P4 P5 P7
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SPORTS
INTENTION TO USE OF SMARTPHONE
INVOLVEMENT
P8 USE P13 FOR SPORTS
CONSUMPTION
P9
P10 P11 P12
SPORTS
COMMITMENT

SOCIAL PERSONAL MEDIA

INFLUENCE ATTACHMENT MULTI-TASKING

SMARTPHONE-SPECIFIC FACTORS

Perceptions about smartphones to consumers’ usage and adoption of the technology

derived from TAM
The literature on information system has shown that
TAM has played a leading role in providing theoretical
framework in explaining and predicting system use
and adoption of technology in the workplace. In fact,
TAM has become popular to be cited in most of the
research that concerned users’ intention to accept
new technology (Lee, Kozar, & Larsen, 2003). Even
though TAM-based models are primarily applied to
innovative technology adoption within the organisation
(e.g. Davis, 1989, 1993; Hong et al, 2006), it has
also been applied to more general settings relating
(e.g. Gao et al, 2012; Pagani, 2004; Plouffe et al,
2001). As explained previously, the two TAM-based
constructs – PU and PEU – predict behavioural
intention and actual use of a new technology. Besides
these two constructs, some researchers have argued
that the existing TAM should be extended to include an
additional construct – perceived enjoyment (PE) – to
better explain adoption of hedonic technology systems
(e.g. providing entertainment value to users) (Ha et al,
2007;Van der Heijden, 2004).
Although previous studies have demonstrated
TAM’s general applicability for latest technologies,
the meanings within the constructs are unique across

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 Smartphones & sports consumption
different devices. Especially when considering PU,
PEU and PE for smartphones, their function is capable
of crossing all three constructs (Kang et al, 2013). For
example, smartphone’s portability can be viewed from
an ‘easy to use’ and ‘useful’ perspective depending on
the usage and user. Accessing team information can
also be considered from ‘enjoyment’, ‘useful’ or ‘easy to
use’ perspectives. Thus, we have applied the general
concept of TAM and modified its construct to consider
unique aspects of smartphone function. Below is a
conceptualisation on how these three key constructs
as beliefs about smartphones and apps influence
intention to use and actual use of smartphones in a
sports consumption context.
Simultaneous perception towards
a smartphone
Simultaneous perception is an important concept
applied exclusively to smartphone usage. As
mentioned above, the benefits of smartphones provide
a wide array of function assisting users both personally
and professionally. Considering smartphones’ multiple
functionality that can be used for many user activities,
simultaneous perception is defined as a concept
that captures the degree to which a person believes
function or action taken using a smartphone will
be easy, useful and enjoyable when accomplishing
tasks using a smartphone. In order to address the
unique function of smartphones, simultaneous
perception considers simultaneous occurrence of
TAM’s core constructs including perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use and perceived enjoyment. Prior
to examining TAM’s applicability, each of the core
constructs is examined.
Based on the suggestions of TAM, perceived
usefulness (PU) is defined as “the degree to which
a person believes a certain system will help perform
a certain task” (Bruner & Kumar, 2003, p. 553). In
other words, PU mirrors more instrumental utilities
provided by the new technology. The construct, PU,
has also been widely employed in the technology
consumption settings (Kulviwat et al, 2007; Nysveen
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et al, 2005; Pagani, 2004). In a sports context, sports
fans would perceive a smartphone as useful and
beneficial when they can obtain various information
about his/her favourite teams, players and sports
leagues through mobile sports websites or sports-
related apps.
The construct, perceived ease of use (PEU), is
defined as “the degree to which a person believes
that using a particular system would be free of effort”
(Davis, 1989). In other words, PEU refers to “the level
of cognitive and deliberative effort that is required
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of the individual in learning to use the technology”
(Kwak & McDaniel, 2011,). In a sports consumption
context, the PEU conceptually relates to convenience,
which was defined as a motivation to obtain and
consume sports-related information in a quick and
easy way, regardless of time and place (Hur, Ko et al,
2007; Kaufman-Scarborough & Lindquist, 2002).
With regard to smartphone/sports app adoption in a
sports consumption context. PEU can be described
as the extent to which sports fans would find it easy
to operate and navigate the smartphone in order to
find desired information about his/her favourite teams,
players or sports effortlessly, anywhere and at anytime.
The TAM-based research has traditionally focused
on professional settings and, as such, the employed
models paid much attention to utilitarian aspects of
the technologies. Yet, various technologies are also
used partially or entirely for personal purposes. In other
words, a new technology use might be motivated not
only by expected increases in productivity or efficiency,
but also by intrinsic motivation such as enjoyment and
fun (Igbaria et al, 1996). Thus, utilitarian aspects of
the technology are supplemented with hedonic ones.
While the utilitarian aspects of a technology refer to
those that lead to extrinsic value for the user (e.g.
usefulness), the hedonic aspects of the technology refer
to those which the user values for the sole intrinsic
reward that lead to the experience of entertainment
and enjoyment (Abad et al, 2010; Bruner & Kumar,
2003). In the proposed model, the perceived
enjoyment (PE) refers to the extent to which sports
fans expect smartphone use to be fun and enjoyable in
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a sports consumption setting. For example, sports fans
may have fun and enjoy watching the highlights of
his/her favourite team’s play and communicating with
other sports fans through smartphones.
The TAM constructs for information technology or
computer-based internet can easily employ each of
the TAM’s core constructs to examine user intentions.
However, smartphone’s functions enable users’
intention to be more flexible by allowing multiple
perceptions on a smartphone to occur simultaneously.
For instance, many sports fans use the push function
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from ESPN ScoreCenter app to receive latest news
about their favourite team. The fans who conveniently
obtained the latest news using their smartphone
would perceive the technology to be easy and useful.
While they read the news, the fans would perceive
the smartphone as an entertainment source as they
discover news that may intrigue their interest. In this
case, sports fans’ perceptions towards a smartphone
occurred simultaneously and the action pertaining to
their perception is rather difficult to classify into the
specific construct of TAM.
Further, smartphones are perceived to be easy
and useful for sports fans who express or share their
opinion about sport through social media sites and
blogs. For example, while watching a sporting event,
smartphone users are able to take a picture and
post it instantaneously on their social media page by
using an app. By doing so effortlessly, sports fans
would perceive the smartphone to be easy, useful
and entertaining as they can easily keep up with their
friends and have an opportunity to share their on-going
sports experiences. Again, the inherent nature of the
multi-functionality feature for smartphones allows user
perceptions on a smartphone to occur simultaneously
unlike other technologies. Therefore, the following
proposition is presented:
Proposition 1: When sports fans consume sport using
smartphones, they would simultaneously perceive its
function to be useful (PU), easy (PEU) and enjoyable
(PE).
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Three TAM-based constructs and
intention to use
As noted above in Proposition 1, the three TAM-based
perceptions are more likely to occur simultaneously
addressing smartphone functions. However, once
simultaneous perception takes place, it is plausible
that a certain construct may reinforce perceptions
of other constructs. For example, a sports fan may
perceive smartphone to be easy, useful and enjoyable
when following his or her favourite sports team. After
having the simultaneous perception, the fan may
perceive that sports apps are very easy to use when
following his or her favourite teams and players, which
in turn reinforces the perception of its usefulness. More
specifically, Venkatesh (2000) posited that PU will be
influenced by PEU, “because the easier a technology
is to use, the more useful it can be”. Indeed, some
studies found that PEU reinforced PU (e.g. Jantan et
al, 2001; Moon & Kim, 2001). Another significant
finding in regard to the relationships between
TAM-based constructs was that PE significantly
reinforced PEU (Venkatesh, 2000; Yi & Hwang,
2003). This finding is theoretically supported by the
following rationale: “Enjoyment makes individuals
underestimate the difficulty associated with using the
technologies since they simply enjoy the process itself
and do not perceive it to be arduous” (Sun & Zhang,
2006). Accordingly, the following two propositions are
presented in regard to the relationships between the
three TAM-based constructs:
Proposition 2: The easier a smartphone is to use, the
more likely sports fans are to perceive it as useful in a
sports consumption setting.
Proposition 3: Sports fans’ level of PEU for the use of
smartphone in a sports consumption setting would be
significantly reinforced by PE.
In addition to the theoretical relationships between the
perceptions, numerous TAM-based empirical studies
have shown that the three perceptions based on the
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TAM significantly influence the use and acceptance
of technologies. For example, PU was a strong
determinant of user acceptance and usage behaviour
in work settings (Davis, 1989, Davis et al, 1989;
Fenech, 1998) as well as in consumer adoption
contexts using mobile devices (Bruner & Kumar, 2003;
Kulviwat et al, 2007; Pagani, 2004). Also, other
studies found that PEU directly influenced intention
to use a technology (e.g. Hur et al, 2012; Venkatesh,
1999; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). However, given
that the majority of smartphone users are relatively
young and technology savvy, the influence of PEU
on intention to use it may be different depending
on ages. Indeed, Arning and Zifle (2007) found
that the strength of relationship between PEU of a
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) and intention to use
it was significantly different based on the age group.
More specifically, young people were more likely to
perceive use of the technologies to be easy and more
likely to take an advantage of them when compared
to their counterparts. PE has gained attention as
various technologies became more personal. In the
consideration of a hedonic nature of the technology,
quite a few studies have found that PE was a
significant determinant of the adoption and utilisation
of new technologies (Ha et al, 2007; Hsu & Lin,
2008; Moon & Kim, 2001). Taking all together, the
following four propositions are suggested:
Proposition 4: Sports fans who perceive smartphones
as useful for sports consumption are more likely to use
smartphones.
Proposition 5: Sports fans who perceive smartphones
as easy are more likely to use them in a sports
consumption setting.
Proposition 6: The relationship between PEU of a
smartphone and intention to use would be moderated
by a sports fan’s age. Specifically, the relationship
between the two would be stronger for young sports
fans than for older sports fans.
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Proposition 7: Sports fans who enjoy and have
fun in consuming sports products or services via
smartphones would be more likely to develop future
intention to use them.
Sports-specific salient factors
Although the above TAM-based perceptions
influence the adoption of smartphones in a sports
consumption context, it is critical to understand and
identify sports-specific salient factors predominantly
influencing sports consumption behaviour. According
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to the Sport Website Acceptance Model (SWAM)
developed by Hur and his colleagues (2011, 2012),
there are two sports-specific salient factors when
fans access computer-based sports websites: sports
involvement and sports commitment. Hur and his
colleagues (2011, p. 211) argued that sports fans
“visit a sport website and search for sport information
because, in addition to the site’s ease of use or
usefulness, they are interested in or committed
to” following his or her favourite team, sport and
player. Given that the function of e-commerce is
still conducted using the function of mobile web
technology in smartphones rather than the app itself,
we attempted to integrate these two salient factors into
the conceptual framework.
Sports involvement
Involvement is “evoked by a particular stimulus or
situation and has driven properties. [Involvement’s]
consequences are types of searching, information-
processing and decision making” (Kapferer & Laurent,
1985, p. 49). In this regard, involvement embraces
the relevance or amount of importance a stimulus
object (e.g. a product) has on an individual. Based
on this definition, a considerable amount of research
on involvement has been conducted in the field of
consumer behaviour and regarded it as a critical
predictor of the consumer decision making process.
Involvement in the sports context was defined as
“the perceived interest in and personal importance
of sport to an individual” (Shank & Beasley, 1998)
by utilising sport itself as the stimulus. In the realms
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of leisure and sports activities, involvement has also
shown to be a significant predictor of various sports
consumption behaviours and pertinent psychological
factors such as psychological commitment and loyalty
(Bee & Havitz, 2010; Bennett et al, 2009; Hur et al,
2012; Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998, 2004, Kerstetter &
Kovich, 1997; McGehee et al, 2003). For example,
McGehee et al. (2003) and Bennett et al. (2009)
found that individuals with high levels of involvement
conduct more detailed information searches and spend
more time gathering information as well as reading
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and analysing the collected information. Therefore,
it is quite natural to consider that sports involvement
facilitates sports fans to adopt a smartphone or
sports app to obtain various information about his/her
favourite teams, players and sport. Even though the
sports involvement construct was originally proposed to
influence directly both intention to use a sports website
and its actual use in the SWAM (Hur et al, 2011),
their following empirical study (Hur et al, 2012) found
that the sports involvement only directly influenced
intention to use. Accordingly, the following proposition
is presented:
Proposition 8: Sports fans who have high levels
of sports involvement would be more likely to use
smartphones in a sports consumption setting.
Sports commitment
A term closely associated with involvement is
commitment, which is conceptualised as an emotional
or psychological attachment to a brand, product, or
service (Beatty et al, 1988; Crosby & Taylor, 1983).
In a sports context, sports commitment was defined
as “a psychological state representing the desire and
resolve to continue sports participation in a particular
programme, specific sport or sport in general” (Casper
& Andrew, 2008). Even though it appears to be
only applicable for the sports participation context,
many studies have also investigated the commitment
construct in the spectator sports context (e.g. Bee &
Havitz, 2010; Mahony et al, 2000). In other words,
individuals not only commit to sports participation
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SMS16.3 Paper 1 Smartphones KT.indd 170
activity, but also commit to various objects in a
spectator context such as team, player, coach, sport
itself and so forth.
To clarify the concept of sports commitment, we
further examined the concept of loyalty. In sport and
leisure settings, loyalty was conceptualised to reflect
both one’s attitudinal and behavioural aspects towards
a brand, product, or service (Backman & Crompton,
1991a, 1991b; Park, 1996). It has, however, been
suggested that attitudinal aspect of loyalty is regarded
as an independent construct separate from behavioural
aspect of loyalty (Bee & Havitz, 2010; Iwasaki &
Havitz, 2004; Mahony et al, 2000; Pritchard et
al, 1999). Given that attitudinal aspect represents
one’s psychological state, the emphasis of sports
commitment in this study is examined from the
psychological aspect.
In sport and leisure settings, several scholars have
found that sports commitment (i.e. psychological
commitment) was affected by involvement, which
in turn influenced behavioural loyalty (Bee & Havitz,
2010; Iwaski & Havitz, 2004). For example, sports
commitment mediated the relationship between sports
involvement and behavioural loyalty (Bee & Havitz,
2010). In other words, if an individual is interested
in a certain sports team, he/she would be more likely
to find information about the team’s games through
psychological attachment to the team. Based on these
findings, we suggest the following proposition:
Proposition 9: Sports commitment would mediate
the relationship between sports involvement and the
adoption of a smartphone in a sports consumption
setting.
Smartphone-specific factors
In addition to TAM-based constructs (i.e. PU, PEU,
PE) and sport-specific factors (i.e. sports involvement
and commitment), Kang et al, (2012) suggested
that there are two individual factors unique to the
use of smartphones in a sports consumption setting:
social influence and personal attachment. Further,
given that media multi-tasking is prevalent among
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smartphone users, we added media multi-tasking
as a smartphone-specific factor to the theoretical
framework. The following section discusses how these
three factors play a significant role in the adoption of
smartphones for sports consumption.
Social influence
New technology tends to be spread through a process
of imitation (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971). This
phenomenon appears to be the case with sports
apps on the smartphone, wherein individuals adopt
the technology based largely on the influence of
others within their social networks (Taylor, Voelker, &
Pentina, 2011). According to network theory (Burt,
1980), various types of peer-to-peer relationships
are conceptualised as a series of nodes (e.g. sports
app users in this study) and ties (e.g. relationships
between the users). It is becoming increasingly clear
that these networks play a critical role in the diffusion
of a new technology (Goldenberg et al, 2009;
Christophe Van den Bulte & Joshi, 2007).
In the TRA, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) already
addressed the aspect of social influence with, among
others, the term subject norm. This term refers to
the perceptions an individual has of whatever social
influence might be exerted on him with regard
to performing or not performing the behaviour in
question. Venkatesh and Davis (2000) have also
included social influence in the extension of TAM and
concluded that individuals are inclined to respond to
social influence in order to “establish and maintain
a favourable image within a reference”. Indeed,
numerous empirical studies have shown that social
influence was a significant determinant of acceptance
of a new technology (Sajjad et al, 2009; Taylor et
al, 2011; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). Specifically, in
the context of mobile devices, the adoption of mobile
devices is affected by the behaviours and attitudes
of the consumer’s social network (Lu et al, 2005).
Further, Taylor et al. (2011) found that social influence
played a significant role in consumer’s decisions to
download and use mobile apps on the smartphone.
In a sports context, for example, it is very common for
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SMS16.3 Paper 1 Smartphones KT.indd 171
people to decide to download sports apps based on
others’ evaluations/reviews posted on the app stores as
well as recommendations of others who share similar
interests (e.g. peers of sports fans). In this regard, we
present the following proposition:
Proposition 10: A sports fan’s intention to download
and use sports apps on the smartphone is influenced
by others’ comments and suggestions (social
influence).
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Personal attachment
Personal attachment is defined as the extent to
which individuals view the smartphone as extensions
of themselves and an integral part of their life by
personalising their smartphones with unique content,
wallpapers and ringtones as ways to present their
phones (Gao et al, 2012). For example, it is plausible
that while one fan downloads and uses the ESPN
ScoreCenter app to obtain information on his/her
favourite teams, another fan could use the Yahoo!
Sportacular app even if they support the same
team. Furthermore, sports fans can customise and
personalise their own sports apps on smartphones
by setting a certain function on the apps to receive
only information they care about (e.g. push function).
Accordingly, one’s smartphone is completely different
from anybody else’s even if they are the same brand
and model. In this regard, people are likely to be
attached to their smartphones by having the capability
to personalise and customise the phones to meet their
individual needs. Thus, personal attachment primarily
encompasses one of the smartphone’s unique
functions; customisability.
Prior studies have attempted to investigate the role
of personal attachment in mobile phone use (Kim,
2002; Skog, 2002; You et al, 2011). For example,
You et al. (2011) found that emotional attachment
to a smartphone had a positive effect on continued
intention to use the smartphone. The central theme
in these studies was that the mobile phone is not
only used to represent a communication device, but
also used to represent extensions of the self through
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personalised features. Thus, it is becoming increasingly
clear that smartphones have become a significant
extension of oneself (Sultan et al, 2009).
Recently, Gao and his colleagues (2012) found that
greater levels of personal attachment to one’s mobile
phone led to more positive attitudes towards mobile
marketing activities of a company. Similarly, Tossell
and his colleagues (2012) found that the more users
personalise their smartphones, the greater amount of
time they spend on them. Based on these findings,
it is possible that once sports fans are attached
RESEARCH PAPER
to smartphones, they are more likely to use the
smartphone in a sports consumption setting. From this
perspective, the following proposition is presented:
Proposition 11: The more sports fans are attached
to smartphones, the more they are likely to consume
sport through the smartphones.
Media multi-tasking
The creation of smartphones and sports apps
introduced new and different ways for sports fans
to consume sport using smartphone/apps. The core
function of a smartphone includes constant connection
to the 3G/4G network, portability, information sharing
and enhanced communication. Such useful functions
allow users to undertake media multi-tasking, which
was found to influence smartphone usage (Baron &
Segerstad, 2010; Zhong, 2013). In a smartphone
context, media multi-tasking combines traditional
multi-tasking and an action of switching between
devices (Zhong, 2013). Traditional multi-tasking on
a smartphone/app refers to being involved in two
or more media activities such as watching game
highlights on YouTube while chatting with friends
on the phone. The other part of media multi-tasking
involves use of multiple devices. For example, a
baseball fan watching a game on television and
looking up the player’s statistics using his/her
smartphone apps would be an example of media
multi-tasking. Although such functions can be
performed using other devices such as a personal
computer, a smartphones’ portability and shortcuts
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SMS16.3 Paper 1 Smartphones KT.indd 172
through the apps provide convenient ways to do media
multi-tasking. As such, the following proposition is
presented:
Proposition 12: Sports fans who often perform and
become engaged in media multi-tasking are more likely
to consume sports using the smartphones.
Intention and actual usage
While some studies based on TAM examined only
the relationship between TAM-based perceptions
(e.g. PU, PEU, PE) and intention to use a new
technology without actual usage variable (e.g. Song et
al, 2007; Sun & Zhang, 2006), others examined the
relationship between intention and actual usage (e.g.
Davis et al, 1989; Van der Heijden, 2003; Venkatesh
& Davis, 2000; Hur et al, 2012). However, intention
and actual usage should be considered as a separate
construct because there exists a certain circumstance
in which an individual cannot actually use a new
technology even though he or she has strong intention
to use the technology due to constraints (Hur et al,
2011). Considering that numerous studies have found
that the intention to use a new technology positively
influenced actual usage of the technology (Davis et al,
1989; Van der Heijden, 2003; Venkatesh & Davis,
1996, 2000), we present the following proposition.
Proposition 13: A sports fan who has a strong
intention to use a smartphone would be more likely to
use the smartphone in a sports consumption setting.
Summary
In spite of the practical importance of a smartphone
in a sports context, no academic research on the
smartphone adoption has been done yet. To fill
this gap, we proposed a theoretical framework of
smartphone use in a sports consumption setting
by developing a series of propositions. Throughout
the study, we developed a conceptual framework
to provide an underpinning for understanding (1)
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 Smartphones & sports consumption
the central perceptions of smartphones and sports
apps based on TAM; (2) the sport-specific salient
factors affecting the use of smartphones for sports
consumption; and (3) smartphone-specific factors
that attribute to the sports consumption context.
More specifically, the conceptual framework (see
Figure 1) for the adoption of a smartphone included
three perceptions of a smartphone and sports apps:
perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use
(PEU) and perceived enjoyment (PE). The proposed
conceptual model postulated that these three
perceptions occur simultaneously due to the inherent
nature of multi-functionality feature for smartphone
and directly affect intention to use the smartphone
and sports apps. This fundamental proposition is
well supported and documented by the TAM-based
literature. In addition, the sport-specific salient factors
are included in the model: sports involvement and
commitment. These two factors influence intention
to use a smartphone for sports consumption. This
premise is also well supported by leisure and sports
activities literature. Furthermore, the conceptual
model proposed social influence, personal attachment
and media multi-tasking as unique individual factors
influencing intention to use the smartphone in a sports
consumption setting.
Implications
Theoretical implication studies.
The present study proposed a theoretical model
specifically addressing the smartphones and apps in
the field of sport. Upon validation, this model could
serve as a fundamental groundwork for evaluating
sports fans’ intention to consume sport using their
smartphone. It is critically important to understand
sports fans’ decision making processes regarding
smartphone usage as the growing trend will create
additional marketing and promotion opportunities.
Taking sports fans’ unique individual differences that
will affect technology acceptance behaviours, we have
first examined the TAM and expanded the frameworks
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SMS16.3 Paper 1 Smartphones KT.indd 173
by focusing on sport-specific factors. In addition, we
explored SWAM (Hur et al, 2011) that evolved from
TAM to suggest additional variables that are assumed
to be important in predicting smartphone users’
behaviour.
However, TAM and SWAM failed to address
various aspects and functionalities of smartphones
as they were originally developed to address older
technologies. With the introduction of smartphones
and apps that are capable of assisting every aspect
of our lives, the models needed to be conceptualised
RESEARCH PAPER
differently. In order to overcome such limitations, we
have included simultaneous occurrence of the three
TAM-based perceptions (i.e. PU, PEU and PEU)
as well as directional influence of the three main
categories (i.e. perceptions towards smartphones,
sport-specific factors and smartphone-specific
factors) based on the support of previous studies that
reported the affect (Jantan et al, 2001; Moon & Kim,
2001, Sun & Zhang, 2006; Venkatesh, 2000; Yi &
Hwang, 2003). Most importantly, we have included
smartphone-specific factors that are relevant in
addressing today’s sophisticated devices. Although the
model was developed to address smartphone usage,
the model could be used to address other mediums
that are designed to include similar functions (e.g.
tablets). Considering the limitations of comprehen-
sively addressing current technology uses in sport,
the proposed model is intended to provide additional
insights by laying the initial groundworks for future
Practical implications
The proposed model is also intended to help
practitioners as new technologies provide additional
outlets for marketing and sponsorship opportunities.
In order to utilise smartphones’ marketing potential,
sports marketers should first understand mobile
users’ intention to consume sport. Many smartphone
users will initially download and try out an app just
for fun or out of curiosity. In other words, in order
to continually retain mobile fans’ attention, sports
marketers must be aware of how the users got to
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 Smartphones & sports consumption
where they are in the first place. Considering many
smartphone users perform mobile searches after
seeing an advertisement on other forms of media (e.g.
computer website, TV, newspaper), it is also very
important for sports marketers to convey information
about sports-related apps to sports consumers through
other media. For example, using unified logos on
an app, mobile web browser and official webpage
increases consumer awareness. Sports-related apps
are a prime example of the self-advertising agent. The
apps automatically generate an access point (icon) on
RESEARCH PAPER
users’ smartphones upon downloading. The majority
of the apps are in the shape of the organisation’s logo,
providing an opportunity to increase brand image on
users’ personal devices. In addition, providing services
either to support user’s daily activity or fanship,
encourages users to become familiar and develop
a positive image towards the organisation that had
created the app.
Smartphones and sports-related apps also present
opportunities for sponsorship and promotion within
the space available on the app. For instance, the
PGA Masters tournament app for 2012 featured their
main sponsors’ logo on the top and the bottom of the
apps they provided. The same space could be used to
advertise with words or pictures to increase visibility
of the promotional effort. However, these opportunities
need to be considered with caution given that
smartphone-specific factors may play a critical role in
creating a successful marketing campaign.
In regards to sponsorship opportunities, the model
may serve as a tool to analyse users’ characteristics
and perspectives (e.g. age, gender, usefulness
and convenience of the apps) in cooperation with
smartphone providers such as Apple, Blackberry,
Verizon, AT&T and so forth. With this information,
potential sponsors can decide which sports-related
app is the most appropriate for them to maximise
return on investment. The proposed model may
also provide an opportunity for sports marketers to
evaluate various aspects of smartphone and apps
as they play a critical role in attracting individuals
to be further engaged in sport. These aspects may
15 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
SMS16.3 Paper 1 Smartphones KT.indd 174
include information providing, purchasing products or
services, communication and so forth. For example,
information providing apps such as ESPN SportCenter
and Yahoo! Sportacular should continue their effort to
improve sports-related information (e.g. player stats)
on real-time bases and design their apps based on an
individual user’ need (customisation). In addition to
apps, sports fans also consume sports information,
service and product via mobile websites. As such,
developing high-quality mobile websites is paramount.
Once the model is empirically tested and validated,
it will provide a theoretical and practical foundation
for understanding smartphone users’ behaviour in
sport. With a limited amount of studies available
for smartphones in a sports context, the model
will provide initial entry to further examining the
users’ behaviour and decision making processes. As
mentioned above, benefits associated with smartphone
functions are undeniable. Furthermore, the model
could be expanded in an attempt to understand other
technologies to come in the future in a sports setting.
Future research
The model serving the purpose of entry point will
help to generate more specific questions towards
understanding smartphone users’ sports consumption
behaviour. First, future studies should focus on
validating the current model in order to take advantage
of the benefits mentioned above. Another interesting
area for future research, in addition to testing the
proposed model, may be integrating the TAM-based
perceptions (PU, PEU, PE) with other key drivers
found to affect smartphone usage in a sports setting.
It is plausible that the TAM-based perceptions might
interact with other key drivers of sports app usage such
as level of curiosity (Kang et al, 2012). For example,
even when sports fans perceive some of their sports
apps to be less useful or enjoyable, they are still
likely to use the apps due to a high level of curiosity.
Therefore, it would be worthwhile to examine other
factors influencing the use of sports apps.
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 Smartphones & sports consumption
Future study should also explore the difference in
users’ consumption behaviour between the types
of sports-related apps available (e.g. sports news
app vs. fitness app). Furthermore, each factor in the
model should be examined in detail to determine
whether the smartphone is unique when compared
to other studies that had examined new media (i.e.
social media, mobile TV). One of the effective ways in
examining the factors within the model is to analyse
consumer evaluation/reviews of the sports-related
apps on smartphones. Examining users’ reviews
on sports-related apps is a critical to understanding
how the apps they purchased (or downloaded for
free) influences their sports consumption experience.
Another possible topic for future research may be
comparing the use of smartphones with that of tablets
in a sports context. Although smartphones’ functions
and attributes are very similar to those of tablets, there
may be usage difference between the two in terms of
circumstances. Considering our model being the first
attempt to understand smartphone users’ intention and
behaviour, many questions will be generated from this
study to further examine smartphones in the context of
sports consumption.
© 2015 International Marketing Reports
Biographies
Jae-Pil Ha is an assistant professor at the University
of Arkansas at Little Rock, Sport Management
programme. His research interests focus on sports
consumption behavior of minorities, new media
technologies in sport and sport for development and
peace. He had publications in, among others, the
Journal of Sport Management, International Journal of
Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Journal of Sport for
Development.
Sun J. Kang is a PhD candidate and an instructor
at the University of Louisville, Sport Administration
programme. His research interests focus on the use
l APRIL 2015 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
SMS16.3 Paper 1 Smartphones KT.indd 175
of technology in sport and marketing influences of
new media. He has publications in the International
Journal of Sport Communication and with the Holcomb
Hathaway publishers.
Jaehyun Ha (corresponding author) is an assistant
professor of the College of Physical Education at
Keimyung University in South Korea. His research
interests include sports fan consumption behavior
regarding fan motivation, spectator satisfaction,
psychological commitment, attitude strength and
RESEARCH PAPER
fan loyalty as well as organisational behaviour in
sport related to organisational justice, organisational
commitment and organisational citizenship behaviour.
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