Learning Objectives

•List the different types of mutations.

•Describe some possible effects of
mutations.
•Explain the role of SNP in genetic disease.
❖ Any sudden change occurring in
hereditary material is called as
mutation

❖ They may be harmful, beneficial or

neutral
Four classes of mutations are
(1) spontaneous mutations (molecular decay)
(2) Mutations due to error-prone replication bypass
of naturally occurring DNA damage (also called
error-prone translesion synthesis)
(3) Errors introduced during DNA repair.
(4) Induced mutations caused by mutagens.
Scientists may also deliberately introduce mutant
sequences through DNA manipulation for the sake
of scientific experimentation
 Special classes

Conditional mutation is a mutation that has wild-type (or less

severe) phenotype under certain "permissive" environmental
conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain "restrictive"
conditions. For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause
cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have no
deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive
condition).hese mutations are non-autonomous, as their manifestation
depends upon presence of certain conditions, as opposed to other
mutations which appear autonomously
Temperature
Certain chemicals
Light
Nature
The genetic code is the way in which the
nucleotide sequence in nucleic acids
specifies the amino acid sequence in
proteins. It is a triplet code, where the
codons (groups of three nucleotides) are
adjacent (nonoverlapping) and are not
separated by punctuation (comma-less).
Because many of the 64 codons specify the
same amino acid, the genetic code is
degenerate (has redundancy).
 Features
Eighteen of the 20 amino acids are
pecified by multiple (or synonymous)
codons which are grouped together in the
genetic code table. Usually they differ
only in the third codon position. If this is
a pyrimidine, then the codons always
specify the same amino acid. If a purine,
then this is usually also true.
 Effect of mutation
The grouping of synonymous codons
means that the effects of mutations are
minimized. Transitions in the third
position often have no effect, as do
transversions more than half the time.
Mutations in the first and second
position often result in a chemically
similar type of amino acid being used.
 Universality
Until recently, the standard genetic code was
considered universal: however, some
deviations are now known to occur in
mitochondria and some unicellular organisms.
 Overlapping genes
These occur when the coding region of
one gene partially or completely
overlaps that of another. Thus one
reading frame encodes one protein, and
one of the other possible frames encodes
part or all of a second protein. Some
small viral genomes use this strategy to
increase the coding capacity of their
genomes.
What kinds of gene mutations are possible?

The DNA sequence of a gene can be altered in a

number of ways. Gene mutations have varying effects
on health, depending on where they occur and
whether they alter the function of essential proteins.
The types of mutations include:
Missense mutation
This type of mutation is a change in one DNA base pair that
results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in
the protein made by a gene.
Nonsense mutation
A nonsense mutation is also a change in one DNA base pair. Instead of
substituting one amino acid for another, however, the altered DNA
sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building a protein. This
type of mutation results in a shortened protein that may function
improperly or not at all.
Insertion
An insertion changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by adding a
piece of DNA. As a result, the protein made by the gene may not
function properly
Deletion
A deletion changes the number of DNA bases by removing a piece of
DNA. Small deletions may remove one or a few base pairs within a gene,
while larger deletions can remove an entire gene or several neighboring
genes. The deleted DNA may alter the function of the resulting
protein(s).
Frameshift mutation
This type of mutation occurs when the addition or loss of
DNA bases changes a gene's reading frame. A reading frame
consists of groups of 3 bases that each code for one amino
acid. A frameshift mutation shifts the grouping of these
bases and changes the code for amino acids. The resulting
protein is usually nonfunctional. Insertions, deletions, and
duplications can all be frameshift mutations.
Repeat expansion
Nucleotide repeats are short DNA sequences that are repeated a
number of times in a row. For example, a trinucleotide repeat is made
up of 3-base-pair sequences, and a tetranucleotide repeat is made up of
4-base-pair sequences. A repeat expansion is a mutation that increases
the number of times that the short DNA sequence is repeated. This type
of mutation can cause the resulting protein to function improperly.
Single-nucleotide polymorphism
In genetics a single-nucleotide polymorphism is a substitution of a
single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome, that is present
in a sufficiently large fraction of the population .
For example, at a specific base position in the human genome, the C
nucleotide may appear in most individuals, but in a minority of
individuals, the position is occupied by an A. This means that there is
a SNP at this specific position, and the two possible nucleotide
variations – C or A – are said to be the alleles for this specific
position.
SNPs pinpoint differences in our susceptibility to a wide range
of diseases (e.g. sickle-cell anemia, β-thalassemia and cystic
fibrosis result from SNPs.The severity of illness and the way the
body responds to treatments are also manifestations of genetic
variations.
For example, a single-base mutation in the APOE (apolipoprotein E)
gene is associated with a lower risk for Alzheimer's disease.
 Stem cells
Dr.Anfal Mohammed
Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many different cell types. This can
range from muscle cells to brain cells . In some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues
 Stem cells are the body's raw materials — cells from which all
other cells with specialized functions are generated. Under the
right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to
form more cells called daughter cells.

 These daughter cells either become new stem cells (self-

renewal) or become specialized cells (differentiation) with a more
specific function, such as blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle
cells or bone cells. No other cell in the body has the natural
ability to generate new cell types.
 Why is there such an interest in stem cells?

 Researchers and doctors hope stem

cell studies can help to:
1- Increase understanding of how diseases
occur. By watching stem cells mature into cells in
bones, heart muscle, nerves, and other organs and
tissue, researchers and doctors may better
understand how diseases and conditions develop.
2- Generate healthy cells to replace diseased cells (regenerative
medicine). Stem cells can be guided into becoming specific cells that can be
used to regenerate and repair diseased or damaged tissues in people.

3- Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness.

Before using investigational drugs in people, researchers can use some types
of stem cells to test the drugs for safety and quality. This type of testing will
most likely first have a direct impact on drug development first for cardiac
toxicity testing.
 What is importance of stem cells in our body?

 Why are stem cells important? Stem cells represent

an exciting area in medicine because of their
potential to regenerate and repair damaged tissue.
Some current therapies, such as bone marrow
transplantation, already make use of stem cells and
their potential for regeneration of damaged tissues
Types of stem cells

1- Adult Stem Cells:

• Hematopoietic Stem Cells (Blood Stem Cells)
• Mesenchymal Stem Cells.
• Neural Stem Cells.
• Epithelial Stem Cells.
Adult stem cells can be isolated from the
body in different ways, depending on the
tissue. Blood stem cells, for example, can be
taken from a donor's bone marrow, from blood
in the umbilical cord when a baby is born, or
from a person's circulating blood
2-Embryonic stem cells. These stem cells
come from embryos that are three to five days old. At this
stage, an embryo is called a blastocyst and has about 150
cells.

• These are pluripotent (ploo-RIP-uh-tunt) stem cells,

meaning they can divide into more stem cells or can
become any type of cell in the body. This versatility
allows embryonic stem cells to be used to regenerate or
repair diseased tissue and organs.
 What is stem cell therapy (regenerative
medicine) and how does it work?
 Stem cell therapy, also known as regenerative medicine, promotes the repair
response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their
derivatives. It is the next chapter in organ transplantation and uses cells instead of
donor organs, which are limited in supply.
 Researchers grow stem cells in a lab. These stem cells are manipulated to
specialize into specific types of cells, such as heart muscle cells, blood cells or
nerve cells.
 The specialized cells can then be implanted into a person. For example, if the
person has heart disease, the cells could be injected into the heart muscle. The
healthy transplanted heart muscle cells could then contribute to repairing defective
heart muscle.
 Researchers have already shown that adult bone marrow cells guided to become
heart-like cells can repair heart tissue in people, and more research is ongoing.
What is the difference between totipotent,
pluripotent, and multipotent?

The key differences between these cells are:

1. When each appears during the process of human
development.
2. Their degree of “flexibility” to become other cell types.

The key similarity is that all three of these cells types are
characterized by self-renewal and the capacity to turn into
into mature cell types. Together, they form the 200+ cell
types that create a human being.
1-Totipotent Stem Cells
 Totipotent stem cells are the most versatile stem
cell type, because they are formed shortly after
fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell. They can
become all of the cells of the human body, as well as
the cells of the embryo and developing fetus.
 At about four days into development, these
totipotent cells specialize slightly, becoming
pluripotent stem cells.
 2-Pluripotent Stem Cells

 Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to all of the

cell types that form the human body, but are not
as versatile as totipotent cells.
 Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are an example of
pluripotent stem cells, as are a type of “lab
made” stem cell called an induced pluripotent
stem cell (iPS cell).
 Embryonic stem cells are controversial, because they
are collected from early-stage embryos. Even though
the embryo only consists of 100–200 cells at this stage,
this limits their use.

• iPS cells are not controversial, because they are made

from adult cells. iPS cells are differentiated cells that are
reprogrammed back into an embryonic-like state. They
are usually created from skin or blood cells.
 3- Multipotent Stem Cells
 Later, multipotent stem cells form, which are again more
limited in what they can become. They cells types usually
prefer to become cells of a certain class or category.
 For example:
 • Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are a type
of multipotent stem cell that prefer to become cells of the
blood and immune system, although it it possible to induce
them to become other cell types.
Cell Differentiation
Dr. Ruqaia Sabbar
Cell Differentiation (Cellular
differentiation)

 Is the process through which a cell undergoes changes in gene expression to become
a more specific type of cell. The process of cell differentiation allows multi-cellular
organisms to create uniquely functional cell types and body plans. The process of
cell differentiation is driven by genetics, and their interaction with the
environment.
 All organisms begin from a single cell. This single cell carries the DNA coding for all
the proteins the adult organism will use. However, if this cell expressed all of these
proteins at once it would not be functional. This cell must divide repeatedly, and the
cells must begin the process of cell differentiation as they divide. The cell
lines begin to emerge, and the cells get more and more specific. Eventually, an
entire organism is formed with hundreds of different cell types from this process of
cell differentiation.
 The original mass of cells, which have not undergone differentiation, are
known as stem cells.
 All living organisms are made up of one or more
cells. Unicellular organisms, like amoebas, consist of only
a single cell. Multicellular organisms, like people, are
made up of many cells. Cells are considered the
fundamental units of life.
 The cells in complex multicellular organisms like people
are organized into tissues, groups of similar cells that
work together on a specific task. Organs are structures
made up of two or more tissues organized to carry out a
particular function, and groups of organs with related
functions make up the different organ systems.
1- Cell

 Basic unit of structure and function in a living thing. They

carry out the processes that keep an organism alive.
 Smallest part of the whole body organization.
 Many types of cells found in the body; have different
shapes and function depending on location.
 Grow and reproduce; get rid of waste products that result
from these activities; respond to their surroundings and
use energy to perform their jobs.
 Specialized Cells

 Human, plants and animals contain many cells. In a many-celled

organism, the cells are often quite different from each other and are
specialized to perform specific functions.
 For example, nerve cells are specialized to transmit information from
one part of your body to another, and red blood cells carry oxygen
throughout your body.
 In many-celled organisms, cells are often organized into higher levels of
structure including tissues, organs, and organ systems .
 2- Tissues

 The next largest unit of organization is tissues.

 A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together
to perform a specific function.
For example,
your brain is made mostly of nervous tissue,
which consists of nerve cells.
 Each tissue type has a specific job
based on where it is located in the body
Types of tissues

 Every organ is made up of two or more tissues, groups

of similar cells that work together to perform a
specific task. Humans—and other large multicellular
animals—are made up of four basic tissue types:
 Epithelial tissue.
 Connective tissue.
 Muscle tissue.
 Nervous tissue.
 A- Epithelial tissue
 Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover
surfaces—including the outside of the body—and line body cavities.
There are different shapes to the epithelial cells, therefore, they
behave differently depending where in the body they are located.
For example, the outer layer of your skin is an epithelial tissue, and so
is the lining of your small intestine.
 B- Connective tissue

 Connective tissue consists of cells suspended in an extracellular matrix. In

most cases, the matrix is made up of protein fibers like collagen and fibrin in
a solid, liquid, or jellylike ground substance. Connective tissue supports and,
as the name suggests, connects other tissues.
 Loose connective tissue is the most common type of connective tissue. It's
found throughout your body, and it supports organs and blood vessels and
links epithelial tissues to the muscles underneath. Dense, or fibrous,
connective tissue is found in tendons and ligaments, which connect muscles
to bones and bones to each other, respectively.
 Specialized forms of connective tissue include adipose tissue(body fat),
cartilage, and blood, in which the extracellular matrix is a liquid called
plasma.
C- Muscle tissue

 Muscle tissue is essential for keeping the body upright,

allowing it to move, and even pumping blood and pushing
food through the digestive tract.
 Muscle cells, often called muscle fibers, contain the
proteins actin and myosin, which allow them to contract.
There are three main types of muscle: skeletal muscle,
cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
 Skeletal muscle, which is also called striated muscle, is what we refer to as muscle in
everyday life. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by tendons, and it allows you to
consciously control your movements. For instance, the biceps in your arms are skeletal
muscle.
 Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle is striated. But it's not under voluntary control. The individual fibers are
connected by structures called intercalated disks, which allow them to contract in sync.
 Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, as well as in the walls of the
digestive tract, the uterus, the urinary bladder, and various other internal structures.
Smooth muscle is not striated, and it's involuntary, not under conscious control.
 D- Nervous tissue
 Nervous tissue is involved in sensing stimuli (external or internal cues)
and processing and transmitting information. It consists of two main
types of cells:
 1- The neurons (nerve cells) are the basic functional unit of the nervous
system. They generate electrical signals called conducted nerve impulses
or action potentials that allow the neurons to convey information very
rapidly across long distances.
 The glia mainly act to support neuronal function.
3- Organs

 Tissues may combine to form an organ.

 Most organs contain all four tissue types.
 An organ is made of different kinds of tissues that function together to
perform a specific job, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the
kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are made up of two or more types of
tissue organized to serve a particular function. For example, the heart
pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide,
and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the
external environment.
4- Organ Systems

 Anorgan system is a group of organs that

work together to perform a major function.
An organ system that directs body activities
and processes is your brain which is part of
your nervous system.
 1- Skeletal system

 Supports and protects soft tissues of the

body;
provides movement at joints; produces blood
cells;
and stores minerals.
 Bones, cartilage, joints, tendons, and
ligaments.
2- Muscular system

 Enables movement of the body and internal organs.

 Support, and heat production.
 Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles.
3- Nervous system

 Detects information from the environment

and controls body functions.
 Brain, spinal cord, nerves,
and sensory organs—eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and
nose.
4- Respiratory System

 Takes oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide.

 Delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur.
 Mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm.
5- Circulatory system

 Transports materials to and from cells.

 Transports oxygen, nutrients, and other substances
to the cells and transports wastes, carbon dioxide,
and other substances away from the cells;
it can also help stabilize body temperature and Ph.
 Heart, blood, and blood vessels.

 Lymphatic: Defends against infection

and disease and transfers lymph between tissues
and the blood stream.
 Lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels.
6- Digestive system

 Processes foods and absorbs nutrients,

minerals, vitamins, and water.
 Mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach,
liver, gallbladder, exocrine pancreas, small intestine,
and large intestine.
 7- Urinary system

 Removes excess water, salts,

and waste products from the blood and body
and controls Ph.
 Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
 8- Endocrine system

 Controls many body processes by means of chemicals.

 Provides communication within the body via hormones and directs
long-term change in other organ systems to maintain homeostasis.
 Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroids, endocrine pancreas,
adrenals, testes, and ovaries.
9- Immune system

 Defends against microbial pathogens, disease-causing agents,

and other diseases.
 Leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen.
 10- Reproductive system

 Produces gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones;

ultimately produces offspring.
 Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, ovaries,
mammary glands (female), testes, vas deferens,
seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis (male).
 11- Integumentary

 Provides protection from injury and fluid loss and provides physical
defense against infection by microorganisms; involved in
temperature control.
 Skin, hair, and nails.
Human ontogenesis .Prenatal and postnatal
period of ontogenesis

Dr.Anfal Mohammed
Ontogenesis
Ontogeny (also ontogenesis) is the origination and
development of an organism (both physical and
psychological, e.g., moral development), usually from the
time of fertilization of the egg to adult. The term can also be
used to refer to the study of the entirety of an organism's
lifespan
Ontogeny is the developmental history of an
organism within its own lifetime, as distinct
from phylogeny, which refers to the
evolutionary history of a species. In practice,
writers on evolution often speak of species as
"developing" traits or characteristics. This can
be misleading.
Ontogenesis
While developmental (i.e., ontogenetic) processes can
influence subsequent evolutionary (e.g., phylogenetic)
processes ,individual organisms develop (ontogeny), while
species evolve (phylogeny).

Ontogeny is a useful field of study in many disciplines,

including developmental biology, developmental psychology,
developmental cognitive neuroscience, and developmental
psychobiology.
 Prenatal development
Prenatal development (from Latin natalis 'relating to birth')
includes the development of the embryo and of the foetus
during a viviparous animal's gestation. Prenatal development
starts with fertilization, in the germinal stage of embryonic
development, and continues in fetal development until birth.
Prenatal development
In human pregnancy, prenatal development is also called
antenatal development. The development of the human
embryo follows fertilization, and continues as fetal
development. By the end of the tenth week of gestational
age the embryo has acquired its basic form and is referred
to as a fetus. The next period is that of fetal development
where many organs become fully developed. This fetal
period is described both topically (by organ) and
chronologically (by time) with major occurrences being
listed by gestational age.
Fertilization
Fertilization marks the first germinal stage of embryonic
development. When semen is released into the vagina, the
spermatozoa travel through the cervix and body of the uterus
and into the fallopian tubes where fertilization usually takes
place. Many sperm cells are released with the possibility of
just one managing to adhere to and enter the thick protective
layer surrounding the egg cell (ovum). The first sperm cell to
successfully penetrate the egg cell donates its genetic material
(DNA) to combine with the DNA of the egg cell resulting in a
new organism called the zygote. The term "conception" refers
variably to either fertilization or to formation of the conceptus
after its implantation in the uterus, and this terminology is
controversial.
Fertilization
The zygote will develop into a male if the egg is fertilized by a sperm that carries
a Y chromosome, or a female if the sperm carries an X chromosome. The Y
chromosome contains a gene, SRY, which will switch on androgen production at a
later stage leading to the development of a male body type.

In contrast, the mitochondrial DNA of the zygote

comes entirely from the egg cell.
Different terms are used to describe prenatal
development, meaning development before
birth.

The perinatal period (from Greek peri, "about, around"

and Latin nasci "to be born") is "around the time of birth
Gestational age
Gestational age is a measure of the age of a pregnancy which is
taken from the beginning of the woman's last menstrual period
(LMP), or the corresponding age of the gestation as estimated by a
more accurate method if available. Such methods include adding 14
days to a known duration since fertilization (as is possible in in vitro
fertilization), or by obstetric ultrasonography. The popularity of using
such a definition of gestational age is that menstrual periods are
essentially always noticed, while there is usually a lack of a
convenient way to discern when fertilization occurred.
Development of the fetus
Fatal development is the third of the three stage of prental development, following from the
initial germinal stage (preembryonic stage) and stage of embryonic development. These stages
are also referred to in pregnancy as terms or trimesters.

From the 10th week of gestation (8th week development), the developing organism is called a
fetus.

All major structures are already formed in the fetus, but they continue the grow and develop.
Since the precursors of all the major organs are created by this time, the fetal period is
described both by organ and by a list of changes by weeks of gestational age.

Because the precursors of the organs are now formed, the fetus is not as sensitive to damage
from environmental exposure as the embryo was. Instead, toxic exposure often causes
physiological abnormalities or minor congenital malformation.
Post natal Ontogenesis
Post natal Ontogenesis
development does not stop at birth. In fact many systems
(cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, homeostasis)
undergo significant changes at birth, and many others (neural)
have not yet completed their development.

Postnatal development can be broadly divided into the age

categories of: Neonatal (birth to 1 month), Infancy (1 month to 2
years), Childhood (2 years to puberty), Puberty (12 years to mid-
teens) and Young Adult a new category (late teens to early
twenties).
Post natal Ontogenesis
Neurological development continues postnatally with both
growth and reorganization of the central nervous system.
The amount of simple physical growth is shown by the
skeletal flexibility designed around the brain and spinal
cord, which allows continued postnatal growth of these
structures. The World Health Organization (WHO) recently
identified early postnatal motor skill development in terms
of "motor milestones.
 Medical biology
Dr. Ruqaia Sabbar
Microscopic organisms
(Microorganisms)
 Bacteria

 Bacteria are unicellular organisms belonging to the prokaryotic group

where the organisms lack a true nucleus.
 Bacterial DNA.
 Cytoplasm.
 Plasmid.
 Ribosomes.
 Plasma membrane.
 Cell wall.
 Flagella.
 Pilli.
Classification of Bacteria:
1-Classification of bacteria based on Shape

Type of Classification Examples

Bacillus (Rod-shaped) Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Spirilla Spirillum volutans

Coccus Streptococcus pneumoniae

Vibrio (Comma-shaped) Vibrio cholerae

2- Classification of bacteria based on the
composition of the Cell Wall

Type of Classification

Gram-positive bacteria

Gram-negative bacteria
3- Classification of bacteria based on the mode
of nutrition

Type of Classification Examples

Autotrophic Bacteria Cyanobacteria

Heterotrophic Bacteria All disease-causing bacteria

4- Classification of bacteria based on the Mode
of respiration

Type of Classification Examples

Anaerobic Bacteria Actinomyces

Aerobic Bacteria Mycobacterium

 Reproduction in Bacteria
 Bacteria follow an asexual mode of reproduction, called binary
fission.
 A single bacterium divides into two daughter cells.
 These are identical to the parent cell as well as to each other.
Replication of DNA within parent bacterium marks the beginning
of the fission. Eventually, cell elongates to form two daughter
cells.
 The rate and timing of reproduction depend upon the conditions
like temperature and availability of nutrients. When there is a
favorable condition, Escherichia coli produces about 2 million
bacteria every 7 hours.
 Bacterial can undergo sexual reproduction in very rare cases.
Useful Bacteria

 Not all bacteria are harmful to humans. There are some bacteria which are
beneficial in different ways. Listed below are few benefits of bacteria:
 1- Convert milk into curd – Lactobacillus or lactic acid bacteria.
 2- Ferment food products – Streptococcus and Bacillus.
 3- Help in digestion and improving the body’s immunity system –
Actinobacteria.
 4- Production of antibiotics, which is used in the treatment and prevention
of bacterial infections – Soil bacteria.
Harmful Bacteria

 - There are bacteria that can cause a multitude of illnesses called

pathogenic bacteria . They are responsible for many of
the infectious diseases like pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria,
syphilis, tooth decay. Their effects can be rectified by taking
antibiotics and prescribed medication.
 - However, precaution is much more effective. Most of these disease-
causing bacteria can be eliminated by sterilizing or disinfecting
exposed surfaces, instruments, tools and other utilities. These
methods include- application of heat, disinfectants, UV radiations,
pasteurization, boiling, etc.
Bacteria life cycle
 1- Lag Phase
Bacteria do not divided during the lag phase. However, they do adapt to their
environment and metabolize, that is, produce vitamins and amino acids
needed for division. They begin making copies of their DNA, and if the
environment supplies plenty of nutrients, the lag phase may be very short.
 2- Log or Exponential Phase
During the log or exponential phase, bacteria multiply rapidly, even
exponentially. The time it takes for a culture to double is called "generation
time," and under the best conditions, the fastest bacteria can double in about
15 minutes. Other bacteria take days.
Within a bacterium, the DNA copy drifts to the opposite side of the membrane.
The bacterium then pulls apart, creating two identical "daughter cells," which
begin dividing anew. This process is called binary fission.
 3- Stationary Phase
During the stationary phase, bacteria growth dwindles. Due to accumulating waste
and a lack of space, bacteria cannot maintain the clip of the log or exponential
phase.
 4- Death Phase
During the death phase, bacteria lose all ability to reproduce.
Like the log or exponential phase, bacterial death may occur as rapidly as their
growth.
Temperature,
acidity, energy
sources and the
presence of
oxygen, nitrogen,
minerals and water
all affect bacterial
growth, thus
affecting the
bacteria life cycle.
Amoeba

 - Amoebas are unicellular eukaryotic organisms classified

in the Kingdom Protista.
 - Amoebas are amorphous and appear as jelly-like blobs as
they move about.
 - These microscopic protozoa move by changing their
shape, exhibiting a unique type of crawling motion that
has come to be known as amoeboid movement.
 - Amoebas make their homes in salt water and
freshwater aquatic environments, wet soils, and some
parasitic amoebas inhabit animals and humans.
 Amoeba Anatomy
 - Amoebas are simple in form consisting of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell
membrane.
 - The outer portion of the cytoplasm (ectoplasm) is clear and gel-like, while the
inner portion of the cytoplasm (endoplasm) is granular and contains organelles, such
as a nuclei, mitochondria, and vacuoles. Some vacuoles digest food, while others
expel excess water and waste from the cell through the plasma membrane.
 - The most unique aspect of amoeba anatomy is the formation of temporary
extensions of the cytoplasm known as pseudopodia. These "false feet" are used for
locomotion, as well as to capture food (bacteria, algae, and other microscopic
organisms).
 - Respiration occurs as dissolved oxygen in the water diffuses across the cell
membrane. In turn, carbon dioxide is eliminated from the amoeba by diffusion
across the membrane into the surrounding water. Water is also able to cross the
amoeba plasma membrane by osmosis. Any excess accumulation of water is expelled
by contractile vacuoles within the amoeba.
 Nutrient Acquisition and Digestion
 - Amoebas obtain food by capturing their prey with their pseudopodia. The
food is internalized through a type of endocytosis known as phagocytosis.
 - In this process, the pseudopodia surround and engulf a bacterium or other
food source.
 - A food vacuole forms around the food particle as it is internalized by the
amoeba.
 - Organelles known as lysosomes fuse with the vacuole releasing digestive
enzymes inside the vacuole.
 - Nutrients are obtained as the enzymes digest the food inside the vacuole.
Once the meal is complete, the food vacuole dissolves.
 Reproduction
 - Amoebas reproduce by the binary fission, a single cell divides forming two identical cells.
This type of reproduction happens as a result of mitosis. In mitosis, replicated DNA and
organelles are divided between two daughter cells. These cells are genetically identical.
 - Some amoeba also reproduce by multiple fission. In multiple fission, the amoeba secretes
a three-layered wall of cells that harden around its body.
 This layer, known as a cyst, protects the amoeba when conditions become harsh. Protected
in the cyst, the nucleus divides several times. This nuclear division is followed by the
division of the cytoplasm for the same number of times. The result of multiple fission is the
production of several daughter cells that are released once conditions become favorable
again and the cyst ruptures.
 - In some cases, amoebas also reproduce by producing spores.
Parasitic Amoebas
 Some amoeba are parasitic and cause serious illness and even death in
humans.
 Some species can cause disease in humans such as amebiasis, amoebic
meningoencephalitis, and cornea infections of the eye.
 Entamoeba histolytica cause amebiasis, a condition resulting in diarrhea
and stomach pain. These microbes also cause amebic dysentery, a severe
form of amebiasis.
 Entamoeba histolytica travel through the digestive system and inhabit
the large intestines. In rare cases, they can enter the bloodstream and
infect the liver or brain.