Chapter 13 Beek) yak Evaluate how development in the Caribbean region is shaped by political, economic, social, cultural, environmental and technological factors. Gender inequality — an imbalance in treatment and quality of life of men and ‘women in terms of human development, reproductive health, empowerment and ‘economic status. Factors That Affect Development Alter revising this topic, you should be able to: * define and explain related terms and concepts; * evaluate how the following can promote or hinder development: * gender inequality * political ideologies and popular movement * distribution of wealth and resources * changing class boundaries entrepreneurial drive and activity natural and human-made disasters government policies * use of technology * global conditions * quality and relevance of education * tourism * culture, The factors that influence development in the Caribbean are multi-faceted and can be categorised as social, political, economic, environmental, technological or cultural. It is, however, very difficult to separate any one factor that accounts for the level of development in any one society. Like many issues, none of these factors stands in isolation; they are strongly interconnected or interact with each other. However, the nature of each factor and the subsequent level of development that follows vary from one country to another. Additionally, one factor can have both positive and/or negative effects on the development of a country. Social Factors Gender Inequality Gender inequality hinders Caribbean development in the following ways * Lack of equal access to the workforce deprives society of important skills and knowledge that would enable it to fully benefit from the contribution to be made by all of its members, and prevents the economy getting the full benefit of its human potential. While men take the higher status scientific, technical, administrative and managerial jobs, women are employed in lower status positions in the health and education sectors and lower level administrative office and commercial positions,FACTORS THAT AFFECT DEVELOPMENT [ir] * Even if women gain access to professional and managerial positions, KeyTerms they experience a glass ceiling. This selective access to jobs has stifled the ambitions and potential of professional women, Glass ceiling — climbing * Women tend to be in lower paid occupations and experience a the career ladder up to a gender wage gap. Employers justify giving them lower incomes certain point where people Compared to men by arguing they are ‘the weaker sex’. reach an invisible social * The marginalisation of pregnant female students in schools and in barrier and cannot climb ‘ further. society causes them to lose out on education, training and work experience. Consequently, there is also an increased demand for services for reproductive health, sex education and birth control. + Women continue to face disadvantages with regard to their human rights. Examples are: * the persistence of gender-based violence, usually by a man in the family against a female partner or female children; * sexual harassment against women (which is more about power than violence) includes stalking and sending unwanted emails and text messages. It is usually inflicted on women in junior positions and can restrict chances of promotion and financial advancement; * the human trafficking of people, often women, who are vulnerable and unemployed. They are coerced into travelling to another country where the promised job is a hoax and they end up in sex work or domestic servitude. * Leadership is viewed as ‘naturally’ male and this is a gender stereotype in a patriarchal society. The results are women being limited in their democratic participation and low female representation in the political parties The negative effects of gender inequality are perpetuated by a lack of will in the enforcement of laws such as the Equal Opportunities Act and the implementation of anti-discrimination policies, by an unwillingness to open up public dialogue towards gender equality and the failure to educate society to overcome the disadvantages faced by women. However, progress has been made and the work of feminist and women’s groups have advanced the cause of women in society by facilitating, for example, public discussions for women’s voices to be heard and the dissemination of research. They have influenced, often directly, a change in state policy with laws being enacted such as the Domestic Violence Act, Sexual Offences Act and Equal Opportunities Act to protect women’s rights. Women have made other gains; for example, they can seek a divorce and hold a bank account — rights that were once denied to them. Gender equality can promote Caribbean human and economic *ThaigeiSaNe ans groups such as Caribbean Association for Feminist Research Action (CAFRA) development in several ways: * Increased educational opportunities result in an increase in both the knowledge and skills bases, as women have the opportunity to realise their full potential by increasing productivity and becoming and Women’s Association fully empowered in society. Already, many women have advanced for African Networking and themselves academically and at present dominate all faculties at the Development (WAND) University of the West Indies, in promoting human and * An increase in the knowledge base would help women challenge social development is and remove the glass ceiling and allow more to achieve leadership outlined in Chapter 14 and managerial positions. The Regional Action Plan of CARICOM Globalisation and not only addresses the need for more inclusive politics and styles of Development’yLYM) REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES The UN Gender Inequality Index (GI!) measures inequality in three important aspects of human development — reproductive health, empowerment and economic status. It is designed to expose differences in the achievements between men and women and so measure the human development costs of gender inequality (the higher the Gll, the greater the cost). Chapter 6 ‘Characteristics cof Society and Culture’ Chapter 7'Identity and Social Formation’ Chapter 12‘Concepts and Indicators of Development’ Chapter 14*Globalisation and Development’ Chapter 19 ‘Social Justice’ * Certain international lending agencies insist on gender equit governance, but also for the participation of young women in making, public policy. Today, women such as Kamla Persad-Bissessar, in Trinidad and Tobago, and Portia Simpson, in Jamaica, have made vital contributions to the social and political landscapes of the Caribbean a stipulation for aid. As a result of empowering women, many Caribbean countries would thus obtain the funding for national projects to allow them to actively develop their societies. Empowering women to take charge of their reproductive health has served to reduce health issues such as HIV/Aids, which in turn increases productivity. Empowering women can assist them in being able to equally access and contribute to the labour force and productivity. This is particularly true for the Caribbean, with its tradition of women- and grandmother- dominated households. Describe FOUR ways in which women have experienced discrimination and how these have inhibited Caribbean development. Demonstrate an understanding of the following terms and concepts by defining and using them correctly: © Discrimination © Wage disparity * Caribbean * Sexual harassment. ‘* Development * Gender-based violence * Gender discrimination + Human trafficking * Glass ceiling * Occupational segregation ‘You must describe any FOUR of the following examples and demonstrate understanding by giving specific examples. You must also show the link between discrimination and development: * Development is tied to social and economic equity. Discrimination against women works contrary to this in many ways. * Women lack equal access to the workforce, which denies society vital skills and knowledge that enables everyone to reap the benefits of the contributions of all members. * Women are usually in lower paid occupations and experience a gender wage disparity. This has a direct impact on the economy (GDP), which further increases the gender wage gap. * Women experience a glass ceiling, which stifles their ambitions and potential and the contributions they can make to development. * Tradition views of leadership as ‘naturally’ male restrict women in their democratic participation, Gender discrimination in social institutions, especially education, contributes to a lack of leadership skills among women, which in turn hinders development. * Gender discrimination leads to lack of knowledge and awareness that can hinder the advancement of society generally. This is exacerbated by a lack of implementation of laws such as the Equal Opportunities Act, public dialogue towards gender equality and the education of society to ‘overcome the discrimination faced by women.FACTORS THAT AFFECT DEVELOPMENT [pri ‘+ Marginalised pregnant students in schools and society lose out on education, training and work experience. There is a resulting increase in demand for services for reproductive health, sex education and birth control,as well as a decrease in productivity. * Women experience discrimination in terms of human rights with high incidences of gender-based violence, sexual harassment and human trafficking. A possible conclusion can be a summary of the main points addressed in this essay. Changing Class Boundaries In plantation society, a closed system existed where status was ascribed on the basis of race, colour and ethnicity. This resulted in a rigid social stratification in which people were not socially mobile. After emancipation, World War Il and independence, a more open system evolved and to some extent social change meant people of European descent were no longer viewed as superior and so no longer feared However, social stratification based on race, colour and ethnicity largely remained The provision of education also facilitated social mobility as, by attaining it, the poor and peasant classes challenged traditional structures and experienced upward mobility. This led to a new class of educated descendants of ex-slaves and indentured Asians who could aspire to white-collar jobs, set themselves up in small businesses and train for Professions such as law, medicine, engineering and accounting. Changing class boundaries have promoted development: + There has been an improvement in the standard of living of members of the working class as they became more socially mobile, For example, ex-slaves engaged in non-farming activities to improve their socio-economic status and in Trinidad a minority of East Indians became wealthy through business. + The new peasantry, swelled by ex-indentures, introduced economic and agricultural diversity with crops such as rice, cocoa, coffee and bananas, * Chinese and Portuguese immigrants also went on to start successful retail businesses, * Society has been able to harness the potential of more of its members through the provision of universal education, which has enabled more people from the working classes to aspire to higher education and the higher echelons of business, commerce and public life. However, development has also been inhibited. * Equal opportunities did not, and, it can be argued, still do not, exist for all groups in society. The underclass has suffered from the cycle of poverty. Matrifocal households and visiting-type unions have been viewed by some as the cause of such socio-economic circumstances, With the poor becoming heavily dependent on the state for welfare assistance. This can be very costly to Caribbean states. * To some extent, the plantation model of stratification is still adhered to, thus limiting social mobility to mainly the privileged few. * The fact that ethnic tensions and discrimination continue to exist in some Caribbean territories demonstrates that factors such as race, colour and ethnicity still play a role in contemporary societies, ‘Describe’ requires a lengthy answer in which you explain key concepts and issues and give logical arguments. You must use detailed examples, but not necessarily draw a conclusion. Social stratification in plantation society both before and after emancipation, and subsequent increased social mobility, are assessed in Chapter 7 ‘Identity and Social Formation’.yLE REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES The concept of welfare is discussed in Chapter 19 ‘Social Justice’ Even so, social class boundaries are slowly changing for the working classes. There have been several welfare programmes established by Caribbean governments designed to break the cycle of poverty and to make people less dependent on the state for welfare assistance. Quality and Relevance of Education Education, or lack thereof, is a key indicator of the level of development. There is evidence that education has unmatched power to develop human resources by improving lives, particularly for girls and women. Many organisations, including the UN and its agencies UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank, agree on the huge importance of education to sustainable development. The 2016 UN Sustainable Development Goal 4 (Quality Education) states: ‘This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2030. It also aims to provide equal access to affordable vocational training to eliminate gender and wealth disparities, and achieve universal access to a quality higher education’ The quality and relevance of education promote Caribbean development in the following ways: + Facilitates the continuous development of literacy, numeracy and technical skills. These then aid further learning of higher-order skills such as problem solving, + Inculcates life skills in members of society. + Helps people in the Caribbean to improve their quality of life and standard of living by assisting them to obtain decent work, raising their incomes, increasing productivity and facilitating upward social mobility, which in tum all fuel economic development. * Can lead to a healthy lifestyle, reduce malnutrition and help prevent or stop the spread of diseases © Responds to rapidly changing job markets and opportunities to develop human resources. In the Caribbean, strides have been made in the use of distance learning in areas of work such as hospitality, accounting, business studies, light-manufacturing (furniture) and agriculture. Technical Vocational Educational Training (TVET) schemes, which provide practical life and technological skills as well as general education, are being financed by the CDB in places such as Belize, Haiti, Grenada and St Kitts and Nevis. « Physical/sports education also develops the region's human resources. ‘The Caribbean is becoming a popular destination for sports tourism and people who are trained in this area can enhance this. + Cultural education improves the understanding of cultural diversity in the Caribbean and reflects and transmits the various norms, values and cultures of Caribbean society. This not only prepares individuals for different roles in society, but can also promote appreciation of various cultural forms and attract tourists to the Caribbean. In turn, this creates not only a national, but also a regional identity. The delivery of quality and relevant education poses financial and logistical challenges in some parts of the region. Urbanisation, or where towns tend to grow in size at the expense of surrounding rural areas, and persistent poverty have made the provision of education challenging, while financial support for education at all levels can be difficult to secure. Region-wide cooperation is therefore needed to offer suitable education facilities.FACTORS THAT AFFECT DEVELOPMENT [ii Caribbean development is hindered by the following education and training issues: * Generally, high rates of illiteracy exist in some Caribbean countties. People lack basic skills that will enhance their employment opportunities and result in greater productivity. * Although literacy rates are high in some Caribbean countries, illegal activities and domestic violence show uneducated choices and suggest that what people are being taught may be irrelevant to their lives. * Attimes there are inadequate skilled labourers in the local population, and Caribbean governments or businesses need to seek external labour. There are also cases of skilled workers, who have problems. finding local employment, seeking jobs elsewhere, even outside the region. ‘+ The inherited colonial-style education system aimed at creating an clite class has not empowered the masses for a competitive labour market. * A few Caribbean countries are not fully ready for ICT technology in terms of infrastructure and levels of internet connectivity; for example, electricity supply is interrupted to some schools, Political Factors Some political factors that promote and hinder Caribbean development include political ideologies and popular movements, and government policies. The world is divided into different ideologies on economic and political issues: + Market economy or capitalism — a right-wing political and economic ideology where the principle means of production and distribution are in private hands, not the state. Prevalent in Western countries including the USA, Spain, France, Canada, Japan, Britain, West Germany and other allies that believe in political democracy and the economic system called the “market system’. Marxism/communism or centrally planned economy ~ extreme left-wing ideology based on the revolutionary socialist teachings of Marx involving collective ownership and a planned economy based on the principle that each should work to their capability and receive according to their needs, Mostly prevalent in the 20th century in the East, where people believed in the communist philosophy of a centrally planned ‘economy and the political control of a one-party state. The main centre of the communist ideology was the Soviet Union. The economies of these countries were closed and they traded only among themselves, with the absence of global trade which exists today. There have been changes in the education system to better reflect people's history and experiences in the Caribbean. Until the 1960s and independence, the education children received reflected the ideals of the metropole. In Trinidad and Tobago, for example, the school of education opened in 1973,and in 1979 CXC® (CSEC® examinations in mathematics, geography and English were piloted. The role and development ‘of the institution of education in the Caribbean are discussed in Chapter 9 ‘Societal Institutions’ and Chapter | 'Caribbean- Global Interactions’, Emphasis is being placed on ICT in schools, which, when combined with effective teaching, facilitates learning (for example, the Laptop Initiative in secondary schools in Trinidad and ‘Tobago from 2010). However, this varies considerably across the region.pT) REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES Ideology ~ a set of basic beliefs and ideas about political, economic, social and cultural affairs. e refers to certain ideas about what is considered to be the best form of government and the best economic system, (such as capitalism or socialism). Political ideology refers to allocation of power and to what ends it should be used. Popular movement - a body of thought and action initiated by ideas from the masses, or developed for the masses. It can have local and/or international appeal, such as Garveyism and Rastafari, ‘The Communist Eastern Bloc, headed by the Soviet Union, collapsed for several ‘complex economic, political and social reasons (both internal and external) in the lace 1980s and 1990s. Black Power was a civil rights issue with African- ‘Americans responding to racism, predominantly in the 1960s and 70s, in some peaceful but many violent ways. There were also advocates of Black Power in the Caribbean, such as Walter Rodney (see Chapter 17). * Capitalist or free statelenterprise — the dominant political ideology of the Caribbean. However, there were Marxist-type revolutions — attempts at increasing human equity ~ in Cuba (1959), Guyana (1960s-1970s) and Grenada (1979). Today, Cuba still follows communist ideology. On the one hand, political ideologies can promote development in the Caribbean by: * producing cadres of informed leaders with well-defined goals; * offering clear guidelines for social and economic development; + sensitising the youth about political issues because these youths become the next generation of leaders; * involvement in the extra-regional dimension, such as supporting the liberation of African colonies. On the other hand, political ideologies can hinder development in that they can: * be viewed as too Afro-centric; for instance, Black Power can create ethnic tensions or barriers within multi-ethnic populations such as Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago; * be viewed as too Eurocentric and as such perpetuate a colonial mentality; ‘foster fragmentation and make countries vulnerable to external interference in domestic affairs; * exclude women as an essential group; * lead to and inflame political social conflict, such as coups, plots, revolutions and ethnic clashes; * fail to deal with issues of difference: that is, race, colour, ethn Popular Movements Some examples include: © Rastafari © Garveyism * Black Power Movement * Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and African Communities League * Women's movements such as WAND © CAFRA # Sistren Theatre Collective. Popular movements can promote Caribbean development by: * acting as a stimulus for political and social change by becoming pressure groups or even revolutionary forces to foster awareness of important issues; demanding transparency and accountability by the government; * promoting socio-economic development programmes beneficial to citizens, labour, family and the environment. For example, in Trinidad and Tobago the Highway Re-route Movement has demonstrated their concerns about, and expressed discontent at, the removal of citizens from their homes and the destruction of environmentally important wetlands and farmland to construct a highway. Also, the environmentalist group, the Fisherfolk Society, has aired views on recent blasting by Petrotrin and oil spills in Point Fortin, which have destroyed marine life, damaged mangrove swamps and created unemployment of fishermen;FACTORS THAT AFFECT DEVELOPMENT [ZEA # making citizens more conscious of their rights and duties; for example, to protect the environment as well as to protect human rights such as gender-oriented groups, which were formed to protect women against abuse, and to assert the right to be treated with equity and equality. Popular movements can hinder Caribbean development by stirring up unrest, discord, damage and disruption, such as the Rodney Riots in Jamaica after Walter Rodney was banned from returning to the UWL in 1968, and the 1990 Jamaat Muslimeen attempted coup in Trinidad, neither of which achieved significant political or social changes. Government Policies Government policies can affect both human and economic development. Governments can use their powers to invest directly to develop new industries; introduce and enforce laws to provide protection to social groups or to the environment; provide public goods and services; and use taxes and incentives to achieve economic or social objectives. How government policies can promote Caribbean development: ‘+ By investing in business; Caribbean governments have become major employers, resulting in reduced unemployment, * By improving technology, healthcare, education, agriculture and supporting the private sector. * By improving labour relations and enactment of policies aimed at environmental protection and anti-pollution. * By setting prices to prevent a ‘black market’ from developing. * By adopting measures to help small to medium sized businesses, such as reducing the cost and time to import raw materials and export finished products. By establishing social programmes and improving infrastructure Water and electricity are usually provided by government as public utilities. The fire, police, defence force and coast guard are also under government jurisdiction. By maintaining a safe environment for investors to open businesses. ‘Taxing businesses is a way for governments to raise revenue, but transnational companies (TNCs) and multinational companies (MNCs) ‘can often obtain preferential tax incentives to stay in the region. Fiscal Policies, such as tax rebates, tax-free profits, tax-free loans or tax holidays, may attract both foreign businesses and local firms.Tax concessions are the preferred means to attract certain firms to promote investment. Corporate income tax holidays of 5 to 10 years can be granted for firms that export to, or are located in,a designated area known as an export processing zone (EZ). Government policies can also hinder Caribbean development through obstruction of the setting up and running of new businesses with processes that take time and cost: making it difficult to get construction permits and permits to trade across borders; complex tax procedures; lengthy processes for getting electricity and water; or even registering property. It could even be argued that government policies, or lack thereof, have hindered an active response to the process of globalisation because some governments in the region have been slow to provide support for sunset Fiscal policy is the use of government spending or taxation to influence the economy.REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES The theory behind and concept of ‘industrialisation by invitation’ are looked at in more detail in Chapter 17 ‘Intellectual ‘Traditions’. industries, in decline because of increased global competition, while at the same time neglecting the need to establish sunrise industrial activity as a replacement. Industrialisation by Invitation The ‘industrialisation by invitation’ policies put forward by economist Sir Arthur Lewis in the early 1950s placed focus on developing regional export markets due to surplus labour in the agricultural sector. This was used in the 1960s Operation Beehive in the garment industry in Barbados, which was successful at providing opportunities for economic growth. Foreign direct investment (FDI) created EPZs near to the ports of entry. Manufacturers could get duty-free imported raw materials, industrial quality infrastructure and leased space in buildings, thereby reducing costs for setting up factories. There were several ways in which the policy of ‘industrialisation by invitation’ spurred or promoted Caribbean development: * It led to the economic diversification of Caribbean economies from being based only on agricultural production of coffee, bananas and sugar into manufacturing. * Light-manufacturing was greatly needed in Caribbean economies due to the lack of foreign investment and a reliance on the traditional industries of sugar processing and retail ‘+ The unemployment rate was reduced slightly, especially for women, who took advantage of the opportunity for employment in new areas of manufacture that also provided better facilities than the old sugar refineries. * Some industries that have remained in the Caribbean contribute to regional exports (for example, Yankee Garments in Barbados has been in the region since 1962). On the other hand, it can be argued that the policy of ‘industrialisation by invitation’ hindered development: © Governments spent scarce resources developing the required infrastructure to attract foreign investors, including outfitting buildings with the needed utilities. * Critical foreign exchange was lost to governments because of tax and other concessions. * Due to a lack of stringent terms of agreement with the MNCs involved, reinvestment in the region was lower than anticipated and, once the financial incentives ended, the firms moved their factories to set up production elsewhere. © Reduction of unemployment was not as widespread as hoped for. Companies’ employment levels did not keep up with the increasing number of school leavers. In Jamaica, for example, the number of school leavers has overtaken the available places in manufacturing industries. * Criticisms of EPZ industrial practices include gender discrimination through low wages, sexual harassment in the work place and breaches of labour laws. * Salaries in industrial corporations were inclined to be low. * Many light-manufacturing industries were assembly line operations in which the workers only created part of the product. Skills and knowledge acquisition were therefore limited.