Chapter 9 ee KL 303 Evaluate the ways in which societal institutions impact on lives in the Caribbean. Key Term Social institutions — established or standardised patterns of rule-governed behaviour for individuals with a shared common purpose or clearly defined territorial space. They include family, education, religion and economic and political institutions. Norms — (social) norms are the rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. People who do not follow these norms may suffer some kind of consequence (such as exclusion from a family! community, isolation, the lack of a sense of belonging). Norms vary according to the environment or situation, and may change or be modified over time. Societal Institutions After revising this topic, you should be able t define and describe different family forms, such as nuclear, extended and visiting, and assess their impact on Caribbean people; * assess how education in both the pre-colonial and colonial periods has impacted on societal institutions in the region and attitudes to gender; * analyse how education can influence/engender commonly held attitudes and beliefs; * assess the role and impact of religion on Caribbean people, and how specifically Caribbean forms have evolved; * describe the origins and workings of the justice system and assess its impact on Caribbean people; identify the challenges facing the judicial system in today’s society. Social institutions are influential societal frameworks that shape our lives. They represent a system of behavioural patterns that each society develops to meet its basic needs. They provide routine patterns for dealing with predictable elements of social life. The main social institutions that influence society and culture in the Caribbean are: * family * education © religion * political and justice systems. They are fundamental to the good functioning of society. Society shapes peoples’ lives through norms, roles and values instituted and reinforced by these social institutions Did You Know? Societal institutions and social organisations Societal institution is a term used to refer to complex social forms, structures and mechanisms associated with the making and enforcing of rules of cooperative behaviour within a society. They manifest themselves in forms such as government, family, languages and education.A social ‘organisation is a tangible social arrangement that pursues collective goals within a specific space and time and usually for a specific purpose within a society. It is administered centrally and controls its own performance, Education, the law, transport and trade are all examples of institutions, while a school, court,a railway system and a market are organisations. ‘There are different sociological perspectives on societal institutions and their roles and influences. The two main sociological schools of thought are functionalism and conflict theory (or Marxism).SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS |SUCYs Functionalists see society as made of a group of societal institutions, such as the family, that exist together and follow basic rules to provide peace, order and stability. If there is disorder, the various institutions will respond to preserve equilibrium. In this view, change is suppressed as it is seen as undesirable. Opposed to this view, conflict theorists see societal institutions, such as the family, as oppressive and reinforcing hierarchy. Marxists also argue that inheritance within the family, usually through the male line, serves to ensure that wealth and high status remain the domain of the elites. The Family in the Caribbean The social institution of the family is common to all societies and cultures. It represents different ideas and beliefs that people of a certain community have about rearing children and socialising them into the norms of that particular society. The unique experience of Caribbean society, with a myriad of cultural, economic, political and religious influences that, over time, have come to bear on it, has resulted in a variety of types of family structure, none of which can be described as typical. Functions of a Family Despite variations in form, ‘family’, seen mainly from the functionalist perspective, performs four main functions, summarised in Figure 9.1 Figure 9.1 The main functions of a family The Reproduction Function The ‘The Emotional Economie Support Function Function The Socialisation Function * The socialisation function ~ the family functions, through socialisation, to teach the young the norms and values of their culture and society. The family provides the earliest set of concepts, values, knowledge and skills. No society is possible without adequate socialisation of its young, In Caribbean society, the family is the major unit in which socialisation happens. Parents, siblings and extended relatives all help to socialise children from the time they are born Functionalism is the theoretical perspective that best reflects how Caribbean society has, over time, been shaped by those in authority. The principles of preserving order and suppressing change that it represents reflect those espoused by the colonisers and colonialists in order to establish and preserve colonial society. Family — the primary social unit that socialises infants and children in the mores, values and practices of the unit and the wider group or society. It exists as a group of people, usually living under the same roof, related by blood, marriage or through adoption. Socialisation — the lifelong process by which a person learns about the culture and values of their society — acceptable and non-acceptable behaviours, how to accept social rules and how to perform certain skills. Socialisation is thus the means by which social and cultural continuity is attained. In addition to the family, institutions responsible for socialisation include schools, peers, mass media and religion,we REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES Marriage — a legally sanctioned contract between spouses that changes the legal status of both husband and wife. Ic establishes rights and obligations between the spouses, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. Hybridisation — the process through which cultures mix to create new forms. Primary socialisation starts during childhood when children look at how the adults in their environment behave and learn which actions make up acceptable behaviour: The family is the main institution engaged in the process of primary socialisation and is in charge of training the child in basic social skills and the use of language to communicate. Interaction with friends and peers also contributes to primary socialisation. Secondary socialisation is mainly the responsibility of the institution of education, whereby more specific training and skills are learnt. Interaction with teachers and other pupils or students prepares the individual for the world of work. The individual is socialised into skills such as time management as well as how to interact with peers and those in authority, + The reproduction or procreation function - through procreation, the family serves to provide new members for society, and, at a fundamental level, it ensures the continuation of the human species in order for societies to survive. It also provides a framework for and means of regulating sexual activity and gratification within society. * The emotional support function ~ the family provides its members with love, comfort and help in times of emotional distress. This is important to the mental, intellectual and social well-being of its members. Children need adequate love, care, affection and attention to develop healthy stable personalities. * The economic function - the family provides its members with certain basic needs, such as food, shelter and clothing, and practical support in the shape of finance where possible. The role of marriage Producing offspring is not the only function of the family. Marriage helps to establish legal parentage; it also regulates the provision and control of sexual contact, labour and property between a husband and wife, and by extension their families. Marriage creates a joint fund of property for the benefit of children and can establish a relationship between the families of the husband and wife. None of these functions are universal, but depend on the society in which the marriage takes place and endures. In societies with a gender division of labour, marriage, and the resulting relationship between a husband and wife, is necessary for the formation of an economically productive household. In modern societies, marriage entails particular rights and privilege that encourage the formation of new families even when there is no intention of having cl Problems in Defining the Caribbean Family 5 Due to the complexity of historical factors that have come to bear on Caribbean society and culture, such as slavery, colonialism, emancipation and indentureship, and the hybridisation of Caribbean culture, the family in the Caribbean is a complex, fluid concept, sharing multiple creolised features brought by all the communities. These influences have all determined the diversity that exists in the ways Caribbean families are organised, including a multiplicity of family dynamics ~ extended families, nuclear families, married couples, single parents, co-sharingSOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS, parents, common-law or consensual unions, visiting unions, mattifocal families, patriarchal families, and so on. Such complexities make it impossible to define one ‘typical’ Caribbean family. Instead of trying to define just ‘one’ Caribbean family, researchers suggest focusing on the shared similarities of Caribbean families with families in other parts of the world, These similarities are the family’s function as a provider of love, belonging, care, food, shelter and economic support. Creolisation is a term that can be applied to the hybridisation of cultural forms that has occurred in the Caribbean to create a unique ‘Creole’ form. The term was coined by Edward Kamau Braithwaite in the early 1970s. Colonisation resulted in a mixture among people of indigenous, African, Asian, Middle Eastern and European descent, with which came a cultural mixing, which ultimately led to the formation of new identities, now called Creole.The process of creolisation also brought the mixing of different languages and the creation of new ones, called Creole languages (for ‘example, French Creole, English Creole, Dutch Creole). Family Forms in the Caribbean and their Characteristics Functionalism is the dominant view of reality that Caribbean people hold towards the family. However, diversity in family forms existing in the region and the values accepted are not seen in practice and it may be argued that the Marxist perspective of the family provides a clearer and more accurate picture, for example in terms of the sexual division of labour within the family. The main family ‘types’ found in the Caribbean are: * nuclear * visiting * extended * single parent. The nuclear family, which is not the popular family form of the region, is still held in high esteem. It is argued, however, that this is largely due to the fact that the nuclear family unit represents the values of the rich and powerful in society. The other ‘traditional’ family form practised in the Caribbean is the extended family, introduced by indentured labourers from East India. On top of these, the unique Caribbean experience has produced variants in traditional family structures common among the majority of the population of the region, the Afro-Caribbean Historically, enslaved African people preserved family life through an extended network of community support, though these arrangements did not mirror the extended family traditional or classical form as practised within East Indian communities. These forms were not always based on marriage, as marriage was prohibited to the enslaved community and cohabitation was also banned — men and women lived separately, while children were left in the care of women. Consequently, this has encouraged visiting-type relationships and commor-| Studies have shown that relationships can often start as a visiting, union, progress to a common-law union and end up in formal marriage. It has been estimated that 60% of children grow up in two-parent homes, and 30% live in households where they are raised exclusively by their mothers (Powell, D. (1986). ‘Caribbean Women and Their Response unions. The theory, process and effects of creolisation are investigated in Chapter 7 ‘Identity and Social Formation’.I) REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES Endogamy — the choice of marriage partner is restricted to a defined community.The opposite is exogamy where social norms require marriage partners to be found from outside the community. Matrifocal — coined in 1956, this term refers strictly to Caribbean societies, is related to the working class and is dominant among those of African descent. Matrifocal families are not simply woman-centred, but rather mother-centred: women in their role as mothers become key to organising the family group. Men tend to be marginal to this organisation and to the household. Where matrifocal families are common, marriage is less common to Familial Experiences’. Social and Economic Studies 35: 83-130) Children born to couples in the later stages of family development usually have two parents in the home. The Nuclear Family The nuclear family consists of a mother, father and their unmarried children living under the same roof. This form was first introduced to the region by the white Christian colonisers and followed the nuclear European family. The nuclear family was viewed by colonial authorities as the norm or ideal family form, Other family structures, such as single parents or extended families, were viewed as not ‘proper’ or even dysfunctional. This was reinforced by Western Christian teachings, which were highly ethnocentric and idealised a sense of White European norms and values. In addition, the nuclear family supported the idea, prevalent among the colonial authorities, of the supremacy of the male within the household. Other family forms, such as single parents or visiting partners were matrifocal and ran against this. Although nowadays it has become more mainstream, this form is mostly found among the upper and middle classes. Among the working class, this family form varies according to ethnicity and culture. The Extended Family The traditional extended family consists of members beyond a mother, father and their children. Several generations may live together in one household. There may be several married siblings and their children, together with grandparents and other relatives. Generally, this family form is predominant among East Indians, particularly Hindus and Muslims. Itis basically patriarchal in authority and is often pattilocal, thal upon marriage the couple resides with the parents of the male spouse. Strong kinship ties exist, and arranged marriages and the practice of endogamy are customary. While males are seen as assets, females are seen as liabilities. Moreover, strict gender socialisation exists The Single Parent Family This occurs when only one parent, either the mother or father, lives with and takes responsibility for raising children. In the Caribbean, the number of matrifocal households, headed by a mother, far outnumber those headed by a father. UN figures show that in the early 1980s 44% of all households in Barbados were headed by a woman while the figure for the first half of the 1990s in Antigua and Barbuda stood at 42%. Furthermore 54% of all divorced or separated women become heads of households, most of which have between three and five children depending on the mother. Again, extended family networks are important in providing child care and socialisation support. The father may or may not have a role, financial or otherwise, in child rearing, The ‘Visiting’ Family This is a variation on the single parent family in that it involves the mother and children living separately from the father, often in her parents! home, and the father visiting them there. The difference is that the parents are still in a sexual, and often emotional, relationshipSOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS HRAJ The practice originated in slavery where planters forbade couples to form family units. As a result, the woman took the responsibility for herself and her children. The father of the child may or may not accept responsibility. Studies carried out in the mid 20th century showed that such relationships were to be found mainly among lower-income Afro- Caribbean families and that women often entered into the relationship for economic support. Thus, for economic survival the woman may have sexual relations with men other than the father. This type of union is not generally approved of in the Caribbean and can be a source of problems in society. Common-law Unions Common-law marriage, or de facto union, is widespread in the English- speaking Caribbean, especially among the Afro-Caribbean community. It involves a couple committing to each other in a lasting relationship without any form of registration of the ‘marriage’ (which would make it formal’) The term ‘common-law marriage’ officially has a strict legal definition and, due to their colonial past, territories have statutes concerning common-law marriage similar to those in the UK. However, in the Caribbean, the term is also widely applied to any long-term relationship and there is such a high degree of recognition for this situation that these unions amount to an institution. The Blended Family This results from the union of parents with children from previous relationships. It is common among all ethnicities. Figure 9.2 Variant family forms that exist in the Caribbean Single parent family - only one parent lives ‘with the child or children Common-law Blended fai union - partners partners with live together, but children from they are not legally previous married relationships ‘Visiting family - separately from ‘their father. The male visits the home A study conducted with students from the University of the West Indies suggested that while Caribbean men provide economically for ‘their children, they tend to have poor emotional relationships with them. Asa result, boys may view family patterns such as male absenteeism and ‘extramarital relationships as norms and perpetuate them as adults (Sharpe, J. (1996). “Mental Health Issues and Family Socialization in the Caribbean’. In Caribbean Families: Diversity among Echnic Groups, ed.).L. Roopnarine and J. Brown. Greenwich, CT:Ablex). The sociologist R.T. Smith identified and explained the Visiting family type in his study of Guyana.