TLB’S Biology Classes

NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Focus Area Notes
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NEURONS
 The neural system of all animals is composed of highly specialized
cells called neurons.
 Neurons are the structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Structure of neurons
 Neurons are formed of mainly 3 parts –

 cell body,
 dendrites and
 axon.
 The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles.

Nissl’s granules
 These are the granular bodies present in the cytoplasm of neurons.

Dendrites
 Short fibers which branch repeatedly and project out of the cell body
are known as dendrites.

Axon
 This is the long fiber in the neuron.

Schwan cells
 The special type of cells which cover the axon.

Synaptic knob
 The bulb like structure present at the end of dendrites.
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 These knobs contain synaptic vesicles, which contains

neurotransmitters.
Based on the number of axon and dendrites, the neurons are classified
into 3 types.

1. Multipolar Neurons
• These are neurons with one axon and two or more dendrites.
Eg . Neurons in the cerebral cortex.

2. Bipolar Neurons
• Neurons with one axon and one dendrite
Eg. Neurons in the retina of eye.
3. Unipolar Neurons
• Cell body with one axon only.
• These types of neurons are found only in the embryonic stage.

Myelinated Nerve Fibre

 Some neurons have a covering of myelin sheath around the schwan
cells of axon are known as myelinated nerve fibers .
Eg. Nerve fibers of the spinal and cranial nerves .

Non – myelinated nerve fibre

 Nerve fibers without myelin sheath around the axon .
Eg. Nerve fibers in the somatic and autonomous systems .

Nodes of Ranvier
 The gap between two adjacent myelin sheath is called nodes of
Ranvier .
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TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSES

SYNAPSE
 Synapse is the junction between two neurons .
 A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another
through synapse .

 The neuron which bring impulse to synapse is the presynaptic

neuron and the neuron which receive impulse is the post

synaptic neuron .
 The gap in the synapse is the synaptic cleft .

Two types of synapse are present –

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• Electrical synapse and

• Chemical synapse .
1.Electrical Synapse
 Here , the membranes of pre – and post synaptic neurons are very
close .
 Electrical current can flow directly from one neuron into the other
across these synapses .
 Impulse conduction in electrical synapse is always faster than
chemical synapse .

2. Chemical Synapse
 Here , the membranes of the pre – and post synaptic neurons are
separated by fluid filled space called synaptic cleft .
 In chemical synapses , impulse conduction occurs through chemical
substances in the synapse called neurotransmitters .
 The axon terminals contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters .
 When an impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon terminal , it
stimulates the synaptic vesicles to break .
 The synaptic vesicles break to release the neurotransmitters in the
synaptic cleft .
 The neurotransmitters bind to the specific receptors of the post –
synaptic neurons .
 This binding opens ion channels and through these channels action
potential reach the post synaptic neuron.
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FOREBRAIN
 The forebrain consists of

 cerebrum ,
 thalamus and
 hypothalamus
CEREBRUM
 Cerebrum is the major part of the brain .
 Cerebrum is divided longitudinally into two halves , termed as the left

and right cerebral hemispheres

Corpus callosum
 The group of nerve fibers which connect the two cerebral
hemispheres are called corpus callosum .
HYPOTHALAMUS
 Hypothalamus lies at the base of thalamus .
 It controls body temperature , urge for eating and drinking etc.
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 The neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus secrete oxytocin and

vasopressin

MIDBRAIN
 Dorsal portion of the midbrain consists four round swelling called

corpora quadrigemina
HINDBRAIN
 The hindbrain consists of

 pons ,
 cerebellum and
 medulla
 Pons consists of nerve tracts that interconnect different regions of
the brain .
 Medulla is connected to the spinal cord .
 Medulla oblongata controls respiration , cardiovascular reflexes and
gastric secretions .
REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC
 Reflex action is the involuntary response towards a nervous
stimulation without the involvement of entire part of the central
nervous system .
 The reflex pathway consists of –

1. afferent neuron (receptor) –

which receives the stimulus from a sensory organ and
transmits it to the spinal cord via dorsal nerve root .

2. efferent neuron (effector or excitor)-

which carries signals from the spinal cord to the effetor organ.
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3. interneuron -
which connect afferent and efferent neuron .
 The stimulus and response of the reflex pathway together known as

reflex arc.
 Knee jerk reflex is an example for reflex action .

EYE
 Eyes are located in the sockets of the skull called orbits .
 The eye ball is composed of three layers –

1. Sclera – external layer , composed of dense connective tissue .

2. Choroid – middle layer , contains many blood vessels and

looks bluish in colour .

3. Retina - inner layer , contains photosensitive cells .

Cornea
 The anterior portion of sclera is transparent called cornea .
Ciliary body
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 The anterior part of the choroid layer is thick and called ciliary
body .
Iris
 The ciliary body continues forward to form a pigmented and opaque
structure called the iris .
Lens

• The eye ball contains a transparent crystalline lens which is held in

place by ligaments attached to the ciliary body.
Pupil
 The aperture in the iris is called pupil .
 The diameter of the pupil is regulated by the muscles fibers of iris .
Retinal Layer
 The inner layer is the retina and it contains three layers of neural

cells – from inside to outside –

• ganglion cells,
• bipolar cells and
• photoreceptor cells.
There are two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and cones
Rods
 Rods contain the light sensitive pigment rhodopsin or visual purple
, which contains a derivative of vitamin A.
 Rods help in twilight vision or scotopic vision.
Cones
 Cones help in day light vision or photopic vision and colour
vision .
 They contain the pigment iodopsin .
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 Three type of cone cells which respond to red , green and blue lights
are present . Different colours are produced by the combination of
these colours .
 Equal stimulation of cones produce white colour
Blind spot
 In the retina , at the point where the optic nerve leave the eye , rod
and cone cells are absent . This spot is called blind spot .
Macula lutea & Fovea

• Lateral to the blind spot, there is a yellowish pigmented spot called

macula lutea with a central pit called the fovea.
• The fovea is a thinned-out portion of the retina where only the cones
are densely packed.
• It is the point of keenest vision.
Aqueous chamber
 The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous
chamber and it contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor .
Vitreous chamber
 The space between the lens and the retina is called the vitreous
chamber and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.
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THE EAR
 Ear is the organ for hearing and balancing .
 Ear has three regions – outer ear , middle ear and the inner ear .

Outer ear
 Outer ear consists of the
 pinna,
 external auditory meatus (ear canal) , and
 tympanic membrane (ear drum) .
 Pinna collects the sound and ear canal leads the sound waves to ear
drum
 The minute hairs , and wax secreted by the sebaceous glands in the
ear canal prevent the entry of dust and foreign bodies into the ear .

Middle ear
 Middle ear contains three bones – malleus , incus and stapes
attached one after the other .
 Malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane .
 Stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea .
 Eustachian tube connect the middle ear cavity with the pharynx .
 It helps in equalizing the pressure on either side of the ear drum .
Inner ear
 Inner ear is formed of membranous labyrinth and bony labyrinth .
 The bony labyrinth is filled with a fluid called perilymph.
 The membranous labyrinth lies in this perilymph and it is formed of
two portions called vestibular apparatus and cochlea .
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Vestibular apparatus
 It is composed of three semicircular canals and the otolith organ
consisting of the saccule and utricle.
 Each semicircular canal is swollen at the base called ampulla .
 Ampulla contains a projecting ridge called crista ampullaris which
has hair cells .
 The saccule and the utricle contain projecting ridge called macula .
 The crista and macula are the specific receptors responsible for the
maintenance of balance of the body and posture .
Cochlea
 The coiled portion of the membranous labyrinth is called cochlea .
 The cochlea has three longitudinal chambers –

 upper scala vestibuli ,

 middle scala media and the

 lower scala tympani .

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 Scala vestibuli is separated by scala media by a membrane called

Reissner’s membrane .
 Scala media is separated from scala tympani by Basilar membrane .
 Scala vestibuli and scala tympani are filled with perilymph and
scala media is filled with endolymph .
 Organ of Corti is the structure located on the basilar membrane
which acts as auditory receptors .
 Organ of corti contains sensory hair cells arranged in rows .
 The basal end of the hair cells is in close contact with the auditory
nerve fibre .
 The apical part of the hair cells posses a large number of process
called stereo cilia .
 Above the rows of the hair cells a thin elastic membrane called
tectorial membrane is present .