Unit IV: Factory of the future automated systems - Human factors in automated systems, optimized production technology, Modelling, optimizing and simulation of manufacturing systems ‘Human factors in automated systems ‘Advanced automated systems require changes in the nature of the human factors questions to be asked and ultimately answered. If the human is to be a significant and contributing factor in the system (effectively "in the loop’), itis critical to optimize the human and machine interface in order to keep the human aware Of system operations (and, conversely, 1o keep the machine aware of human operations). The advancement and sophistication of modern technology affords increased automation of functions, while concurrently requiring considerable ingenuity to prevent increased human workload and opportunity for errors by the ‘new automated system. Recent technological innovations, if judiciously chosen and implemented, may allow for remarkable and welcomed benefits. However it must be emphasized that there may also be less beneficial human factors consequences. Awareness and prevention of potential human factors consequences should ultimately influence the decision-making process in automated systems design, If human factors implications are not considered, potential benefits of progressive automation may be unrealized, Automation: The Human Factors Issues When designing a system or process that will include automation it is important to also design the human-machine (automation) internetion as well. Research into the impact of automation on the human roles and responsibilities can support the design of automatic systems and hopefully avoid the following issues (if you can think of any other human factors issues due to automation please let me know): + Changes in the roles of personnel ~ May result in different tasks that are harder to perform. + Increase in complexity ~ Personnel will need to understand how the automation works to enable them to monitor and supervise. + Changes in procedures ~ May result in additional procedures should the automation fail + Machine interaction — Internal relationships and inter-dependencies between functions results in unexpected machine behaviours + Poor feedback — The system does not communicate what itis doing effectively, + Situational awareness ~ Personnel need to remain aware of what the sutomation is doing, + Workload and skill Workload switches to monitoring tasks, skill levels can reduce if replaced by automation, + Trust and complaceney ~ As automation tends not to fail, personne! develop a trust which can result in complacency or an over reliance on automation on the other hand operators ‘must have confidence in the automation,+ Human in the loop If humans are responsible for the outcomes, humans must be in command and monitor the system, + Human error ~ Automation brings with it different types of human errors. + Potential change to workplace location, + Change in workplace layout and environment. + Increased need for asset management. Optimized production technology OPT (Optimized Production Technology): A computer based management system used for production planning and scheduling, seeking the goal of throughput maximization through the following: Balanced flow, not capacity ~ Minimization and for elimination of bottlenecks ~ Variable lot sizes Also know as: “Theory of Constraints” ‘© OPT's objective isto simultaneously raise throughput while redueing is and achieve a smooth, continuous flow of work in process. Optimized Production Technology (OPT) is a computerized production planning and scheduling tool developed by Creative Output of Milford, Connecticut, USA. OPT realized that a detailed schedule and detailed shop floor feedback where only required for the "bottleneck" processes and that "non- bottleneck" processes can and should be slaved to these. Furthermore, OPT follows a set of principles (TOC). This theory is focusing attention on the capacity constraints or bottleneck parts of the operation. By identifying the location of constraints, working to remove them, then looking for next constraints an operation always focusing on the part that critically determine the pace of output. A constraint is defined as anything that prevents a system from achieving high performance relative to its goal OPT Philosophy ‘The Goal: To Make Money Measures: Net Profit 2. Return on Investment 3. Cash Flow entory and operating costs, > The Base Rules of OPT OPT is based on a set of ten related rules, which principally focus on managing bottleneck and non- bottleneck resources. The ten niles are as follows:- vation of a resource are not synonymous. There is no gain from running a non- bottleneck machine if its output will only build up inventory in front of a bottleneck. 1. Utilization and a2. The level of utilization of a non-bottleneck is not determined by its own potential, but by some other constraint in the system. The utilization of a non-bottleneck is limited by the rate of the bottleneck machine. 3. An hour lost atthe bottleneck is an hour lost for the total system. This nule parallels and extends rule number 1, and helps managers focus on all activities at the bottleneck, 4, An hour saved at a non-bottleneck is a mirage. Throughput will not increase with savings at a non- bottleneck. Therefore, managers should focus improvement efforts elsewhere. The time spent by a job at a bottleneck is compared of set-up and processing time, while the time spent at a non-boitleneck includes set-up, processing, and idle time. Reducing the set-up time at a bottleneck saves time for the entire system. But, reducing set-up time at a non-bottleneck may increase idle time. 5. The bottleneck governs the throughput and inventory in the system. Inventory should be used carefully so that the bottleneck is never face a lack of parts to process. 6. The transfer batch size should not necessarily equal the production batch size. When a lange batch being run on a non-bottleneck just prior to a bottleneck then it would be desirable to get it started on part of the batch (This part called "transfer batch”), even through the non-botileneck is still processing the reminder, The use of different sized transfer batches is called "Iot streaming”. 7. The production batch size should not be the same from stage to stage in the process. Lot sizes at bottlenecks should, in general, be larger than at non-bottleneck, so that less time is lost to set-ups. Of course, the small batches from the non-bottleneck need to arrive at the bottleneck in the time to be rejoined into a large batch. 8. Capacity au priviity should be cuusidered sisnuluuevusly, Betause dhe lead Gane for a giveu butelt depends on the priority given to it at a machine, and on the capacity of the machine, priority rules shiould be determined in conjunction with the capacity of the machine, In fact, the capacities at all constrained resources should be considered. 9. Balance flow, not capacity. The flow through the plant should equal market demand, 10.The sum of local optima is not equal to the optimum of the whole. Problems develop when supervisors at bottleneck, supervisors at non-bottlenecks, and marketing personnel all optimize for their ‘own goals. Many supervisors try to run their equipment at full capacity, while many marketing personnel try to make bigger profits by selling more at the end of the quarter. > The Mechanism of OPT OPT produce production plans and detailed schedules using the following four basic modules:- 1. Buildnet: This module creates a model of the manufacturing facility using data on work center capabilities, routings, Bill of Materials, inventories, and sales forecasts. This model is in the form of network. 2. Serve: The model of the workshop is run through an iterative process to determine bottlenecks in the system. Serve is similar to MRP in its workings, and one of its outputs is a load profile for each of the resources in the model. The most heavily utilized resource could produce a bottleneck in the system ‘and must be examined carefully. Sometimes, rescheduling work from the heavily utilized machine to some other alternate to machine may produce satisfactory results,3. Split: The network model of the shop floor is divided into two parts: critical resources and non- critical resources. The bottleneck operation and all other operations follow it in the order of manufacturing process up to the customer orders are included in the critical resources portion of the network. The remaining portion of the network includes non-ertical resources. 4, Brain: The operations in the critical resource portion of the network are scheduled using module called the Brain of OPT. This module determines production and transfer lot sizes and the timing of production for each product for the bottleneck operations. Its output is fed to serve module, which then produces the entire production plan. > Weaknesses of OPT Although, OPT attempts to overcome the weakness of the carly MRP systems of taking no account of the finiteness of shop floor capacity, but practically OPT also have its own disadvantages. The main disadvantage of OPT is the concept of shifting bottlenecks. When the production volume and the mix of products are known, we can find out the bottlenecks in a system, But practically, the “aggregate planning” exercise is done at least over several months and the volume of the mix may change from ‘one week to another. Different volumes or mixes can lead to different bottlenecks when that happen, this means that the bottleneck is shifting. tis not clear how OPT handle this dynamic situation because it relics on a clearly identified stationary bottleneck. From other side, OPT focuses on bottleneck machines and ignores others during the planning horizon, ‘Thus, OPT provides a plan for a production system that approximates the actual produetion system, In vides for au OPT plas w work, itis ueussiny w have pleuly of wwu-buleucch wsvurces, Wen die cost of non-bottleneck resources are not small, the OPT plan may have a high cost. This restricts the usefulness of OPT for cases when non-bottleneck resources are expensive Comparison MRE aur Loading of operations Checked by capacity Controlled by kanban requirement system Planning afterward Importance of data Unnecessary accuracy. Speed of scheduled Very fast Fast evelopment Lewes Highest Moderate Highest Lowest Moderate Meeedemand ‘Meet demand Meet demand Masterschedule Production basis Plan ‘assembly schedule Bottleneck Need and planModelling, optimizing and simulation of manufacturing systems & Modelling ‘A model serves as a container of information for communication between a sender and receiver. ‘The purpose of modelling and simulation of manufacturing sequences is to improve efficiency in product design and process planning. This will lead to the economic manufacturing of high-quality products with the greatest possible productivity. ¥ Modelling manufacturing systems ‘A manufacturing system can be modelled as a product since the difference is determined of the usag. ‘whereby the type of information is the same. Modelling a manufacturing system involves @ relation to a product domain, Iti also stated that there isa third domain connected — the process domain. Modelling ‘manufacturing system can consequently be divided into three domains: + Product domain, + Process domain (a manufacturing process) # Resource domain (a manufacturing system) Y Modelling products Since manufacturing systems from a modelling aspect, are closely related to products it is of interest to evaluate different types of product models. A product model can be classified into four different types of models Structure-oriented product models: Emphasizing the structure of a product.For example an assembly structure or variant structure. Geometry-oriented product models: Emphasizing the geometric: ion of a product, For example a solid model in a CAD system, represei Feature-oriented product models: Emphasizing the semantic signification of a product. A feature- oriented product model works as an extension to a geometry-oriented model where the functions of the geometric model can be described. For example maximum load capacity of a vebicle, where the maximum load volume is related to the geometry of the vehicle. Knowledge-oriented product models: Emphasizing the human knowl- edge of the product in terms of constraints or guidance. For example how a product within a product family is allowed to be composed with regards to a set of rules. Modelling manufacturing system capability embraces all described models in order to be related to the process and product domain, & Optimization Finding an altemative with the most cost effective or highest achievable performance under the given constraints, by maximizing desired factors and minimizing undesired onesProduction optimization is the practice of making changes or adjustments to a product to make it more desirable. A product has a number of attributes. For example, a soda bottle can have different packaging variations, flavors, nutritional values. It is possible to optimize a product by making minor adjustments. Typically, the goal is to make the product more desirable and to increase marketing metrics such as Purchase Intent, Believability, Frequency of Purchase, ete od Five factors to 0 mize their complex manufacturing operations: Taking advant Tuning up operations and processes optimizing Utilizing ERP across the enterprise Finding harmony among diverse applications Coming to grips with this complexity. ge of revenue opportunities & Simulation in manufacturing systems Simulation in_manufaeturing systems is the use of software to make computer models of tanufacturing systems, so to analyze them and thereby obta syndicated as the its use has been limited due to the complexity of some software packages, and to the lack of preparation some users have in the fields of probability and statistics. 1 information. Tt has been importa ccond most popular management science among manulacturing managers. However, ‘Simulation is an important technique used by an analyst to validate or verify suggested improvements for manufacturing processes and to verify that suggested conditions or configurations satisfy design specifications. This technique represents a valuable tool used by engineers when evaluating the effect of capital investment in equipment and physical facilities like factory plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. Simulation can be used to predict the performance of an existing or planned system and to ‘compare alternative solutions for a particular design problem, ‘The most important objective of simulation in manufacturing is the understanding of the change to the whole system because of some local changes, It is easy to understand the difference made by changes in the local system but itis very difficult or impossible (0 assess the impact of this change in the overall system. Simulation gives us some measure of this impact. Measures which can be obtained by a simulation analysis are: + Parts produced per unit time + Time spent in system by parts, + Time spent by parts in queue+ Time spent during transportation from one place to another + Intime deliveries made + Build up of the inventory + Inventory in process + Percent utilization of machines and workers. Some other benefits include Just-in-time manufacturing, calculation of optimal resources required; validation of the proposed operation logic for controlling the system, and data collected during ‘modelling that may be used elsewhere. ‘The following is an example: In « manufacturing plant one machine processes 100 parts in 10 hours but the parts coming to the machine in 10 hours is 150. So there is a buildup of inventory. This inventory can be reduced by employing another machine occasionally. Thus we understand the reduction in local inventory buildup. But now this machine produces 150 parts in 10 hours which might not be processed by the next machine and thus we have just shifled the in-process inventory from one machine to ‘nother without having any impact on overall production Simulati system to meet the requirement, to have optimal inventory to cover for machine failures. is used to address some issues in manufacturing as follows: In workshop to see the ability of The following is a list of popular simulation techniques"! Disc ‘System dynamics (SD) ‘Agent-based modelling (ABM) ent simulation: based on an integration of simulation and artificial intelligence (Al) event simulation (DES) Intel techniques Petri net ‘Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) ‘Virtual simulation: allows the user to model the system in a 3D immersive environment Hybrid techniques: combination of different simulation techniques. The concept of organizing the factory into sub-factories with the capability to produce a technology group is called cellular manufacturing. Group technology is the analysis of processing operations with the goal of determining the similarity of the processing functions and, hence, the grouping of the associated parts for production purposes,