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    33 views82 pages

    Mcgeorge Electrical

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    qwerty

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 82
    Marine Electrical Equipment and Practice Second edition H. D. McGeorge, C&ng, FIMarE, MRINA BNEWNES Contents Preface Batteries and emergency systems Electronic equipment Ac. generators Ac. switehboards and distribution stems De generators De switchboards and disinbution systems ‘Safe electrical equipment for hazardous areas Shafi-driven generators Electric propulsion Miscellaneous items Index 1 object ofthis book is to provide a description ofthe various items of ships” electrical ‘pment, with an explanation of their operating principles The topies dealt with are those that feature in examination papers or Class Land Class 2 ‘partment of Transport certification. It is hoped that eandidates sitting the electrical or the general engineering knowledge paper wil find the book helpful in preparing for thet examinations. “Ths sovond edition includes new chapters on shaft-driven generators and electric copulsion, including many new diagrams explaining drive, distribution and control ystems. The treatment of safe electrical equipment has been expanded, and the ‘pportuaity bas been taken to include reference to more specialised published papers on me of the topics discussed. ‘Technical language can be a barrier to the understanding of a subject by the lon-specalist: am effort has been made to avoid its excessive use, but to explain terms 25 they are, Diagrams are Kept as simple as possible so that they can form the basis of ‘ainination sketches. For this reason many diagrams have been redrawn {am grateful for information received from a number of manufacturers of electrical equipment, These include Alcad Ltd; Varta Lid; NIE-APE-W.H. Allen; Laurence, Scott and Electromotors Lid; GEC-Alsthom; Clarke, Chapman & Co. Ltd; British Brown, [Boveri Lid; and Siemens (UK) Ltd. Much information has been obtained from the Transactions ofthe Institute of Marine Engineers. Thanks to former colleagues R.C. Deas. asd RE, Lovell forth asistane, and ao to Alton Murphy fr Be help with the liagrams, LD. McGeorge, CEng, FIMarE, MRINA CHAPTER ONE Batteries and Emergency Systems Lead-acid storage batteries Each cell of a lead-acid battery contsine two interleaved sets of plates, immersed ia] electrolyte. Those connected tothe positive terminal ofa charged cell are of lead peroxide, those connected to the negative terminalate oflead. The simple sketch used here o exp the discharge and recharge has only one plate of each type (Figure 11) “The electrolyte in which the plates are immersed isa dilute solution of sulphuric aid i distilled water. A characteristic of electrolyte ntain ions ofthe compounds he ions are provid by sulphur acid (H,SO,) molecules, which split into posit reed hydrogen ion GF )ane negatively charged sulphate ions (SO, ~"). The separated parts of the molecule are electrically unbalanced because the split leaves sulphate fons with extra (negative ‘electrons, and hydrogen ions with an overall postive charge due to the loss of electrons Discharge action During discharge, the hydrogen ions (HT*) remove oxygen from the lead peroxide (PbO, of the positive plates and combine with ito form waler (HO). Loss of exygea from th lead peroxide reduces it to grey lead (Pb). The water formed by the action dilutes th electrolyte $0 that as the cell discharges, the specific gravity (relative deusity) decrease Measurement of the specific gravity change with a hydcometer will show the state charge ofthe eel At the negative side ofthe call, sulphate ions (SO,~~) combine with the pure lead of negative plates to form a layer of white lead sulpfiate (PDSO,). The lead sulphate layet jnereases during discharge and finally covers the active material ofthe plate so that fart reaction is sted. Some sulphate also forms on the positive plates, but this is not adi art of the discharge reaction, A fally charged cell will be capable of producing 1.95 volts on load and the relative density of the ele jl! be at a maximum (say 1.280). After a period of discharge th leetrotyte willbe weak due to formation of water and the plates wil be sulphates, withthe Tesult that the voltage on load will drop. Recharging is requited when voltage on load] rons to say 1.8 volts per cell and the relative density is reduced to abovt 1.120. ro) Figure Li Lead a Charging ‘To charge lead-acid batterie, the cell is disconnected from the load and connected t0 @ cc. charging supply of the correct voltage, The positive of the charging supply is omnected t0 the postive side ofthe cell, and the negative ofthe charging supply to th Beptive of the cel, Flow ofeurrent from the charging source reverses the discharge action ofthe cell thus Ie sulphate on the plates is broken down. The sulphate goes back into {lution a sulphate ons (SO, ), leaving the plates as pure lead. Water in the electrolyte freaks down retarning bydrogen ions (H) to the solution, and allows the oxygen to rabine with the lead ofthe positive plate and form lead peroxide (PbO;). Gas emission the ene of charging and during overcharge, the current flowing int the ell breakdown or ectolss f wae the scarey, shown hy bubbles atthe ace Both Rydrogen and oxygen are evolved and released through cell vent caps into =1 compartment Test an explonon tk fiydtogea fr aflowed isaac ompartments Topping up el. There is checks are ater is add loss due to both gassing and evaporation, with o los of sulphuric acid rom theceralyte (anles token ai nas x ensure tat liquid level is above the top of the peas as necessary. Overilling wil cause the elect sequent dr tS is made up ofa numberof ells each wth a nominal volt is the cells separated by divisions in a common exten Faach pa and six cells arranged inthe same way maken battery, range ay as, $49 Sven postive and eight negative plage ane interleaved. arranged alternately postive and negative ‘egative. Plates are prevented design of the plates is such as to p Sie ai Bod conductivity. The porous paste active on a Er aazimium contact betwecn active materil and the cheno defecate Sti paste has ltl strength aad irs poor en ity $0 efetncis ate made good by a lead-animony and'ang ok h the paste i presseds Electrolyte fore aici used to make up electro for lead-acid batteries is in its concentra Fe tpteconducior of electricity: In sluts si ene Pecause of the breakdown ofthe H, 80, molar (so heat evolved A Nioleat reaction r ‘mixing is ony possi the electrolyte iss Electrly 8 the skin as well as materials such, fscommended that electrolyte on the Fy Tone oUBAY (or 1S minutes wih water Aga eon tery room decks. ei Nickel-cadmium storage batteries The active materials of positive and ney cadmium battery (Figure 12) are st idmium, respectively. ghemécls are retained in the supporting ste of perforated metal plates and ‘esi s suchas to give maximumeontacttetnsee co "€Compounds and the electrol 4 ren potassan ease Kou fs x odw charged Figure 12 Nickel— <——_] emitter base ‘collector heat Indium beads ing by impurit doping by y B battery) reverses ee Figure 26 Two methods used to produce pm devices Semmi-conductor junction rectifier (two-layer device) ‘a semi-conductor junction rectifier is a wafer of silicon, germanium or other se ‘condactor material which has been doped by the impurities mentioned above, orby ol mnaterals having similar effects, 20 that one parti P-type andthe others type (Fig iid acioe lumnign 3 2) Atattery concctedin circuit willcause positive holesin the p-setiog tobe at: ward direction compen ae com uargecanes : racy meine tion compared with the ef ‘Towards its negative terminal. Negative electrons in the msection ten to move 10 mie to be expected ina device that nan Junction, when the battery iss shown in Figure 27a, and curtent is conducted in AN Between forward and revere pany nd across between the {Wo regions. I thebattery iscoanected the other Way rou selon orward and reverse parts is ail that positive charges are aitracted tothe negative, and negative lect ge reaches about 0 vole positive terminals (Figure 2.70), but no current flows because both carters mi fom the junction, leaving a gap inthe circuit tly oe ants ue at remains negligily ther. depends on afew fature and because thee are eSually small in number low and almost constant. Increase of ambien Electromie equipment Electronic equipment 21 p region gains a net negative chacge as th we clecitons combine with holes, because ea¥Ein the covalent bond struct ture and not caused by loss ofan electro frow he presence ofthe holes is dut in effect to loss of letfOusfremimmaaian a had a femele a alaoe beech postive potas taf aot Ver ew fe gurtent caries ean nthe action arse ees tion ang is sometimes for this reason called the : sae po eer Rectification Dict ueats comet by connenon ofan tom the porn miata ounce oP ‘up vithersecalror uty around eco endo alee aseue Otfhe power ture, I Rows oma ee aan ow ih tine with the egueny fows frat in one ciedon around he cigar sta ye N\|nevense moder rectifying devie it semi ; -condector junction rectifier. These are pnd mane th thermionic valves and metal rectifes formerly Wed det se oe Frat aaa l¥es When connected into an alternating current creuit That at flow in one direction but resist a reverse flea) Figure 28 Characteristic cure for @semiec casing more lectron/hol carrer temperate increas curently by esng more decom ‘The iaceased leakage fom asl temperature rise is shown by the ot formers in rectifier circuits formers are included in rectifier circuits for bat down tothe required evel. Volta cane inereased or Safety of an installa é tery systems to bring ac. mains aPaiiy aus eastleycatrera of alternating supplies (but not direet curren) Majority eased with very small power lass. A transformer alo improves ne Yon by isolating mains from the equipment being supisicd, (Sec respectively, holes ad electron shorty cariers in p- and n-type semiconductors are sp canter (eh af prea so tee real of doring with tapurkies, Bian ren ow Ihnterias i astodiated with hole movernet. In n-type materials the main cute involved wth movement of eeetons ee laser re on pun i doped semicon mata shee forsee in he dog, Tassos cent eel de Fig 218) cours de to afew minority carriers presen 5 3 eT oan Ke b ito p-type sections or holes iuf "in other solid state devices electrons rey eee to petype secti n-type sections, when they ave termed minority caries Halt-wave rectification Beit 29 shows transformed, Pree alve) inthe Geuit Veto termine Se ondat)_ winding of the tansormes, when terminal Tis positive HZDWS mb represen vemtional current fowsina direction that agrees with herahike 18d andthe extn the Fectfving diode. Current pases throush herweuea ot Bone ren, tle esd tobe forward biel, Weer ee changes and B is other way. Thi «supply connected 8 load witha rectifier (electrical Barrier potential n poeoomenon eauenly reed io in sso of avy at po jumsns i potcnual bull pby dition of negative electrons from nto preglon ae OF holes on the m side. as with Electronic equ pad nN iX “f\~>=f ectifier Four pn diodes ina bridge cruit btwees the wansormer secondary and the load wit il-wave rectification without the need for 2 cent 2 oat & ‘ap (Figure 211), Transformer Sse foorien voltage and size are smaller forthe same output, and the diodes are eapoand in hai = much peak reverse voltage”) ‘The diodes work in series pars to complete a cixcuit carr 3 x = terminal T of the transformer secondary has higher ac =) through D, oy 12 pack to terminal B of the secondary. Currem flows in the opposite dicenon tod Pia potential of Bis higher than that of T. The path taken i then from B throes Be tee load and returning via D, to terminal T. A unidirectional curr a ent flow is provided forthe load and smoothing can'be applied to reduce ripple.s bs Figure 29 Halévave recifcation iloscope, alternating current, ths can be demonstrated using a cathode ray osc Full-wave rectification Sea er a oneal lode conducts in turbwhen the end ofthe secondary winding which suppis has omen ect ol: Soong of te de wraicd be ae ee SPAS oma bee nre ine WOU caus loses and add to the cos) Raters aoe soppiom a bagpe crate om ca nea 12) 26 used for rectifca Figure 210 Fallwase reification wih ow diodes de, ouput ae. output ar Figare 212 Three phase rectifier Zener diodes (two-layer devices) 3-phase Yac ‘A semi-conductor junction rectifier connected in reverse will block current flow unl voltage is raised to the reverse breakdown leyel This feature is shown inthe set these devices, by the characteristic curves, Zener diodes are components which constructed in the same way but made with a controling the manufacturing process. hundred voles fic reverse breakdown vol curve shows leakage fu " massive current flow ashe vee Pability makes 2 eto bypass creas caret pesto similar see le resistances into thecteut Beaman oe simple voltage stabiliser (Fig ed aa es In currem flow vile aes, ve measurd) The ener concn cs in the breakdown g on tage atthe breakdown va anges 10 the dc, Iput voltage ar Tiseordrop, bot it current flow as a sndition, accept chan ‘exist. The eet onthe zener on og ena conea a breakdown point eereseepieen! al f load eurrent increases, the zener cutront drops hy the same amount. Fall in load cirrent causes rise in zener current. Again the diode sets asa ready bypass for changing crrent akdown figs tage from var re voltage drops during the dsc period ofthe eels, Equipment operates more efkciently from a stabilised supply. Battery required by thesystemand above breakdown voltage of ‘he zener. Sufielent cells must be incorporate for this. Voltage doubler The cicit shown (Figure 214) can be se to prodace a voltage aos the load whic, almost tie the peak aloe ofthe ac. snpat, provided thatthe load current is sll Sirlarruits are avilable to ineease voltage 6) factor of amos our but ony current very small (the voltage doubler has two semi-conductor junction rectifiers end two capaci connected, inthis vecion, inthe form ofa bridge. Alternating coren rom the wil fow clockwise and then anticlockwise, as shown bythe arrows. Clockwise flow ‘ectierR, will charge capacitor C, to approximately the peak ofthe porive volta stave Ansslockwiee low ste shown by row, through rete Rw charge capac Cyto approximately the peak ofthe negative voltage wave. The wo capacitors areinsers heachother and also withthe load. They dacharge otheload, and being in series th opposing voltages add to give a doubling eect Yvchage iulipirs ae ued fo lvioon tit adar eqlipment bt an alternative tl Heavier, acer and more expensive transformer and rier arrangement) eae de. Supply to load Figure 214 Voltage doubior Transistors and zener diodes are two-layer semi-cgnductor devices fe ve ae argnted at cher ape or pop) Mods uted ty ake wea ee sion of lage will mate negating cuca cera os sed on the princi 2 carvers inthe other.) tion of npn transistors ‘one direction and imple sketch of an npn transistor 2 P a tor (Figure 215) shows a battery A connect tothe emitter "Sr with nm arrangement ly battery Ain cirouit Jy ie reverse biased by the battery. That i, Dee ns Positive terminal and positive holes to the negative. Wath sets of current car Away fom the junction and no interchange occurs lo promote current low. ( pa forward biased relative to battery A and would pass curtent.) ‘When battery Bis connected, it has the eflect of causing current to low across junction Jy because holes in the base are attracted to the negative terminal of B and electrons in ‘emitter layer are attracted to the postive. The electrons fill the holes and produce ane. of electrons in the p section base. The base is made thin and doped witha small amou: impurity to promote this effect. Electrons emitted into the base by battery B (minority ca {for flow from battery A. The base becomes temporarily n-type) Ais governed by the numberof earriersinjected and the voltage signal from B. [tthe strength of the small input signs om B vated tru il ose change cure owing om battry A and trough the ansivor, Ula |S transtor to contol large current with a small pat signals called amplicon The symbol above Figure 2.15 for an npn transistor has an errow on the emitter connection pointing away from the vertical line representing the base. The emitter, base and collector connections arealso denoted by their initial letters but these are unnecessary, The base forms a T with the middle base connection; collector and exter are at eth side/ The arrow points in the direction of conventional current flow.) Operation of a pnp transistor Thesymbol fora pnp transistor (Figure 2.16)is identical to that thearrow of the emitter shows conventional current iowins towards The Vase" Opera isexplained in the same way but from thesimple sketch itcomrbeseeatfarthe mai caries are holes instead of electrons and the batteries are reversed, With only battery in circuit, curret low through the transistors resisted by juncto Jy. Here, negative electrons in the base are attracted bythe postive terminal of battery A aivay from the junction; positive holes are pulled away by atlraction to the negative battery terminal. The junction is reverse biased. When battery B is Connected between the base and emitter, current flows through J ‘which is forward biased by B. Holes, as positive charge carriers, move towards the junction under the influence ofthe negative terminal ofB. The few negative electrons in the base are affected by the positive terminal of B and also move to junction J,. The mutual interaction ‘ssuch that holes appear inthe base (minority carriers) and these acts current earrers {oF flow from battery A. The sizeof curtent flow from A through the transistor is governed bY the strength of the input voltage signal from B. Variation of this will cause change ‘current flow through the device from battery A. Amplification In the descriptions of npn and pnp transistors, the same sort of circuit was used in ea With small signal power from a side circuit B controlling the larger power in a circuit “The transistor enables a signal, too weak in itself to be of direct use, to control a larg ‘power source (battery A in the examples) The control by a small available power over 2 large usable power is called power gain or amplificatiog YTransistors can be connected in diferent ways and they can be used for various purposes, including switching Fleer 216 Trassior wish pop arrangement ‘Thyristors This {umber of ceconic devices which ae cased as thyristors, Th,

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