MCAT Highly Summarized Notes - Inorganic Chemistry

Chemistry basics

1 mol = 6.02 x 1023

Molecular formula: actual formula of the molecule

Empirical formula: formula with lowest whole number proportions of constituent atoms

Triangle over rxn arrow: heat

Molecular formula under rxn arrow: rxn catalyst

Always work in K or convert to K for temperature, unless directed otherwise.

Standard conditions (°): 298 K, 1 atm, 1 M

STP: 273 K, 1 atm

1 cal = 4.2 J

1 Cal = 1000 cal

C (heat capacity) = mc

c = speci c heat (cal/gᐧ°K)

Density = m/v

Mole fraction = [moles of solute/total moles of solution]

ln(x) = loge(x). e = 2.7

1 M = 1 mol/L

Oxidation states:

- Standard elemental state of oxidation = 0

- Sum of oxidation states in a neutral molecule = 0, in a non neutral molecule = its charge

- Group 1 metals = +1 oxidation state, group 2 metals = +2 oxidation state

- Fluorine = -1 oxidation state, same for the rest of the halogens

- Hydrogen bonded to carbon = 0

- Hydrogen bonded to FONClBrIS = +1

- Hydrogen bonded to any other atom = -1

- Oxygen = -2, same for the rest of the oxygen family

Atomic chemistry

Alpha decay: lose an alpha particle (equivalent to a He nucleus)

Beta (-) decay (or just Beta decay): neutron converts to a proton and electron, electron ejected

Positron emission (or Beta (+) decay): proton converts into neutron and positron, positron
ejected

Electron capture: electron is captured, combined with nuclear proton, neutron is formed

Gamma decay: electron relaxes to ground state, gamma photon (EM radiation; energy) is
emitted. Photon is absorbed for electron to excite to a higher level

Longer half-life = greater stability

Nuclear binding energy: energy that holds the nucleus together; energy converted from mass of
nucleus constituents (e=mc2) (mass of nucleus weighs less than individual nuclear constituents)

Emission spectra - characteristic light emission for each element when energy is applied (e.g.
electric current through gas tube)

ROYGBIV

e = hf = h(c/lambda)

Aufbau Principle: electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available

Electrons in same subshell occupy orbitals singly before pairing up. Only two electrons per
orbital.

Each shell ( rst 4) introduce a new subshell (1: s; 2: s, p; 3: s, p, d; 4: s, p, d, f)

Diamagnetic: all orbitals are spin paired. Repelled by magnetic elds

Paramagnetic: one or more orbitals are unpaired. Attracted to magnetic elds

Periodic trends

Top right

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 - Smallest radius (more protons with less shielding of additional rows)

- Largest ionization energy

- Highest electron a nity (excluding noble gasses)

- Higher electronegativity

Bottom right

- Most acidic (Lewis acid; donate proton or accept electron). Lower have better ability to
di use the added negative charge of the electron - more stable.

FONClBrISCH

Transition metals have colour because they possess either empty or partially lled d-orbitals.

Bonding

Homolytic bond cleavage: equal division of bonding electrons

Heterolytic bond cleavage: unequal division of bonding electrons

Higher bond order = shorter bond = higher energy (compare only between same bonders)

Covalent bond: both atoms contribute electrons to the bond; a bond between two nonmetals

Coordinate covalent bond: only one atom contributes electrons to bond (Lewis base/
nucleophile/ligand)

Ionic bond: not physically bonded, electrostatic attraction; a bond between a metal and
nonmetal (e.g. metal oxides)

Orbital hybridization

- sp: 2 electron groups (bonds or lone pairs)

- sp2: 3 electron groups

- sp3: 4 electron groups

Sigma bonds: single bond

Pi bond: the second or third bond in a double or triple bond

Bonds (can) have polarity

Molecules (can) have dipole moments

Intermolecular forces

Hydrogen bonding - between polar molecules with:

- H bonded to a N, O, F

- An N, O, F with a lone pair of electrons

Ion-dipole: between ions and polar molecules

Dipole-dipole: between polar molecules

Dipole-induced dipole: between a polar molecule and a non-polar molecule

London-dispersion forces: between non-polar molecules (transient dipole moments)

Vapour pressure: pressure exerted by gaseous phase of liquid on the surface of the liquid.
Determines where something will be gaseous (high vapour pressure = more likely to move to
gas phase)

Volatile: easily evaporates (due to low intermolecular forces); has high vapour pressure

Boiling point: the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the surface
pressure

Network solid: intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces are the same

Metallic solids: have free roaming electrons; good conductors of electric current

All metals except Hg are solid at room temp

Nearly all ionic compounds are solid at room temp!

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic variables (polarities) refer to the perspective of the system! (+/- refer to the
system’s perspective, ie. losing or gaining from within the system). 

0th law of thermodynamics: systems in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature. If the
systems are not in thermal equilibrium and heat is allowed to ow, they will reach thermal
equilibrium.

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 1st law of thermodynamics: energy cannot be created/destroyed. Energy in the universe is
constant. Energy can only be transformed.

2nd law of thermodynamics: increases in disorder (entropy) tend to be a spontaneous process.

3rd law of thermodynamics: absolute zero (K) is a state of zero entropy.

Enthalpy of reaction (∆H): energy released or absorbed when bonds are formed or broken,
respectively.

Energy is released when bonds form, and absorbed when they break. Otherwise bonds would
just y apart!!

Exothermic reaction (∆H°<0) [∆H° is (-)]: energy leaves the system, new/stronger bonds are
formed, heat leaves the system (area outside system increases in temperature)

Endothermic reaction (∆H°>0) [∆H° is (+)]: energy enters the system, bonds are broken/weaker
bonds formed, heat enters the system (area outside system decreases in temperature)

Heat of reaction (∆Hrxn), ways to calculate:

- Standard heat of formation (∆H°f): amount of energy required to required/released when

forming a molecule from elements in their natural state (diatomic elements: FONClBrIH)

- Hess’s heat of summation: overall rxn is the sum of its individual steps. The ∆H for each step
is directional! Polarity must be switched if opposite direction is being used.

- Summation of average bond enthalpies (or bond dissociation energies, BDE): the average
energy needed to break each type of bond. Values are directional; for breaking bonds;
polarity must be ipped when forming bonds. Rxn ∆H is calculated by determining the total
∆H absorbed to break the bonds and the total ∆H released to form the new ones.

Entropy of reaction (∆S): the change in disorder of the system over a reaction. (∆S°<0) [∆S° is
(-)]: the entropy of the system (disorder) has decreased. (∆S°>0) [∆S° is (+)]: the entropy of the
system (disorder) has increased.

Gibb’s free energy: thermodynamic potential; determines whether or not a reaction will proceed
in a particular direction spontaneously or not. [∆G = ∆H - T∆S]. (∆G°<0) [∆G° is (-)]: energy is
leaving the system, the reaction will proceed spontaneously. (∆G°>0) [∆G° is (+)]: energy must
enter the system for it to proceed, the reaction is nonspontaneous. (∆G°=0): the reaction is at
equilibrium, and will not proceed in either direction.

Gibb’s free energy and rxn spontaneity does not refer to rxn rate!!!!

Thermodynamics: spontaneity of rxn (determined by ∆G). Says nothing about how fast the
reaction will proceed (kinetics; rate of rxn).

∆G describes a particular rxn direction!!! If it is spontaneous (-) in one direction, it will be

nonspontaneous (+) in the opposite direction

Kinetics: rate of rxn (determined by activation energy, Ea). Determines how fast a rxn will
proceed (if it may proceed at all - determined by ∆G).

Phases

Phase changes a ect only intermolecular bonds

Solid ← crystallization or fusion → liquid ← condensation or vaporization → gas

Solid ← deposition or sublimation → gas

When a substance absorbs/releases heat, it will either change temperature or phase, but not
both at the same time.

Materials will heat to their phase change points, then remain at that temperature until the phase
change is complete. Phase changes occur at a single temperature. Thus, if a material exists in
equilibrium in two di erent phases, they are at the same temperature (the phase change
temperature).

q: heat added or released by a sample

Heat of phase change: heat absorbed or released during a phase change [q = n(∆Hphase change)

Calorimetry: measuring heat transfer

Temperature changes in a material are determined by [q=mc∆T]. q is proportional to ∆T and ∆T

is inversely proportional to m and c (larger materials and materials with higher heat capacities
change temperature more slowly for a given amount of heat added, q).

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 Speci c heat (c) is phase dependent.

Phase transition temperatures are determined by intermolecular forces. Stronger intermolecular

forces hold/pull molecules together, and favour solid and liquid phases, increasing the
temperature of fusion and vaporization (thus, higher volatility and vapour pressure).

Boiling point: the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the surface
pressure.

Most substances favour the solid phase (over liquid) with increased pressure. Water is the main
notable exception! Water’s phase diagram boundary for solid/liquid leans to the left. Increased
pressure drives solid water to the liquid phase! “Water likes being liquid”.

Gases

PV=nRT (R = 0.08) (P in atm; 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 100,000 Pa) (Pa: N/m^2)

PV/T = PV/T (when comparing di erent conditions for same number of moles of same gas)

Ideal gas: no intermolecular forces, negligible molecular size/weight (best at high T and low P)

Real gas: intermolecular forces and large molecular size increase real gas behaviour (low T; less
energy to escape intermolecular forces, and high P; close proximity increases relative
molecular size). P and V of real gasses are less than ideal gasses.

Dalton’s Law: total pressure is sum of pressures of individual gasses (each pressure is
proportional to the molar % of the gas amongst the whole)

Kinetic Energy: KE = ½mv2

Temperature is proportional to kinetic energy.

Any gasses at the same temperature will have the same average KE. As mass is unchanging
for a given molecule, this means that KEavg —> Vavg (velocity at a given KE are distributed). For
two gasses at the same temperature (T) (and thus same KEavg), the di erence in their velocities
is proportional to the di erence in their masses (as per KE=KE, or ½mv2 = ½mv2).

Graham’s Law of E usion: rate of e usion for two gasses at the same T (and thus same KEavg)
is inversely proportional to the square of the mass of the molecule. If the two gasses are at the
same temp, can also compare using KE = 1/2mv2

Total energy = KE + PE

Ideal gasses have no intermolecular forces and thus no PE, real gasses do.

Kinetics

Rate of rxn (rate = ∆[X]/∆t): how quickly the concentration of something changes over time. It
usually refers to the rate of disappearance of the reactant.

Rate of rxn (rate = ∆[X]/∆t), determined by:

- Ea: lower Ea = faster rate of rxn

- T: higher temp = more energy to overcome Ea

- [reactants]: higher concentration of reactants = more collisions = faster rate of rxn

The slowest step of the reaction determines the overall rate.

Catalysts: lower the Ea for both directions. Increase the rate of rxn via the slowest (rate-
determining) step of the rxn. Remain unchanged at end of the rxn.

Rate law (rate = k[A]x[B]y): describes how changing the concentration of reactants a ects the
rate of the rxn. Only reactants involved in the rate determining step are included in the rate law.
Rate law refers to the disappearance of reactant(s). Must be determined experimentally (cannot
be determined simply via the balanced rxn formula) unless the rxn is an elementary rxn or the
formula is an elementary step of the reaction. Elementary rxn: a reaction where the reactants
directly form the products in a single step and with only a single transition state. In the case of
an elementary rxn, the formula molecular coe cients become the order of reaction for their
respective reactant (ex. 2 A + 1 B → 1 AB is expressed as a rate law as rate = k[A]2[B]).

Reaction order: derived from the reaction order of each substance in the rate law. Their
cumulative total (summed) describes the type of reaction rate behaviour.

- Zero order rxn: rate is independent of concentrations of reactants, proportional of k (rate

constant).

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 - First order rxn: rate is proportional to only one reactant.

- Second order rxn: rate is proportional to the concentration of two reactants, or the square of
the concentration of one reactant.

General/rough rule: every 10 °K increase = 2-4x rxn rate increase

Pure liquids (l ) and pure solids (s) are not included in rate law. Only the concentration of
gases and substances in solution are included in rate law.

Reaction coordinate diagrams visually display the reaction. Transition states are energy high
points that must be overcome for the reaction to proceed (Ea). Intermediate products in the
reaction form localized minimums in energy requirement and sit between transition states.

Equilibrium

When a rxn is at equilibrium, the rate forward and reverse rxns is equal, and the concentration
of the products and reactions remain constant. This does not mean that the concentration of
the products is equal!! Simply that the speci c balance concentrations of products and
reactants are constant and the rate is equal in both directions.

Rxn at equilibrium: Keq (equilibrium constant)

Rxn not at equilibrium: Q (reaction quotient)

Keq: equilibrium constant: Keq = [C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b (products over reactants, each raised to the
power of their respective rxn coe cients; aA + bB cC + dD). The Keq equation is solved to
give a numerical value. Describes the Law of Mass Action and LeChatlier’s Principle (how the
rxn responds when disturbed in order to return towards equilibrium). Keq is:

- Determined by balanced overall rxn

- Temperature dependent

- Pure liquids (l ) and pure solids (s) are not included. Pure solids and liquids do not vary
greatly with temperature, and their density does not change. They are constant and thus
omitted.

- If the rxn is gaseous, partial pressure can be used.

Keq <1 [Keq = (-)]: the reaction at equilibrium favours reactants.

Keq = 1: the reaction at equilibrium favours neither products or reactants.

Keq >1 [Keq = (+)]: the reaction at equilibrium favours products.

Q: reaction quotient; the reaction expression when the reaction is not at equilibrium. Q =
[C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b (products over reactants, each raised to the power of their respective rxn
coe cients; aA + bB cC + dD). The Q equation is solved to give a numerical value. Q is
compared to Keq to determine which way the reaction will move to reach equilibrium.

Q < Keq: reactants are in higher concentration then they would be at equilibrium; the reaction
will proceed forward towards equilibrium.

Q > Keq: products are in higher concentration then they would be at equilibrium; the reaction
will proceed in reverse towards equilibrium.

Q = Keq: reaction is at equilibrium.

LeChatlier’s Principle: describes how a system at equilibrium will respond to any changes, in
order to establish equilibrium. Note: the changes must be transient and nite to be overcome; if
the change is permanent (ie. a permanent raise in temperature), the reaction can never reach
the previous equilibrium; the equilibrium will have shifted and a new equilibrium reached and
established.

- Remove reactants: rxn proceeds in reverse

- Remove products: rxn proceeds forwards

- Add reactants: rxn proceeds forwards

- Add products: rxn proceeds in reverse

- Changing the volume container (only a ects gaseous rxns): adjusts according to PV/T = PV/
T. This is a nite change in volume, the container is not changing endlessly (same for
pressure). Thus, Keq is not changed and remains the same; the reaction will work to restore
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 Keq. Consider that changes in reaction temperature are a continuous/endless addition/
removal of heat, and thus it is not nite! Keq must change.

- Increase in volume/decrease in pressure: rxn shifts to whichever side of the rxn has more
moles of gas (to increase pressure accordingly).

- Decrease in volume/increase in pressure: rxn shifts to whichever side of the rxn has more
moles of gas (to decrease pressure accordingly).

- Changing the reaction temperature: if permanent, will shift Keq altogether

- Exothermic reaction (heat released/product), temperature increased: Keq reduced (shift

towards reactants)

- Exothermic reaction (heat released/product), temperature reduced: Keq increased (shift

towards products)

- Endothermic reaction (heat absorbed/reactant), temperature increased: Keq increased

(shift towards products)

- Endothermic reaction (heat absorbed/reactant), temperature decreased: Keq decreased

(shift towards reactants)

- Adding a nonreactive gas (does not change the partial pressure of the rxn; consider the
partial pressures of the reactant and product gasses as ratios to each other, a non reactive
gas does not change the ratio of products to reactants!!)

- Constant volume container: increase in pressure; no change in partial pressure (which is

used for the Keq equation) so thus no shift of the rxn

- Constant pressure container (ie. car piston): increase in volume = decrease in pressure =
shift in rxn to increase pressure

- adding a catalyst: a ects only the rate, not equilibrium!

Solute: small proportion of total (what’s being dissolved)

Solvent: large proportion of total (the dissolving medium)

Solvation: solvent molecules surrounding the solute

Dissolution: solute dissolves into solvent (macro-process, includes the micro-process of

solvation)

- best dissolution = solvent has equal or stronger intermolecular forces/bonds to the solute
(otherwise it is more stable for the solute to remain undissolved)

Precipitation: opposite of dissolution

Saturation: maximum point of dissolution for a solute

Molar solubility of a solute: the molar concentration (M; mol/L) for a solute at saturation

Solution: mixture of substances; can involve any phase of matter! (Alloy: solution of metals)

- Like dissolves like

Electrolytes: free ions in solution

- Strong electrolytes: complete dissociation

- Weak electrolytes: incomplete dissociation

- Electrolytes conduct electricity

- Current = movement (conduction) of electrically charged particles

- Electrolytes are freely moving ions within solution - they can pass current!

- Stronger electrolyte = fuller dissolution = more electrical particles free to move = stronger
current

Van’t Ho factor (ionizability factor) (i): how many ions one unit of a substance will produce in
solution

Phase solubility rules

1. Increasing temp, solids dissolved in liquids = solubility increases

2. Increasing temp, gasses dissolved in liquids = solubility decreases

3. Increasing pressure, gasses dissolved in liquids = solubility increases

Salt solubility rules (rules follow order, e.g. 2 over 3)

1. All group 1 and ammonium (NH4+) salts are soluble (1A)

2. All nitrate (NO3-), perchlorate (ClO4-), and acetate (C2H3O2-) salts are soluble (NAP)
(Referred to acid salts (salts that produced an acidic solution when dissolved)

3. All silver, lead, and mercury salts are insoluble (SLiM), except when with NAP

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Ksp: solubility product constant; equilibrium constant for solutes, same format as Keq and Q;
products over reactants, but the reactant (undissolved salt) is excluded from the expression
because it is a pure solid (s), thus Ksp = [B]b[C]c (products over reactants, each raised to the
power of their respective rxn coe cients; aA (s) bB (a q) + cC (a q)). At equilibrium, the
solution is saturated; any further addition of solutes will shift the rxn to the left, and
precipitation will occur.

Solubility computation (same process for acids; nd pH via [H+] dissolved in solution)

- purpose: to determine the [ ] of the pure solid (s) undissolved salt that isn’t in the Ksp
equation. Questions will ask for a given Ksp of a salt, how many moles would need to be
dissolved to reach saturation (ie. equilibrium, Ksp)

- We have to craft a mathematical expression using the Ksp expression and the balanced rxn

- Let x represent the undissolved solute and each dissolved ion

- Solve so that Ksp is equal to a single x value

Qsp: ion product; same idea as Q and same relationship to Ksp as Q has to Keq

Qsp < Ksp: undissolved solute (reactant) is favoured over dissolved solute (product); reaction will
proceed in the forward direction (dissolution; more salt can be dissolved)

Qsp > Ksp: dissolved solute (product) is favoured over undissolved solute (reactant); reaction will
proceed in the reverse direction (precipitation; super saturated solution)

Qsp > Ksp: solution is saturated

Common ion e ect: disturbances to a reaction equilibrium caused by another salt with a
common ion will result in adjustments towards equilibrium as per LeChatlier’s Principle

Complex ions: metallic ions (cations) surrounded by generally 2, 4, or 6 ligands (Lewis bases,
nucleophiles); compared to the ‘naked’ ion in solution, addition of ligands will often signi cantly
increase solubility (e.g. Ag+ not very soluble with Cl-, but with NH3- is is signi cantly more
soluble)

Thermodynamics and equilibrium (∆G and Keq; ∆G in this situation to the forward reaction
(products); from the perspective of that reaction to completion. Remember that ∆G is
unidirectional, the sign must be ipped for the opposite direction. It only ever refers one
direction, and since most reactions are often presented as forwards in reference to ∆G, it is
referring to the formation of the product

- Keq > 1: products are favoured at equilibrium (forward rxn is favoured, thus ∆G < 0; [∆G = (-)]

- Keq < 1: reactants are favoured at equilibrium (reverse rxn is favoured, thus ∆G > 0; [∆G = (+)]

- Keq = 1: neither products or reactants favoured at equilibrium (neither reaction direction

favoured, thus ∆G = 0)

Acids and Bases

Bonsted-Lowry acid: proton (H+) donor (HCl)

Bonsted-Lowry base: proton (H+) acceptor, or hydroxide (-OH) donors (e.g. NaOH)

Lewis acid: electron (e-) pair acceptor; electrophile (e.g. carbocation)

Lewis base: electron (e-) pair donor; nucleophile; ligand (e.g. oxygen atom in an alcohol)

Conjugate base: the substance following the release of a proton (H+) or acceptance of an
electron pair (e-)

Polyprotic: more than one proton (H+) to donate (e.g. H2CO3-)

Amphoteric: can act as an acid or base (e.g. HCO3-)

Conjugate acid: the substance following the acceptance of a proton (H+), donation of a
hydroxide (-OH), or donation of an electron pair (e-) to a nucleophile

Acid/base strength is determined by the strength of its conjugate (the stronger the acid/base,
the weaker its conjugate; the weaker the acid/base, the stronger its conjugate)

- Strong acid = conjugate has no basic behaviour

- HI, HBr, HCl, HClO4, H2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4

- Strong base = conjugate has no acidic behaviour

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 - Group 1 hydroxides (-OH donors, H+ acceptor) (e.g. NaOH), Group 1 oxides (nucleophile,
e- donor) (Li2O), some Group 2 hydroxides (larger metal cations) (Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2,
Ca(OH)2, metal amides (e.g. NaNH2).

- Weak acid = weak conjugate base

- Weak base = weak conjugate acid

Ka (acid-dissociation constant): Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] (products over reactants; pure solids and

liquids are excluded); describes the strength of an acid by the degree to which it dissociates

- Ka <1 [Ka = (-)]: acid dissociation favours reactants; weak acid.

- Ka = 1: acid dissociation favours neither products or reactants.

- Ka >1 [Ka = (+)]: acid dissociation favours products; strong acid.

Kb (base-dissociation constant): Kb = [-OH][B+]/[BOH] (products over reactants; pure solids and

liquids are excluded); describes the strength of a base by the degree to which it dissociates

- Kb <1 [Kb = (-)]: base dissociation favours reactants; weak base.

- Kb = 1: acid dissociation favours neither products or reactants.

- Kb >1 [Kb = (+)]: base dissociation favours products; strong base.

Kw (ion-product constant of water): at 298 °K, Kw = ]H3O+][OH-], describes the dissociation of

water (note that H2O is excluded because it is a pure liquid); KaKb = 1.0 x 10-14 (works for any
acid-conjugate base pair; will equal Kw)

pH = -log[H+]

pOH = -log[OH-]

pH + pOH = 14

pKa = -log Ka (lower absolute number into negatives = stronger acid, because a larger Ka =
more dissociation = stronger acid)

pKb = -log Kb (lower absolute number into negatives = stronger base, because a larger Kb =
more dissociation = stronger base)

pKa + pKb = 14 (same relationship as Kw = KaKb)

pH calculations

Strong acids: complete dissociation, the proton [H+] concentration is the same as the initial
acid [HA] concentration. Use pH = -log[H+]

Weak acid (any time Ka < 10-4): assume acid dissociation is minimal and create an equation
using initial undissociated acid confrontation [HA] and let x represent the concentrations of
both [H+] and [A-].

- Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] = ([x][x])/([HA]-x) (negate x for the bottom part of the equation because
dissociation is minimal and thus loss of [HA] is minimal) = (x2)/[HA]. (x) is then used to
determine the acidity as per pH = -log[H+]. Thus, only Ka and [HA] are needed to nd the pH
of a weak acid (Ka < 10-4). Same procedure used for bases, using Kb instead).

Neutralization reactions: all run to completion but do not all yield a pH neutral solution.

- Equal concentrations of a strong acid and a strong base: yields a pH neutral solution
(because strong acids and bases dissociate to completion)

- Equal concentrations of a weak acid and a weak base: yields a non-pH-neutral solution
(because weak acids and bases do not dissociate to completion); pH will lean towards the
stronger of the two species (acid/base)

- Equal concentrations of a weak acid and strong base: yields a basic solution (incomplete
dissociation of the weak acid and complete dissociation of the strong base; more [OH-] in
solution than [H+]).

- Equal concentrations of a strong acid and weak base: yields an acidic solution (incomplete
dissociation of the weak base and complete dissociation of the strong acid; more [H+] in
solution than [OH-]).

H+ + OH- → H2O; ΔH = (-) (exothermic rxn)

Salts = ionic compounds = metal and nonmetal

Basic salt: a base and a metal ion; creates a basic solution (consumes H+ and leaves OH-);
base in the salt is a stronger base (Kb) than water

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 Acidic salt: an acid and a metal ion; creates an acidic solution (releases H+): acid in the salt is a
stronger acid (Ka) than water

Neutral salt: the ions of the salt are weaker acids/bases than water (e.g. NaCl)

Bu er solution: a solution with equimolar amounts of a weak acid/base and the salt of its
conjugate species

pH = pKa + log([conjugate base]/[weak acid]) (products/reactants)

pOH = pKb + log([conjugate acid]/[weak base]) (products/reactants)

Indicator: weak acid that changes colour when converted to its conjugate base. Used to
indicate a change in the acidity of solution. Has a narrow range (only a couple of pH) so it must
be matched the the range around where a pH change is expected. Pick an indicator with a pKa
that is the same as our target pH, so that it will change around that pH range. If Ka = [H+] (same
as pKa = pH), then [HA] = [A-] (Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA]). Thus, if [HA] (the weak acid) and [A-] (the
conjugate base) are in equal concentrations, the colour will be a mix of colour 1 and colour 2

- Indicator added to acidic solution: acid does not dissociate (H+ already in solution shift
reaction towards reactants); indicator remains colour 1

- Indicator added to basic solution: acid dissociates; indicator changes to colour 2

- Indicator in solution around its target pH: acid partially dissociated; mix of colour 1 and
colour 2

Acid-base titrations: used to determined the identity (pKa or pKb) of an unknown acid or base.
The unknown acid/base will act as a bu er at rst to the titrant, slowing being consumed.

Titrant: the known species doing the titrating. Must be strong.

Half-equivalence point: midpoint in the bu ering region; thus, [HA] (unknown acid) = [A-]
(unknown acid’s conjugate base); as per pH = pKa + log([conjugate base]/[weak acid]), pH =
pKa at the half equivalence point (since [HA] = [A-], log1 = 0).

Equivalence point: [titrant] = [H+] or [OH-]

- Weak acid titrated with strong base: pH > 7

- Weak base titrated with strong acid: pH < 7

- Strong acid titrated with strong base: pH = 7

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