drones
Technical Note
Operational Study of Drone Spraying Application for the
Disinfection of Surfaces against the COVID-19 Pandemic
Higinio González Jorge 1, * , Luis Miguel González de Santos 2 , Noelia Fariñas Álvarez 1 ,
Joaquin Martínez Sánchez 2 and Fermin Navarro Medina 3






Citation: González-Jorge, H.;
González-deSantos, L.M.;
Fariñas-Álvarez, N.;
Martínez-Sánchez, J.;
Navarro-Medina, F. Operational
Study of Drone Spraying Application
for the Disinfection of Surfaces
against the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Drones 2021, 5, 18. https://doi.org/
10.3390/drones5010018
Academic Editor: Paul Royall
Received: 29 January 2021
Accepted: 4 March 2021
Published: 7 March 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Drones 2021, 5, 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones5010018
1 Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Engineering, School of Aerospace Engineering,
University of Vigo, 32004 Ourense, Spain; noelia.farinas.alvarez@uvigo.es
2 CINTECX, GeoTECH Group, Campus Universitario de Vigo, University of Vigo, As Lagoas, Marcosende,
36310 Vigo, Spain; luismgonzalez@uvigo.es (L.M.G.d.S.); joaquin.martinez@uvigo.es (J.M.S.)
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thermal Machines and Motors, and Fluids, School of Aerospace
Engineering, University of Vigo, 32004 Ourense, Spain; fermin.navarro.medina@uvigo.es
* Correspondence: higiniog@uvigo.es
Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has shown the need to maximize the cleanliness of outside
public services and the need to disinfect these areas to reduce the virus transmission. This work
evaluates the possibilities of using unmanned aircraft systems for disinfection tasks in these aeras.
The operational study focuses on evaluating the static and dynamic behavior, as well as the influence
of the flying height, mission speed and flow of spraying. The most recommended height for correct
spraying with the drone system under study is 3.0 m. The dynamic test shows that the lower height,
3.0 m, also provides the most adequate spraying footprint, achieving 2.2 m for a speed of 0.5 m/s.
The operational behavior is evaluated on three different scenarios, a skatepark with an area around
882.7 m2 , an outdoor gym with an area around 545.0 m2 and a multisport court with an area around
2025.7 m2 . The cleaning time evaluates the flying duration, battery change and tank refill and results
in 41 min for the skatepark (5 tank refills and 2 battery changes), 28.6 min for the outdoor gym (3 tank
refills and 2 battery changes) and 96.4 min for the multisport court (11 tank refills and 5 battery
changes). Each battery change and each tank refill are estimated to take 4 min each, with a drone
autonomy of 7 min. The technology appears competitive compared to other forms of cleaning based,
for example, on human operators.
Keywords: drone spraying; COVID-19; drone cleaning; aerial works
1. Introduction
Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), also called drones, are a technology that has
extended its use in recent years to many applications such as the audiovisual sector,
surveying, infrastructure inspection, agriculture, forestry management and logistics, among
others [1–6]. This technology shows advantages such as avoiding the use of helicopters
in many aerial works, greatly decreasing the cost of operation. Imagery from UAS also
increases the spatial resolution in comparison with other solutions based on satellites, due
to the greater proximity between the optical sensor and the scanned surface. In addition,
they give safe accessibility to complicated parts of large structures and avoid the use of
human workers at height with the need for harnesses, cranes or winches.
One of the operational segments of activity where UAS are expected to continue
growing in the incoming years is drone spraying. Some countries such as South Korea
spray about the 30% of their agricultural area with drones. Unmanned helicopters, such
as the Yamaha RMax [7], pioneered drone spraying in Japan, dating back the mid-1990s,
whilst others were recently introduced in the market, such as DJI Agras MG-1 [8] in 2016.
Legal and technical barriers must be addressed to increase the scope of drone spraying.
Legislation needs to be updated to accommodate the use of pesticides in some countries [9].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/drones
Drones 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 9

Drones 2021, 5, 18 2 of 8
Legislation needs to be updated to accommodate the use of pesticides in some countries
[9]. Among technical parameters, altitude control is a critical aspect to be considered in
drone spraying to achieve a balanced fluid application to the entire agricultural parcel
[10]. technical parameters, altitude control is a critical aspect to be considered in drone
Among
Eventothough
spraying achievedrone spraying
a balanced fluidhas been oriented
application to themainly
entire to agricultural
agricultural work,
parcel the cur-
[10].
rent Even thoughpandemic
coronavirus drone spraying
has shown hasother
beenapplications
oriented mainly relatedtotoagricultural
cleaning publicwork, the
spaces
current coronavirus
with drones. In thosepandemic
cases, waterhasisshown
mixed other
with aapplications
disinfectant related
fluid thatto is
cleaning
dispersed public
on a
spaces
surface.with drones.there
Although In those
are cases,
variouswater
pressis reports
mixed with a disinfectant
regarding fluid that
its application is dispersed
[11–13], no se-
on a surface.
rious Although
scientific studies there are various
are presented on press reports
its real regarding its application [11–13], no
viability.
seriousThescientific
aim of thestudies arework
present presented on itsthe
is to study realpotential
viability.use of drones in surface cleaning,
The aim of the present work is to study the potential
considering different technical parameters. Virucidal dilutions use of drones in surface following
can be prepared cleaning,
considering different technical
the recommendations parameters.
of the Spanish HealthVirucidal
Servicedilutions can besuch
[14]. Aspects prepared
as thefollowing
adequate
the recommendations
flying of the Spanish
height, mission speed, sprayingHealth
flow orService [14]. Aspects
time requirements aresuch as theinadequate
analyzed the man-
flying
uscript.height, mission speed,
The manuscript spraying
is focused on theflow or coverage
liquid time requirements
in the field,are
notanalyzed in the
on the effective-
manuscript. The manuscript is focused on the liquid coverage in the
ness of the disinfectant process. The manuscript is organized as follows: Section 2 shows field, not on the
effectiveness of the disinfectant process. The manuscript is organized
the Material and Methods part, where drone characteristics are presented, as well as theas follows: Section 2
shows the Material and Methods part, where drone characteristics are
study area and spraying testing methodology. Section 3 depicts the results and discussion. presented, as well
as the study
Section area and
4 exhibits spraying testing methodology. Section 3 depicts the results and
the conclusions.
discussion. Section 4 exhibits the conclusions.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Spraying
2.1. Spraying Drone
Drone
Theused
The usedspraying
sprayingdrone
dronewas wasthethe MX405
MX405 (Figure
(Figure 1) [15].
1) [15]. It uses
It uses a flight
a flight control
control sys-
system,
tem, Pro,
K3A K3AwithPro,four
with four
24” 24” propellers
propellers and 6125/340kv
and 6125/340kv brushless brushless
motors. Themotors.
frameThe frameofis
is made
made of carbon fiber. Whilst the folding size is 472 × 472 × 444 mm, the
carbon fiber. Whilst the folding size is 472 × 472 × 444 mm, the distance between propeller distance between
propeller
axes is 1000 axes
mmiswhen
1000 mm when producing
unfolded, unfolded, producing
a product size a product
of 776 × size
776of×776
444× mm.
776 ×The444
mm. The tank capacity is 5.5 L with a maximum takeoff weight of 14
tank capacity is 5.5 L with a maximum takeoff weight of 14 kg. The working time is 7 min kg. The working time
is 7 minutes
with a maximum withworking
a maximum working
area of 20.000 area
m2 (2ofHa).20.000
Fluidm2spaying
(2 Ha). Fluid spaying was
was conducted usingcon-
a
ducted using
brushless pumpa brushless pumpnozzle.
with a pressure with a pressure
It uses a 6S nozzle.
22,000ItmAh
uses LiPo
a 6S 22,000
batterymAh
as theLiPo bat-
energy
tery as The
source. the energy
maximum source. 30◦maximum
tilt isThe , maximumtilt yaw is 30º
speed is 150◦ /syaw
, maximum and speed
maximum is 150º /s and
vertical
maximum
speed vertical speed is 6 m/s.
is 6 m/s.

(A) (B)
Figure1.1.MX405
Figure MX405drone.
drone.Image
Image(A)
(A)and
anddrawing
drawing(B).
(B).Length
Lengthin
inmm.
mm.

2.2. Testing
2.2. TestingSites
Sitesand
andWeather
Weather
Testingsites
Testing siteswere
weredefined
definedin
inorder
orderto
toperform
performoutdoor
outdooroperations
operations with
with global
global navi-
navi-
gation satellite system (GNSS) coverage. This fact facilitates the navigation of the drone
gation satellite system (GNSS) coverage. This fact facilitates the navigation of the drone
and the path planning. If possible, GNSS RTK (global navigation satellite system—real
time kinematics) is preferred to ensure accurate navigation and guarantee no areas without
 Drones 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 9

and the path planning. If possible, GNSS RTK (global navigation satellite system – real
Drones 2021, 5, 18 3 of 8
time kinematics) is preferred to ensure accurate navigation and guarantee no areas with-
out cleaning treatment. In addition, a RADAR system is also important to provide flying
stability and keep a constant drone–ground distance. Local drone rules should be taken
into account
cleaning (i.e., pilot
treatment. license, operator
In addition, a RADAR license,
system maximum takeoff weight
is also important of the flying
to provide drone,
flight height).
stability and keep In addition,
a constant the regulations indistance.
drone–ground Europe forbid the presence
Local drone of people
rules should under
be taken
the account
into drone flying area during
(i.e., pilot license, operations. This ismaximum
operator license, the general scenery
takeoff applicable
weight to this
of the drone,
work.height). In addition, the regulations in Europe forbid the presence of people under
flight
Three
the drone testing
flying areasites
duringwithoperations.
potential interest for general
This is the the disinfection of surfacestowith
scenery applicable thisdrones
work.
in the
Three testing sites with potential interest for the disinfection of surfaces with drones inin
Galicia region (northwest Spain) were selected: a skatepark and an outdoor gym
theGalicia
the municipality of Nigrán, and
region (northwest Spain) a multisport
were selected:courta skatepark
in the municipality of Mondariz
and an outdoor gym in(Fig-the
ure 2). The skatepark
municipality of Nigrán,had andan area around
a multisport 882.7
court inm 2, the
the outdoor gym
municipality had an area
of Mondariz of 525.0
(Figure 2).
m2 skatepark
The and the multisport
had an area court had 882.7
around m2 ,of
an area the2036.7
outdoorm2.gym
To obtain
had anthe area of 525.0 m2infor-
geometrical and
the multisport
mation and ancourtaerialhad an area
image of theof 2036.7 m2 . Tostudy,
areas under obtainphotogrammetric
the geometrical information
flights usingand the
an
DJIaerial
Mavic image
Miniofdrone
the areas
[16] under study, photogrammetric
were performed. The flights were flights using the
conducted withDJI 80
Mavic Mini
% overlap
drone
in the[16] were performed.
along-track direction Theandflights
50 % were conducted
in the with direction.
cross-track 80% overlap Thein DJI
the along-track
Mavic Mini
direction
drone only andweight
50% in 249the cross-track
g and it is direction. The DJIItMavic
highly portable. has aMini
12 MP drone onlycamera
digital weight with
249 ga
and
fieldit of
is view
highly ofportable.
83º and aIt35has mm a 12 MP digital
equivalent, 24camera
mm lens with a field
(f/2.8). of view of 83◦ and
Photogrammetric a
recon-
35 mm equivalent,
structions 24 mm lens
were conducted using(f/2.8). Photogrammetric
the Agisoft reconstructions
Metashape software were
suite [17]. conducted
Control points
using the Agisoft
to provide Metashape software
real dimensions were marked suite using
[17]. Control
the Leica points
GS15toGNSS
provide in real
RTKdimensions
mode with
were marked using the Leica GS15 GNSS in RTK mode with accuracies
accuracies of 5 (horizontal) and 10 mm (vertical) [18]. The first testing site (skatepark; of 5 (horizontal)
and 10 mm
Nigrán (vertical) [18].
municipality) wasTheusedfirst testing
for site (skatepark;
the study Nigrán
and calibration of municipality)
the drone spraying was usedfea-
for
tures. The two additional sites were used for an operational study of the technology, were
the study and calibration of the drone spraying features. The two additional sites based
used
on theforprevious
an operational
evaluated study of the
drone technology,
spraying features.based on the previous evaluated drone
spraying features.

Figure 2. Testing site orthoimages: (A) skatepark (Nigrán municipality); (B) outdoor gym (Nigrán municipality); (C) multi-
Figure
sport 2. Testing
court site orthoimages:
(Mondariz municipality).(A) skatepark (Nigrán municipality); (B) outdoor gym (Nigrán municipality); (C) mul-
tisport court (Mondariz municipality).
Wind speed data during the drone spraying testing at the skatepark in Nigrán munici-
palityWind
were obtained
speed datafrom the weather
during stations
the drone of Meteogalicia,
spraying situated
testing at the in theinsurrounding
skatepark Nigrán mu-
area [19]. This
nicipality wereservice has afrom
obtained densethenetwork
weather of weather
stations stations in the Galician
of Meteogalicia, situatedterritory
in theandsur-
provides
roundingaccurate information
area [19]. This serviceof has
wind speed network
a dense at 10 m height, which
of weather is applicable
stations to this
in the Galician
study. Wind
territory andspeed for the
provides testing information
accurate day (Nov 21of 2020)
windwas 2.2 km/h.
speed at 10 mDue to the
height, smallissize
which of
appli-
the dispersed droplets, low wind speed is crucial during drone operation.
cable to this study. Wind speed for the testing day (Nov 21 2020) was 2.2 km/h. Due to theThis ensures
that thesize
small applied liquid
of the reachesdroplets,
dispersed the groundlowbelow
wind the drone
speed and does
is crucial not disperse
during in the air.
drone operation.
Other meteorological aspects, such as the absence of rain to guarantee the application of
the product in the appropriate concentration, or the absence of fog to guarantee visibility,
must be taken into account.
 ing flow of the system could be set up in the mobile app provided by the manufacturer.
To verify this flow, a test was carried out which consisted of introducing a known volume
of liquid in the drone container and measuring the time it takes the system to disperse all
the fluid. The test was conducted by introducing 2 L into the tank. The spraying time up
Drones 2021, 5, 18
to emptying the tank was 70 s. The spraying flow calculated was 1.7 L/min. 4 of 8
After this calculation, the static and dynamic footprints of the drone spraying were
evaluated. In both cases, a plastic container of known dimensions was used to take fluid
from the ground (Figure 3). The system shows a surface of 753.7 cm 2.
2.3. Testing Methodology
The static footprint defines the surface affected by the fluid during a hover spraying
at different heights. Time during
The testing methodology spraying
started wasevaluation
with the 30 s and heights involved flow.
of the spraying were The
3.0, 5.0 and
spray-
7.0 m. Two containers were placed on the ground on the spraying surface, one
ing flow of the system could be set up in the mobile app provided by the manufacturer. To in the same
X-Y coordinates
verify this flow, a of
testthe drone
was hovering
carried and the
out which other one
consisted at 1.0 m distance.
of introducing a known volume of
liquidThe dynamic
in the footprint and
drone container defines the behavior
measuring of it
the time drone
takesspraying at atopre-defined
the system disperse all mis-
the
fluid. The test
sion speed. Inwas
this conducted by consisted
case, the test introducing 2 L into the drone
of moving tank. The spraying
linearly time up
at a speed of to
0.5
emptying the tank was 70 s. The spraying flow calculated was 1.7 L/min.
m/s and defining the ground footprint. The same containers used in previous tests were
alsoAfter
used tothis calculation,
measure the static
the fluid and dynamic
recovered footprints
from the ground. of the
Flying drone over
heights spraying were
the ground
evaluated. In both
were also 3.0, cases,
5.0 and 7.0am.
plastic container of known dimensions was used to take fluid
from the ground (Figure 3). The system shows a surface of 753.7 cm2 .

Figure 3. Plastic container to collect liquid during testing.

Figure 3. Plastic container to collect liquid during testing.
The static footprint defines the surface affected by the fluid during a hover spraying
at different heights. Time during spraying was 30 s and heights involved were 3.0, 5.0 and
3. Results and Discussion
7.0 m. Two containers were placed on the ground on the spraying surface, one in the same
Figure 4 shows
X-Y coordinates of thean example
drone of the
hovering static
and footprint
the other one at
at 3.0,
1.0 m 5.0distance.
and 7.0 m on the skate
parkThe
of Nigrán municipality. Table 1 shows the fluid volume recovered
dynamic footprint defines the behavior of drone spraying at a pre-defined in each container
mission
at different
speed. In thisflight
case,heights
the testduring the static
consisted footprint
of moving test. Aslinearly
the drone it was expected,
at a speedthe footprint
of 0.5 m/s
dimensions
and defining increase
the ground with height, but
footprint. Thethe container’s
same containers volume
used in ofprevious
fluid decreases. In addi-
tests were also
tion,to
used although
measurethe thewind
fluid speed was from
recovered slow the
during the tests
ground. Flying(2.2heights
km/h),overit decreased
the ground thewere
accu-
racy3.0,
also of the footprint
5.0 and 7.0 m.with the height increase.
Figure 5 depicts an example of the dynamic footprint at 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0 m on the same
3.previous
Results place.
and Discussion
Table 2 shows the width of the footprint during the dynamic test and the
volume of 4fluid
Figure showsrecovered from of
an example the
thecontainers. The footprint
static footprint at 3.0, 5.0loses
and uniformity
7.0 m on the with the
skate
increasing
park of Nigránheight. At a height
municipality. of 7.0
Table m, nothe
1 shows fluid
fluidis volume
recovered from the
recovered in container and the
each container at
footprintflight
different is narrow,
heightsmaking
duringany
theform offootprint
static cleaning test.
with As
the itsystem difficult. the footprint
was expected,
dimensions increase with height, but the container’s volume of fluid decreases. In addition,
although the wind speed was slow during the tests (2.2 km/h), it decreased the accuracy
of the footprint with the height increase.

Table 1. Static footprint test results. Spraying time: 70 s.

Footprint Container 1 Volume Container 2 Volume

Flight Height (m)
Dimensions (m) (mL) (mL)
3 2.9 × 2.5 33 8
5 4.0 × 3.5 3 12
7 5.1 × 4.1 1 3
Drones 2021, 5, 18 Drones 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 8 5o

Figure 4. Example of static footprint (darker gray area) on the skatepark in Nigrán municipality.
Figure 4. Example of static footprint (darker gray area) on the skatepark in Nigrán municipality. (A) 3.0 m height, (B) 5.0
(A) 3.0 m height, (B) 5.0 m height, (C) 7.0 m height. Red point on container 1 indicates the X-Y
m height, (C) 7.0 m height. Red point on container 1 indicates the X-Y position of the drone.
position of the drone.

Figure 5 depicts an example of the dynamic footprint at 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0 m on the same
previous place. Table 2 shows the width of the footprint during the dynamic test and the
volume of fluid recovered from the containers. The footprint loses uniformity with the
increasing height. At a height of 7.0 m, no fluid is recovered from the container and the
footprint is narrow, making any form of cleaning with the system difficult.

Table 2. Dynamic footprint results.

Container 1 Volume Container 2 Volume

Flight Height (m) Footprint Width (m)
(mL) (mL)
3 2.4 2 -
5 2.1 1 -
7 - - -

As shown in the tests carried out with the system, the dispersion is greatly affected by
the wind, both in the footprint position and width. In view of these results, the optimal
height to ensure that the dispersed liquid covers the entire desired surface uniformly is 3 m.
Furthermore, with the tank capacity of 5.5 L and the dispersion flow of the system, which
is 1.7 L/min, the drone could fly at 96.1 m, dispersing liquid at a speed of 0.5 m/s. Flying .
at a height of 3.0 m and considering the width of the footprint obtained in the dynamic test,
Figure 5. Example of dynamic footprint (darker gray area) on the skatepark in Nigrán municipality. (A) 3.0 m height, (B)
it can be concluded that the system covers an area of 228.8 m2 with the 5.5 L tank.
5.0 m height, (C) 7.0 m height. Red arrow indicates the X-Y position of the drone path.
Considering the previous study, assumed as the calibration of the technology, an
operational study was performed for all the testing sites under study (Table 3). A flight
height of 3 m over the places was selected, with a 2.2 m footprint to guarantee maximum
coverage and overlap between the different strips. The other operational parameters such as
Drones 2021, 5, 18 6 of 8

speed and spraying flow were the same as those previously tested (0.5 m/s and 1.7 L/min,
respectively). Figure 6 shows an example of the cleaning mission simulated that requires
seven strips to clean all of the surface. Table 3 shows the results for all the sites under
study. Total flight distance was calculated as the sum of strips’ length plus the width of the
rectangle. The required number of tanks to perform all the spraying task was estimated
taking into account the length of 96.1 m, the drone speed of 0.5 m/s and the spraying flow
of 1.7 L/min. Flying time is calculated from the speed of the mission and the total length for
spraying. Considering the autonomy of the system (7 min), the number of battery changes
to perform the complete mission is automatically obtained. Battery replacement operation
is estimated based on authors’ previous experience of needing 4 min, and the tank refill adds
another 4 min to the operation. These data added to the flight time provide the total time
for the cleaning mission. The correlation between the cleaning area and time is evaluated
Figure 4. Example of static footprint (darker gray area) on the skatepark in Nigrán municipality. (A) 3.0 m height, (B)2
5.0
and
m height, (C) 7.0 m height. Redrepresented by the1 indicates
point on container following theequation: Total
X-Y position time
of the (min) = 0.0456· Area m + 2.95.
drone.

.
Figure 5. Example of dynamic footprint (darker gray area) on the skatepark in Nigrán municipality. (A) 3.0 m height,
Figure 5. Example of dynamic footprint (darker gray area) on the skatepark in Nigrán municipality. (A) 3.0 m height, (B)
(B) 5.0 m height, (C) 7.0 m height. Red arrow indicates the X-Y position of the drone path.
5.0 m height, (C) 7.0 m height. Red arrow indicates the X-Y position of the drone path.
Table 3. Results of operational study for spray cleaning using a drone.

Parameters Skate Park Outdoor Gym Multisport Court

Area (m2 ) 882.7 525.0 2036.7
Length (m) 53.5 35.0 46.5
Width (m) 16.5 15.0 43.8
Strips 7 7 20
Total flight distance (m): length ·
391.0 260.0 973.8
strips + width
Number of tank refills 5 3 11
Disinfectant volume (L) 22.3 14.8 55.7
Flying time (min) 13.0 8.6 32.4
Battery changes (autonomy 7 min) 2 2 5
Total time (min): Flying time +
battery changes time + tank 41.0 28.6 96.4
refill time
Drones 2021, 5,
Drones 2021, 5, 18
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77 of
of 89

Figure 6. Example of mission planning for drone spraying cleaning at the skatepark in Nigrán municipality.
municipality. Red arrows
indicate drone strips.

4. Conclusions
Table 3. Results of operational study for spray cleaning using a drone.
A spraying drone system was tested for disinfection purposes in open scenarios
Outdoor Multisport
usually shared by Parameters
people as an outdoor gym, a multisport Skate Park court with stands and a skatepark.
The disinfection of these locations is challenging with other methodologies Gym Court with
(humans
Area (m 2) 882.7 525.0
spraying backpack or spraying trucks), especially in some areas such as the stands of the 2036.7
multisport court or Length
some(m) elements of the outdoor gym. 53.5 Man-made 35.0 works are46.5 slow and
cannot carry largeWidth volumes (m)of fluid. Due to their nature, 16.5 they also 15.0
do not guarantee43.8 that
the work is performed as a systematic procedure. On
Strips 7 the other hand, 7 the use 20of trucks
generates an accessibility
Total flight distance (m): problem
length since
·stripsthey
+ cannot reach many spaces.
The experiments performed show how the use 391.0of drones260.0 973.8 and
appears as reliable
width
efficient. They provideofan
Number accurate
tank refillsspraying that could5be parameterized 3 and cost evaluated.
11
Static and dynamic tests were
Disinfectant volume (L) performed. Static tests show
22.3 a great influence
14.8 in the55.7
footprint
quality with the wind, even
Flying time (min) for lower wind speeds.13.0 This influence
8.6 increases with the
32.4
increasing flight height. The most recommended height for correct spraying with the drone
Battery changes (autonomy 7 min) 2 2 5
system under study is 3 m. Dynamic tests show that the lower height also provides the
Total time (min): Flying time + battery
most adequate spraying footprint, achieving 2.4 m for 41.0a speed of 28.6
0.5 m/s. 96.4
Thechanges time + tank
characteristics of the refill time were evaluated in the three different scenarios. It
operation
can be concluded that the cleaning of the skatepark needs 41.0 min, the outdoor gym needs
4. Conclusions
28.6 min and the multisport court needs 96.4 min. In addition, it must be noted that the
A spraying
operation could be drone system using
performed was tested for disinfection
only one drone pilot, purposes
which makes in open scenarios usu-
it cost-competitive
ally shared
against otherbycleaning
people as an outdoor gym, a multisport court with stands and a skatepark.
methodologies.
The disinfection
For future work,of these locations
it would be of is challenging with other drones
interest to study methodologies (humans
in the market thatwith
can
spraying
load larger backpack
volumesorofspraying
liquid, suchtrucks), especially
as the DJI Agrasin some
or theareas such as the stands
YamahaR-Max. of the
They would
surely increase
multisport courtthe productivity
or some elements ofofthethemethod,
outdoorsince
gym.one of the greater
Man-made works delays
are slow in and
the
procedure
cannot is related
carry to the deposit
large volumes recharge
of fluid. Due totime.
theirThe development
nature, they alsoofdo annot
automatic
guarantee ground
that
refillwork
the station could also as
is performed contribute
a systematic to improving
procedure.this Onlimitation, maybethe
the other hand, in use
combination
of trucks
with drone
generates anbattery recharging
accessibility problem stations. On cannot
since they the otherreachhand,
many there are open issues that
spaces.
requireThemore researchperformed
experiments in future. At show thehow
biochemical
the use oflevel, theappears
drones appropriate drop size
as reliable and for
ef-
ficient. They provide an accurate spraying that could be parameterized and cost that
disinfection with this type of system, the optimal thickness of the water sheet evalu-is
generated on the ground or what type of cleaning solution is most
ated. Static and dynamic tests were performed. Static tests show a great influence in the recommended should
be determined.
footprint quality There
with thearewind,
otherevenopenfor issues
lowerrelated to the lack
wind speeds. This of GNSS signal
influence andwith
increases the
operation
the in indoor
increasing flightenvironments,
height. The most as well as the management
recommended height forof unforeseen obstacles
correct spraying withsuch
the
as railing and cables.
drone system under study is 3 m. Dynamic tests show that the lower height also provides
the most adequate spraying footprint, achieving 2.4 m for a speed of 0.5 m/s.
Drones 2021, 5, 18 8 of 8

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.G.-J., J.M.-S., F.N.-M.; methodology, H.G.-J., L.M.G.-S.,

N.F-A.; testing, L.M.G.-S., N.F.-A.; results analysis, H.G.-J., J.M.-S., F.N.-M.; writing and editing,
H.G.-J., J.M.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Galician Innovation Agency (GAIN) from the regional
government of Xunta de Galicia, Spain.
Acknowledgments: Authors thank Miguel Angel González-deSantos for all support given during
the flight operations.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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