H E L L E N I S T I C , R O M A N , A N D B Y Z A N T I N E T H E AT R E

Sometimes plays or pantomimes were acted out

in the arenas. In one instance, a criminal imperson-
ating Orpheus appeared from below the arena level
as if coming from Hades. He played music which en-
chanted rocks and trees so that they moved to greet
him and animals crouched at his feet; then, at the end
of this display, he was torn to pieces by a bear.
In the eastern part of the empire, where specta-
cles were less bloody, more emphasis was placed on
Pyrrhic dances (or ballet-like performances).Apuleius
(second century C.E.), in his novel Metamorphoses, de-
scribes such a performance in the amphitheatre at
Corinth in Greece.The scenery seems to have been
three-dimensional and practicable, for it represented
a mountain on which were shrubs, trees, a stream,
grazing goats, and a shepherd. An entertainment
based on the story of Paris’ judgment on the beauty
of Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite was enacted on the
mountain.At the end, a fountain of wine sprang out
of the mountain’s top and the entire structure sank
out of sight. There are also references to devices
(pegmata) for flying characters or objects, but it is not
clear where these were located or operated.
Although these accounts concern amphitheatres,
they make it clear that Roman engineers had devel-
FIG. 22
oped scenic devices as complex as any that would
be introduced into the theatre prior to modern times. Two Roman comic actors. Bronze figures on the cover of
a third-century B.C.E. box or chest found at Praeneste,
near Rome. Courtesy British Museum.

ACTORS AND ACTING

The usual term for actors in Rome was histriones, al-
though cantores (or declaimers) was also used. At first
a clear distinction was made between the actors of reg-
ular dramas and the performer of mimes (the mimus
or saltator), the latter being considered inferior. In late
Rome, however, the term histriones came to be applied
to all actors. The majority of performers were male,
for only in mimes did women appear on stage.
The social status of the Roman actor has been
much disputed. Some historians have suggested that
all actors were slaves owned by company managers.
Although this arrangement may have been used in
some cases, it was by no means universal. Roscius
(131–63 B.C.E.), the most famous of Roman actors,
was certainly never a slave and was eventually raised
to the nobility. Similarly, Aesopus, a contemporary
of Roscius, was a member of the Optimates, a group
that exercised considerable control over public affairs
because of its wealth, influence, and ability. On the
other hand, mime actors appear always to have been
considered infamous, and many of them certainly
were slaves. Occasionally emperors forced noblemen
to appear on stage as a form of punishment and
degradation. Overall, it seems likely that, though the
social status of actors could vary considerably, the ma-
jority always ranked low in public esteem.
Little is known about the professional performers
in Rome prior to the introduction of comedy and
tragedy in 240 B.C.E. by Livius Andronicus, who acted
in his own plays. Succeeding dramatists, however, sel-
dom followed his practice and instead left produc-
tion entirely to the professional managers. Thus, in
Rome there was not the intimate connection be-
tween playwriting and performance found in early
Greece. At least some Roman actors belonged to a
worldwide guild, especially as the number of festivals
increased in the far-flung cities of the empire, but it
is not clear what the performance arrangements were.
Although there apparently were no restrictions on
the number of actors that could be used on the
Roman stage, the extant plays could have been per-
formed by a company of five or six actors, if dou-
bling was practiced and supernumeraries used
occasionally. Troupes may have been much larger,
however, for no information about their size during
the republic has survived. In the first century B.C.E.,
as the regular drama declined, emphasis shifted to the
“star” performer. Many stars amassed fortunes, and
 H E L L E N I S T I C , R O M A N , A N D B Y Z A N T I N E T H E AT R E
FIG. 23
Female mime performer or dancer. In her hands she
holds clappers and on her left foot she wears a foot-
clapper. Bells are attached to her cap, skirt, and ankle.
Bronze statuette, late second century C.E. Courtesy Art
Museum, Princeton University.
under the empire they had followings not unlike
those of a modern movie star. In late Rome, many
of the most popular performers were tightrope walk-
ers, trapeze artists, jugglers, sword-swallowers, fire-
eaters, and dancers.
Acting style probably varied according to the dra-
matic form. In comedy and tragedy, the actors were
male, wore masks, and probably doubled in roles as
the Greeks had done. In tragedy, delivery seems to
have been slow, stately, and declamatory; in comedy,
it was conversational. Most roles required proficiency
in speaking, singing, and dancing. Contemporary
writers also made it clear that expressive pantomimic
gesture (perhaps heavily dependent on stock attitudes
and poses) was a prominent ingredient in every per-
formance. In tragedy, movement seems to have been
slow and dignified, but in comedy it was more lively,
for running, beatings, and farcical horseplay of all sorts
were common. Since the theatres sometimes seated
as many as 17,000 persons, the actors’ gestures and
movements probably were considerably enlarged.
They were not greatly exaggerated, however, since
Roman teachers of oratory suggested actors as suit-
able models for imitation by public speakers.Typical
human movement, gesture, and intonation appear to
have been reduced to their essentials, then enlarged
and conventionalized for stage use. For the most part,
actors specialized in one type of drama, although An-
dronicus and Roscius departed from the usual prac-
tice by performing in both comedy and tragedy.
In the mimes, masks usually were not worn and
consequently facial expression was important.
Through much of its history, mime was in part im-
provised, and therefore it required a talent for the
invention of dialogue, business, and movement.
Mime actors seem to have been selected either for
their physical beauty or comic ugliness, for the plots
most typically revolved around sexual desirability or
some grotesquerie. In the second century B.C.E., the
companies were probably very small, with perhaps
no more than three or four members; but under the
empire they included as many as sixty performers,
although many of these were acrobats and variety
entertainers. In the first century B.C.E., a school for
mime actors was operating in Rome.
In pantomime, the emphasis was on the solo per-
former. Noted for their handsomeness and athletic
qualities, these actors depended entirely upon gesture
and movement to portray a series of characters and
situations. Many were renowned for the subtlety and
complexity of their portrayals at a time when tragic
acting had become increasingly exaggerated.
In addition to the public performers, there were
a number of private troupes in late Rome.These were
probably composed of slaves kept by emperors and
rich men to provide entertainment for their house-
holds and friends.
MASKS AND COSTUMES
Masks apparently were used in the Roman theatre
from the very beginning. All of the cultures that in-
fluenced Rome—Etruria,Greece,southern Italy—had
used masks in their entertainments, and thus it seems
unlikely that the Romans would have rejected an ac-
cepted convention of the forms they borrowed—
Greek comedy and tragedy,Atellan farce, and Etruscan
dances. The use of masks also made the doubling of
roles much easier and simplified the problem of cast-
ing characters of identical appearance, as in Plautus’
Menaechmi and Amphitryon.
Masks were made of linen and, with the attached
wig, formed a complete covering for the head. It is
usually assumed that Roman masks for comedy and