Module 1: Homeostasis and endocrine control

1 INTRODUCTION, HOMEOSTASIS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2-3 Human physiology, introduction

 Define human physiology
 Recognize that human physiology entails many levels of biological organization (fig. 1.1)
4, 5 Function & Mechanism
 Distinguish between teleological approach and mechanistic approach.
9, 10, 13-17 Homeostasis, define:
 Homeostasis (p 9, 10)
 Control systems and homeostasis (p. 13-17), negative feedback (p. 15-16). Be able to
provide examples of each term/process.
 The body’s internal environment and extracellular and intracellular fluid (p. 10, 11, see
also fig. 5.1a).

6 CELL SIGNALING

Cell-to-cell communication via chemical or electrical signals is key to maintaining homeostasis.

In this chapter, you will learn about ligand-receptor interactions and how this can lead to
changes in electrical and chemical properties of the cell. You will also learn about some
important signal transduction pathways that you will repeatedly encounter in physiology.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

165-170 Communication between cells

 Compare the endocrine system and the nervous system (fig. 6.1)
 Define electrical signal, chemical signals, target cells.
 Compare and contrast local and long-distance communication.
 Define gap junctions.
 Define paracrine and autocrine signals.
 Compare and contrast intracellular and cell membrane receptors (fig. 6.3).
o Recognize that lipophilic signal molecules can enter the cell and bind to
intracellular receptors; lipophobic (hydrophilic) signal molecules can not cross
the membrane and bind to cell membrane receptors.
o Distinguish between
 genomic (involving changes in gene activity, response tends to be slow)
 nongenomic cellular responses (rapid, for example, gating of ion
channels, activation of enzymes).

170-180 Signal transduction

 Define signal transduction (fig. 6.5).
 Recognize the significance of signal amplification.

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Module 1: Homeostasis and endocrine control

Molecular interactions of ligands and receptors kicks off a cellular response; describe this in
relation to (fig. 6.7, see also 6.3c):
 Receptor channel (ligand gated ion channels, fig. 6.7).
 Receptor enzymes (tyrosine kinase receptor, fig. 6.9).
 Second messenger pathways (and define second messenger, fig. 6.6c):
o cAMP pathway (fig. 6.8a).
o Phospholipase C pathway (fig. 6.8b).

179-181 Modulation of signal pathways

 Be able to apply the principles of affinity, specificity, and competition to receptors.
 Compare and contrast agonist and antagonist.
 Describe up- and downregulation in relation to receptor density and the response of the
target cell.
 Recognize the need to terminate the signal.

181-190 Homeostatic reflex pathways

 Compare and contrast the endocrine and the nervous system (table 6.2 on p. 187).
 Describe tonic control and antagonistic control (fig. 6.15).
 Define the steps in a reflex pathway and describe several examples (see lectures
endocrine system; nervous system).
 Note: fig. 6.19 and table 6.3 (p. 189, 190) are useful but a bit abstract; we will discuss
examples of these reflex pathways in class.

7. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Similar to the nervous system, the endocrine system is vitally important for communication
across the body. However, the endocrine system operates by different mechanisms to elicit the
desired effector responses.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Describe the importance of endocrine control for homeostasis
 What is a hormone?
o Recognize that hormones act by binding to a receptor
o Recognize that hormone signals must be terminated (how?)

Classification of hormones, general characteristics of hormones and hormonal control systems

 List the three general classes of hormones, location of the receptor, and an example of
each (Table 7.1)
 Identify the amino acid tyrosine as the precursor to amine hormones. List the names of
the amine hormones.
 Review the synthetic pathways for peptide hormones (fig. 7.3). Differentiate among
preprohormone, prohormone, and hormone. Recognize that enzymes cleave
prohormone into active peptide hormones.

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Module 1: Homeostasis and endocrine control

 Recognize that cholesterol is the precursor to all steroid hormones. Recognize that
steroid hormones are formed by virtue of certain enzymes. Mechanism of action of
steroid hormones.

Hormone Transport in the Blood

 Explain that peptide and catecholamine hormones are generally water-soluble and are
thus transported in blood dissolved in plasma, whereas steroid hormones and thyroid
hormones are poorly soluble and are thus primarily transported bound to binding
proteins.
 Recognize that only free (not bound to a binding protein) hormone can diffuse out of
capillaries and affect target cells.

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

 Know that peptide and amine receptors are typically cell surface receptors because they
are hydrophilic/lipophobic
 Know that receptors for steroid and thyroid hormones generally lie within the cytoplasm
and/or nuclei of target cells.
 Compare and contrast non-genomic vs. genomic responses

Hormone interactions
 Discuss how hormones can up-regulate and down-regulate their own receptors.
Recommended example: diabetes and hyperinsulinemia
 Compare and contrast synergism, permissiveness, and antagonism
 Describe how the up-regulation of one hormone’s receptors by another hormone leads
to the phenomenon of permissiveness.
 Compare and contrast competitive antagonism and functional antagonism

Simple endocrine reflexes

 Describe an example of a simple endocrine pathway (e.g. parathyroid and the regulation
of Ca2+). In this example, explain
o why in a simple endocrine pathway, the endocrine cell acts as a sensor and
integrating center
o how negative feedback signal consists of the response itself (calcium levels)
turning off the reflex

The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

 Described the pituitary gland as two fused glands
 Describe the release of hormones from the posterior pituitary
 Define a tropic hormone and describe its role in regulating hormone secretion and
‘nourishing’ the endocrine gland.
 Name the six well-characterized anterior pituitary hormones, their functions, and the
hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones that affect pituitary hormone secretion.

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Module 1: Homeostasis and endocrine control

The focus will be on the HPA, HPT and HPG axis, which lead to the secretion of cortisols,
thyroid hormones, and sex steroid hormones.
 Appreciate how negative feedback control stabilizes an endocrine pathway (e.g. enables
downregulation of glucocorticoids when the stressor is gone).

HPA axis
 Describe the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis, all the hormones and glands involved
and list the receptors they activate (see also Ch. 23, 729-734)
 Describe several effects of glucocorticoids on metabolism, immune function, etc.
 Describe negative feedback regulation (both short and long loop)
 Describe how negative feedback regulation is impacted by early life stress
 Distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary pathologies based on hormone
levels (fig. 7.14, 7.15, see also Ch. 23, 733)