Joao Das Couves Vol 2

Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering
Zhengchang Shen
Principles and
Technologies
of Flotation
Machines
Series Editors
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Haibin Duan, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China
Yili Fu, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Carlos Guardiola, CMT-Motores Termicos, Polytechnic University of Valencia,
Valencia, Spain
Jian-Qiao Sun, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
Young W. Kwon, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USA
Francisco Cavas-Martínez, Departamento de Estructuras, Universidad Politécnica
de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
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Zhengchang Shen
Principles and Technologies

of Flotation Machines
Zhengchang Shen
Beijing General Research Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy (BGRIMM)
Beijing, China
ISSN 2195-9862 ISSN 2195-9870 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-16-0331-0 ISBN 978-981-16-0332-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0332-7
Jointly published with Metallurgical Industry Press

The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the
print book from: Metallurgical Industry Press.
ISBN of the Co-Publisher’s edition: 978-7-5024-8763-8
© Metallurgical Industry Press 2021

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Preface
The history of mineral processing over the recent one hundred years has shown
that the froth flotation is a predominant technology of mineral beneficiation, and
nowadays it is widely used for materials separation, valuables recovery and wastes
treatment in the industries of mining, petroleum, chemical engineering, etc. Flota-
tion equipment plays vital roles in the practices of flotation processing. The devel-
opment of flotation equipment made it possible for more and more traditional
and nontraditional ores and materials to be treated by flotation process with high
efficiency.
Many books on flotation principles and flotation reagents have been published in
the past century, however very few of them emphasizes on flotation equipment and
the principles behind. The innovation on flotation machines should be brought to the
forefront for the further improvement of flotation technology.
The author of this book started the investigation of flotation equipment since the
1980s. This book has summarized the research findings achieved by the author, his
research group as well as researchers around the world in the past decades. It starts
with the fundamental principles of the physic phenomena such as hydrodynamics
of slurry, aeration mechanism, bubble-particle interaction and so on helping readers
to understand how a flotation machine works. The principles and approaches of
flotation equipment design are then described and discussed in details. An emphasis
is put on the scale-up design methods since it has been a trend to design more and
more massive flotation machines. The critical structures, key components, typical
applications and histories of the equipment from the major suppliers are introduced
to provide readers with a whole picture.
This book is suitable for teachers, researchers, R&D engineers, graduate students
and professionals in the area of mineral processing and extractive metallurgy who
wish to study flotation process knowledge and explore innovative technologies.
v
vi Preface
At the time of publishing this book, I would like to express my gratitude to my

group members and graduate students who have spent hundreds of days and nights
verifying data, plotting charts, and editing contents. A special acknowledgment is
given to Ms. Yinhe Xu who encouraged me on writing this book and undertook
the proposal for the publication. Thanks also to all my colleagues who helped to
complete this project.
Beijing, China Zhengchang Shen

2020
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Brief Introduction of the Evolution History of Flotation
Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Flotation in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Flotation in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Development Trend of Flotation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1 Classification of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2 Basic Study of Flotation Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1 Collision Between Mineral Particles and Bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.1 Collision Process Mechanism of Coarse Minerals . . . . . 37
2.1.2 Collision Process Mechanism of Fine Minerals . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Adhesion Between Mineral Particles and Bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.1 Adhesion of Coarse Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.2 Adhesion of Fine Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Detachment of Mineral Particles and Bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Influence of Size on Flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1 Influence of Coarse Particles on Flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.2 Influence of Fine Particles on Flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 Dynamic Zoning of Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5.1 Agitating and Mixing Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5.2 Transport Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5.3 Separation Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.4 Froth Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3 Dynamic Characteristics and Evaluation of Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 Characteristic Parameters and Evaluation of Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.1 Aeration (Suction) Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.2 Dispersion Degree of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
vii
viii Contents
3.1.3 Diameter and Distribution of Bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.1.4 Bubble Surface Area Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.1.5 Gas Holdup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.1.6 Bubble-Loading Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.7 Pulp Resident Time Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.8 Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.9 Volume Utilization Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.10 Pulp Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.11 Critical Speed of Impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1.12 Spindle Power Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2 Performance Evaluation of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4 Research on Fluid Dynamics Test of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Flow State Test of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1.1 LDV Testing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.1.2 PIV Testing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 Pulp Flow Test Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.1 Residence Time Distribution Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.2 Circulation Volume and Flow Velocity Test . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2.3 Suspension Capacity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3 Bubbles and Particles Testing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4 PEPT Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.5 Spindle Force Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5 CFD Simulation Research on Fluid Dynamics of Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1 Summary of CFD Simulation Research of Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.1 Significance of CFD Simulation of Flotation
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.2 Research Objective of CFD Simulation
of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.3 Problems Existing in CFD Simulation of Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.1.4 Prospect on CFD Simulation of Flotation Machines . . . . 133
5.2 CFD Simulation Research of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2.1 CFD Mathematical Model of Flotation Machines . . . . . . 135
5.2.2 CFD Simulation Research of Flotation Machines
Under the Single-Phase Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.3 Flow Field of the Flotation Machine Under
the Two-Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
the Two-Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Contents ix
5.2.5 Optimization of Flotation Machines Based

on CFD Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6 Flotation Machine Upsizing Method and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1 Flotation Machine Upsizing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.2 Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.2.1 TankCell Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.2.2 Wemco Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.3 BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.3.1 Difficulties of Flotation Machine Upsizing
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.3.2 BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.3.3 Key Structure Design of BGRIMM Large
Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.3.4 Rapid BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing
Driven by CFD Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7 BGRIMM Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.1 SF, BF and GF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machines . . . . . . 214
7.1.1 SF Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.1.2 BF Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.1.3 GF Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.2 JJF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.2.2 Analysis of Dynamic Performance of the JJF
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8 BGRIMM Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation
Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.1 KYF Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine . . . . . . 264
8.1.1 Working Principle and Key Structures of KYF
8.1.2 Fluid Dynamics Research in KYF Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.1.3 Performance and Application of the KYF
Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.2 XCF Automatic Suction Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation
Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures of XCF
8.2.2 Fluid Dynamics Research in XCF Flotation
Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
x Contents
8.2.3 Performance and Application of the XCF

Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9 BGRIMM Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
9.1 Technology of Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . 319
9.1.1 Design Principle of Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation
Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.1.2 Working Principle and Structure
of Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9.2 CLF Air-Forced Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . 325
9.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
9.2.2 Performance of CLF-8 Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
9.2.3 Performance of CLF-40 Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . 332
9.3 CGF Automatic Suction Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation
Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.3.1 Key Structure and Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.3.2 Dynamic Performance of CGF Flotation Machine . . . . . 341
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
10 Process Control System of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.1 Development and Current Situation of Flotation Machine
Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.1.1 Early Development of Flotation Machine Process
Control Technology at Home and Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
10.1.2 Process Control Situation of Flotation Machines
at Home and Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
10.2 Pulp Level Control of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
10.2.1 Level Detection Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
10.2.2 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
10.2.3 Pulp Level Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
10.2.4 Industrial Application of the Level Control
System of BFLC Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.3 Aeration Rate Control of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.3.1 Aeration Rate Detection Device and Control
Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.3.2 Automatic Control Strategy for Aeration Rate . . . . . . . . . 374
10.3.3 Industrial Application of the Aeration Rate
Control System of BFLC Flotation Machine . . . . . . . . . . 375
10.4 Froth Image Analysis of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
10.4.1 Flotation Froth Image Equipment
and Implementation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
10.4.2 Static and Dynamic Characteristic Detection
Technology of Flotation Froth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
10.4.3 Application of Froth Image Analysis
in the Flotation Process Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Contents xi
10.5 Process Control Problems and Development Trend

of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
10.5.1 Process Control Problems of Flotation Machines . . . . . . 390
10.5.2 Development Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
11 Model Selection and Design of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
11.1 Technical Characteristics of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
11.2 Preliminary Determination of Flotation Machine Type
and Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
11.3 Selection for the Specification of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . 398
11.3.1 Calculation of Flotation Pulp Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
11.3.2 Determination of Flotation Time of Operations . . . . . . . . 398
11.3.3 Calculation and Determination of Tank Quantity
of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
11.3.4 Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
11.4 Configuration of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
11.4.1 Horizontal Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
11.4.2 Stepwise Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
11.4.3 Selection of Two Configuration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
11.4.4 Selection Cases of Configuration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.5 Selection of Supporting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.5.1 Flotation Process Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.5.2 Supporting Equipment for Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
11.6 Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation of Flotation Machine
Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
11.6.1 Process of Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . 419
11.6.2 Factor Sets and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
11.6.3 Determination of Weight Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
11.6.4 Fuzzy Conclusion Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
11.7 Model Selection of Flotation Machines of CBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
11.7.1 Design and Selection of CBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
11.7.2 Example Expression and Example Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . 424
11.8 Model Selection of Flotation Machines Based on JK
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
11.8.1 Flotation Process Simulation Software
of JKSimFloat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
11.8.2 Flotation Process Simulation Software of HSC Sim . . . . 430
11.8.3 Flotation Process Simulation Software of USIM
PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
xii Contents
12 Application Examples of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

12.1 Applications of Flotation Machines for Non-Ferrous Metal
Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
12.1.1 Application of Flotation Machines for Bauxite . . . . . . . . 435
12.1.2 Application of Flotation Machines for Copper
Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
12.1.3 Application of Flotation Machines for Lead–zinc
Ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
12.1.4 Application of Flotation Machines for Nickel Ore . . . . . 451
12.1.5 Application of Flotation Machines
for Molybdenum Ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
12.2 Applications of Flotation Machines for Ferrous Metal Ores . . . . . 458
12.2.1 Application of Flotation Machines in JISCO’s
Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
in the Concentrator of Daye Iron Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
12.2.3 Application of Flotation Machines in Baotou Iron
and Steel Company’s Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
12.2.4 Application of Flotation Machines in Jianshan
Iron Ore Mine of Taiyuan Iron & Steel (Group)
Co., Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
12.2.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Anshan Iron
and Steel Group Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
12.2.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Shougang
Peru S.A.A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
12.3 Application of Flotation Machines in the Separation
of Rare and Precious Metal Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
12.3.1 Application of Flotation Machines for Gold Ore
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
12.3.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Lithium Ore
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
12.4 Applications of Flotation Machines for Non-Metal Ores . . . . . . . 470
12.4.1 Application of Flotation Machines for Potassic
Salt Ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.4.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Phosphorite
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
12.4.3 Application of Flotation Machines in the 4.5
Million t/a Project of Kunyang Phosphate Mine . . . . . . . 474
12.4.4 Application of Flotation Machines in Silica Sand
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
12.4.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Fluorite
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
12.4.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Graphite
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Contents xiii
12.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Reconcentration

of Tailings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
12.5.1 Application of Flotation Machines in Tailings
Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
12.5.2 Application of Flotation Machines at Sizhou
Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
12.5.3 Application of Flotation Machines in Chengde
Shuangluan Jianlong Mining Co., Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
12.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Copper Smelting Slag . . . . 484
12.6.1 Application of Flotation Machines at Guixi
Smelter of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited . . . . . . . 484
12.6.2 Application of Flotation Machines in PASAR . . . . . . . . . 486
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Chapter 1
Introduction
Earth contains abundant mineral resources that normally need to be mined and
extracted before further refining. Mineral processing, also known as mineral dressing
or ore dressing, is a process that separates useful minerals from gangue materials
by means of various kinds of technology and equipment to achieve relative enriched
valuable minerals.
Flotation was explicitly proposed as a mineral processing method at the end of the
nineteenth century. In 1904, the first type of flotation equipment was invented and
adopted by industrial application in Australia [1]. The first flotation plant in China,
Qingchengzi Lead–Zinc Flotation Plant in Liaoning Province, was built in 1917.
Over the past 100 years, numerous efforts have been made by academia and industry
to improve the technology of flotation equipment which has gradually become diver-
sified, serialized, enlarged and automated. At present, flotation equipment has been
widely applied in mining, pulp and paper, agriculture, food, medicine, environmental
protection and other industries.
The evolution history, development trend and classification of flotation machine
technology is briefly reviewed in this chapter.
1.1 Brief Introduction of the Evolution History of Flotation

Machine
1.1.1 Flotation in Ancient Times
Flotation was applied in the medical and mining industries as early as the Ming
Dynasty. In the medical field, the natural hydrophobicity of mineral surface is used
to purify mineral drugs such as cinnabar and talc so that fine mineral mixture
floats on the water surface and is separated from sinking gangue. As recorded in
the Compendium of Materia Medica written by Li Shizhen in the Ming Dynasty
© Metallurgical Industry Press 2021 1

Z. Shen, Principles and Technologies of Flotation Machines, Springer Tracts
in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0332-7_1
2 1 Introduction
and other classical ancient medical books: The course of processing of red ocher,
mica, etc., (i.e. hematite) is as follows: “Porphyrize the hematite, wash with the
wax water for several times, and remove the red things like the thin cloud on the
water surface”; the processing method of realgar is as follows: “grind the realgar,
liquorice, gynura bicolor, elephantopus scaber, and blue-edge flowers, put them in
the crucible and heat for some time, filter out, smash into powder, grind while adding
water, remove the black, dry and grind for use”; and the processing method of mica
is as follows: “mix 0.5 kg of mica with 1 kg of elephantopus scaber, gynura bicolor,
raw licorice, and rehmannia juice, place them in the porcelain crucible, add two
kilograms of water and heat for seven days and nights, add water continuously and
agitate. Remove the floating things useless and harmful, and repeat for three times”
[2]. In the course of washing and processing of gold and silver, the natural hydropho-
bicity and lipophilicity of gold powder are used to scrape gold powder floating on
the water surface with a goose feather dipped in oil so that the gold powder is sepa-
rated from hydrophilic impurities such as dust. As recorded in the book Tiangong
Kaiwu, a process of recovery of gold and silver is that “scrape and incinerate the
gold foil sticks, drip a few drops of boiled oil into the ash, and then burn in the stove
after washing, to gain all the gold” [2]. Agricola Georgius (1494–1555), a German
mineralogist known as the father of mineralogy, discussed the process of mining and
metal smelting in his book De Re Metallica in detail. There were also evidences
about mineral collection with oil and asphalt in Ancient Greece and Europe: The
phenomenon of the rise of gas adhering to solid particles to water surface had been
known in the eighteenth century. Early in the nineteenth century, people used air
bubbles generated by reaction with carbonate minerals through gasification (boiled
pulp) or acidification for graphite flotation. Special flotation equipment was not
available until the mid-nineteenth century.
1.1.2 Flotation in Ancient Times
In the late nineteenth century, the resources of coarse lead, zinc, copper and sulfide
ores that could be treated by gravity separation gradually decreased due to the
increasing demand for metals. Flotation was explicitly proposed as a mineral sepa-
ration method for the purpose of separating fine ores. In 1903, Elmore proposed a
mixed oil flotation process deemed as the starting point of modern flotation. Subse-
quently, rapid development of the flotation technology was achieved, and the flotation
equipment was developed intensively. In 1909, GooverT made the first multi-tank
impeller agitator for froth flotation. In 1913, John Callow invented a pneumatic flota-
tion machine and Robert Towne and Frederick Flinn invented a pneumatic flotation
column. In 1914, Callow G obtained a patent for flotation equipment that sprayed
air from a porous false bottom of a tank. In 1915, Durrel made a prototype of jet
flotation machine [3]. In the 1920s, various types of mechanical agitation flotation
machines and pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machines were developed
and applied for industrial production in order to meet the copper demand of the
1.1 Brief Introduction of the Evolution History of Flotation Machine 3
booming power industry at that time. Since 1930, the development of new flotation
machines had been stagnated for a time as the market demand for copper metal was
significantly reduced. At the end of World War II in 1945, the mechanical agitation
flotation machine became the most widely used flotation machine at that time while
the pneumatic flotation machines were still in use. At that time, hundreds of flotation
tanks with a volume of about 2 m3 were used in a large concentrator at high costs of
construction, management and operation. For example, the Morenci concentrator in
the United States was the largest concentrator in 1942, with a processing capacity of
40,800 tons/day. The number of Fagergren flotation machines in this plant with the
single tank volume of 1.7 m3 reached up to 432.
In 1960, the price of copper metal rose again, the shadow from economic depres-
sion and wars was gradually dispersed and flotation equipment began to develop
towards upsizing. A few years later, the successful application of the first large-
scale mechanical agitation flotation machine in Bougainville Island announced the
commencement of upsizing of flotation machines. Since the 1970s, in addition to
mechanical agitation flotation machines, pneumatic flotation machines, flotation
columns and other equipment have also been constantly innovating in structures
and materials, gradually recognized by the market, and industrially applied on a
large scale.
China started late in the research of flotation equipment and did not begin to
develop flotation machines until the mid-1950s. In the 1970s, flotation machines
with independent intellectual property rights emerged, and the pneumatic mechanical
agitation flotation machine, coarse-size-fraction flotation machine, skim-air flotation
machine and other types of flotation machines were developed successively, which
could meet the production requirements of different concentrators.
Since 1980, despite the continuous deterioration of ore properties, the sustained
and rapid growth of the world economy and domestic economy has promoted the
continuous progress of theoretical research on flotation and flotation equipment tech-
nology, and significant progress has been made, especially in the research on upsizing,
diversification, automation, etc., of flotation equipment.
The characteristics of flotation machines at home and abroad are described herein
by two stages with flotation machines flourishing again in 1960 as the cut-off point
according to the development history of flotation equipment.
1.1.2.1 Before 1960
From 1903 (when the concept of modern flotation was proposed) to 1960, the devel-
opment of flotation process achieved remarkable progress, while the flotation equip-
ment was also developed rapidly, and various types of flotation equipment constantly
emerged. However, many kinds of flotation equipment were quickly eliminated by
the market since the understanding of flotation process and flotation equipment was
not deep enough at that time. Most of the flotation equipment in this period were small
mechanical agitation flotation machines and pneumatic flotation machines, and the
flotation machines most widely used at that time were Minerals Separation flotation
4 1 Introduction
machine, Callow flotation machine, Fahrenwald Denver flotation machine, Fager-

gren WEMCO flotation machine, Galigher Agitair flotation machine, MexaHoop
flotation machine, etc.
(1) Minerals separation flotation machine
Minerals Separation, the earliest flotation equipment manufacturer, became a tech-

nology leader in the flotation industry in 1910. So far, Minerals Separation has
produced three types of flotation machines [4], including the first generation of flota-
tion machine for which a patent application was filed by Hebbard in 1913 is shown
in Fig. 1.1. The sub-A flotation machine for which a patent application was filed by
Wilkinson and Littleford in 1926 is shown in Fig. 1.2. The design of the tank body
of this flotation machine has become the standard design for subsequent tank bodies
of flotation machines; the countercurrent flotation machine invented by Taggart is
shown in Fig. 1.3. The design of this flotation machine is similar to that of the Denver
flotation machine. The difference lies in that the froth tanks are separated by upper
open baffles to facilitate countercurrent flow of pulp at this point and circulation
of downstream pulp through the gap in the false bottom. The design theory of this
Fig. 1.1 The standard

flotation machine of the
Minerals Separation
Company
Fig. 1.2 The sub-A flotation machine of the Mienrals Separation Company
Fig. 1.3 Countcurrent flotation machine of the Minerals Separation Company

6 1 Introduction
machine is that the suction capacity of the impeller is much greater than the ore
feeding speed, which ensures that at least a part of the excess suction capacity of
the impeller is effectively used as the motive power for the pulp countercurrent.
The Minerals Separation flotation machine was still applied to major concentrators
until the 1960s. For example, it was used for sulphur removal at the concentrator
of Bancroft Mines’ Konkola in 1963 [5] and for concentration at the Silver Summit
concentrator in North Edward in 1966 [6]. This is enough to prove the superiority of
this type of flotation machine at that time.
(2) Callow flotation machine
The Callow flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic flotation machine invented by

John Callow. The first Callow flotation machine was successfully put into service
at the Morning concentrator in 1914 and patented in 1915. Its prototype is shown
in Fig. 1.4 [7, 8]. A perforated distributor at the bottom of the tank body generates
pressurized air. The material of the perforated distributor may be perforated brick or
even cocoa matting. The ore feeding speed must be moderate so that solid particles
remain suspended in the tank body. This flotation machine has the disadvantage
that the bottom perforated distributor is easily plugged, which makes the operation
and maintenance of the Callow flotation machine very complicated. Interestingly, a
tailing container with the cone valve and a level control mechanism are described in
the patent, which is amazingly consistent with the characteristics of modern flotation
machines.
Fig. 1.4 Callow’s forced-air flotation machine

(3) Fahrenwald Denver flotation machine
Founded in 1927, Denver Equipment Co., Ltd. produced Sub-A flotation machine, the
first flotation machine. The equipment was designed based on Arthur W Fahrenwald’s
patent in 1922 [9], so the Denver flotation machine was also called Fahrenwald
Denver flotation machine in the early stage and was improved several times later
[10, 11]. The structural principle of Denver Sub-A flotation machine is shown in
Fig. 1.5, which is characterized in that: (1) As the impeller rotates, air is sucked
into the impeller through a vertical pipe sheathed on the impeller shaft, and current
is stabilized via a four-blade stator after being mixed with the pulp; (2) Greater
circulation rate is realized by punching a hole in the hollow spindle; (3) The froth
area is separated from the mixing area of air and pulp through a baffle plate. The
machine is equipped with three different types of impellers: Conical disc-shaped
impeller, retracted disc-shaped impeller and multi-wing disc-shaped impeller, which
are available for the treatment of coarse high-concentration pulp, general operation
and roughing and scavenging, respectively.
Fig. 1.5 Denver flotation

machine
8 1 Introduction
(4) Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine
The Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine invented in 1920 is a mechanical agitation

flotation machine. At that time, the agitation mechanism of this flotation machine
was transverse, with its structure shown in Fig. 1.6. The machine is equipped with
a transverse rotation mechanism with a speed of 200 r/min. Air is sucked into the
spindle mechanism via an air supply duct 31 through rotation of the impellers on the
agitation mechanism, and forced to pass through the space between transverse baffle
plates. Pulp entering a feed pipe 35, is mixed with air in a cavity inside the spindle
mechanism, and then mineralized froth floats to the tank surface and overflows into
froth tank 37 [12].
In 1934, the agitation structure of the machine was changed into a vertically placed
structure as shown in Fig. 1.7, with metal impellers and stators. Annular discs were
arranged at the upper and lower ends of each impeller, vertical round bars or tubes
were installed at the edges between two discs, and their sizes had a great influence on
the performance of the flotation machine. The stator was also surrounded by round
Fig. 1.6 Fagergren flotation machine in the 1920s
Fig. 1.7 Fagergren flotation machine in the 1930s

bars or tubes. The bending direction of the disc-shaped blade on the impeller shall
ensure that air is sucked in when the impeller rotates, while the lower disc-shaped
blade can suck the pulp from the central hole at the tank bottom into the impeller.
After being mixed in the impellers, air and pulp are sprayed outward after current
stabilization through the clearance between the stator and the round bar so that
mineral-laden bubbles are dispersed into the tank body. This design is also known
as “squirrel cage” [13].
The Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine is characterized in that (1) Because
of the special design of stators and impellers, the machine has high bubble mineral-
ization rate and large circulation rate of pulp, as well as higher flotation efficiency.
This flotation machine has a higher flotation rate and larger processing capacity than
other flotation machines of equal volume. (2) The high flotation performance of this
flotation machine brings the low energy consumption for processing every ton of
ores. The shallow froth tank of the flotation machine also makes production energy
consumption much lower. (3) The operation and maintenance costs are lower. In
view of its high flotation performance and low energy consumption, the operation
and maintenance costs of this flotation machine are very low. Also, all the wearable
parts of this flotation machine are covered with high-quality wear-resistant rubber,
making their service life longer. (4) Simple structure and convenient installation. This
flotation machine is a spindle component which can be lifted out as a whole. The
disadvantage of the machine lies in that it needs to be strictly operated to maintain the
stability of the liquid level in the tank body because the aeration rate will be reduced
by two-thirds once the pulp level rises by 100 mm, thus affecting production.
(5) Agitair flotation machine
The Agitair flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation

machine invented by Lionel Booth, and the structure of the first generation of Agitair
flotation machine is shown in Fig. 1.8. As air is taken from the bottom of the tank
body into the machine, the air intake pipe is easily plugged, which is inconvenient
for operation [14]. The design was improved in the early 1940s, a hollow shaft was
added to the upper part of the impeller mechanism, and the air intake position was
arranged on the upper part of the flotation machine. Compared with other types of
flotation machines at that time, this flotation machine has separate air intake for each
tank body, separate froth overflow and little mutual influence between tanks, thus
meeting the flotation requirements for various ores, mineral particles with high lime
contents or viscous pulp. This flotation machine has higher recovery rate and less
power consumption.
(6) MexaHoop flotation machine
The MexaHoop flotation machine was designed by the Mineral separation, Design
& Research Institute of the Soviet Union, with its structure similar to that of the
Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine. As the impellers rotate, air is sucked through
a conduit and mixed with the pulp between the impellers and the cover plate and
then the mixture is thrown to the tank body. A feeding pipe and a middling pipe
10 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.8 Agitair flotation

machine
may be installed at the lower part of the air intake pipe. The pulp passes through
circulation holes and small holes in the cover plate to form the internal circulation.
Compared with the Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine, the MexaHoop flotation
machine is improved in the following aspects: (1) Due to the installation of guide
vane on the cover plate, pulp is thrown out in a more stable manner, the head loss
is low, and the suction rate of the impellers is improved; (2) A steady flow plate is
installed circumferentially at the lower part of the tank body to prevent eddy current
generated by the pulp. This machine has the disadvantages that: The impeller rotates
at a high speed, the impeller stator is seriously worn, and the power consumption is
high; Meanwhile, as the wear clearance of impeller stator is enlarged, the suction rate
is decreased obviously, and uneven wear may lead to fluctuation of the pulp level.
1.1.2.2 After 1960
As the price of copper metal rose again and the shadow of economic depres-
sion and wars was gradually dispersed in 1960, the research and development of
flotation equipment were revived, established manufacturers of flotation equipment
launched the research on the new structure and upsizing of flotation machines in
succession, and the representative flotation machines included the Denver DR flota-
tion machine developed by Denver, WEMCO1+1 flotation machine developed by
WEMCO, etc. New flotation equipment manufacturers such as OUTUKUMPUM
and Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy (BGRIMM), etc.
have also been gradually recognized by the market for their unique designs.
Fig. 1.9 Denver DR flotation machine
(1) Denver
In the early 1960s, Arthur Daman Jr and Leland Logue designed the Denver DR
flotation machine in order to increase the circulation rate of tank body and the bubble
mineralization rate [15]. Figure 1.9 is a drawing attached to the patent. The most
distinguishing characteristic of the DR flotation machine in contrast with the previous
Denver flotation machine lies in that a pulp circulating pipe extending from the
impeller to the top of the tank body is designed so that the pulp is led into the
circulating pipe rather than flowing directly to the impeller area, making the pulp
and air mix in the circulating pipe before entering the impeller area. The machine
has the characteristics that (1) The pulp is circulated vertically, even in an unclosed
tank body. This can effectively prevent sediment in the tank; (2) Bubbles and pulp
are mixed vertically; (3) High suspension of mineral particles and effective bubble
mineralization are still maintained under the conditions of low power motor drive
and low impeller speed.
The first DR flotation machine was installed and applied in Endako Group’s
concentrators in Colombia and Canada in 1964. Since then, Denver has carefully
expanded its original flotation tank to design a large flotation machine. The main
consideration from the very beginning of design is whether the spindle mechanism
can produce enough kinetic energy to work with the expanded tank body. Denver
originally designed the large flotation machine by connecting two small tank bodies
12 1 Introduction
together and removing the intermediate spacer. The company’s first generation of
large flotation machine was named Denver DR 600 (17 m3 ), which was made by
splicing two Denver DR 300 tank bodies back to back, so there were two spindle
mechanisms in one tank body. In 1967, a new molybdenum concentrator of DR
600 s was installed in the Endako mining area, Columbia. In 1972, 108 Denver DR
600 flotation machines were installed on Bougainville Island as the coarse particle
concentration equipment. The processing capacity of the flotation production line
reached up to 90,000 t/d. Denver was highly appreciated in the industry as a flotation
machine manufacturer as a result of the two successful applications. A few years
later, Denver was acquired by JOY, and its flotation machine production business
moved towards recession. Most of the mineral separation technologies developed
by Denver, including flotation machine technology, were sold to Sala by JOY and
Sala was renamed Svedala after reorganization. The Sub-A flotation machine and
DR flotation machine in Svedala’s product catalog in 1996 were almost entirely the
same as those designed by Denver in those years without any change. During the
next few mergers and acquisitions, Svedala transferred these flotation technologies
to Metso. Currently, the Metso flotation machine is the successor of Denver flotation
machine.
(2) Metso
Metso’s RSCTM (Reactor Cell System) flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic

agitation flotation machine with the maximum single tank volume of up to 200 m3 ,
and its structure is shown in Fig. 1.10. Equipped with a deep blade mechanism, it
Fig. 1.10 Metso’s RCS

flotation machine
can not only forcefully throw the pulp radially towards the tank wall, but also can
produce a strong pulp flow that can flow back to a portion below the impeller, thus
reducing the sediment in tank. This flotation machine is characterized in that (1) The
solid mineral particles in the lower area of the tank body are well suspended and
transported, resulting in multiple contacts and collisions between mineral particles
and bubbles and high recovery probability; (2) The turbulence at the upper part of
the tank body is small to prevent coarser particles from falling off; (3) The liquid
level is stable, and the probability of particle entrainment is low.
(3) FLSmidth
FLSmidth has two types of machines, namely WEMCO and Dorr-Oliver. In 1964,
WEMCO was acquired by Arthur G McKee; Envirotech acquired WEMCO and
EIMOCO Mining Equipment Co. Envirotech was subsequently acquired by Baker
Hughes which transferred WEMCO’s production line of mineral processing equip-
ment to EIMCO, Salt Lake City. In 2007, EIMCO was indirectly acquired by
FLSmidth. The representative products of WEMCO flotation machine include
WEMCO1+1 flotation machine and WEMCO SmartCell™ flotation machine.
1. WEMCO1+1 flotation machine
After 1960, WEMCO improved its technology due to decreasing market share of
WEMCO Fagergren flotation machines. In 1969, WEMCO successfully developed
the WEMCO1+1 flotation machine, as shown in Fig. 1.11. Compared with the Fager-
gren WEMCO flotation machine, this equipment: (1) retains the false bottom, the
tube for guiding airflow into the impellers and the slope of the Fagergren WEMCO
flotation machine; and (2) changes the squirrel cage impellers and stators of the
Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine to blade impellers with star-shaped sections.
The stators have elliptical holes. The steel structure surfaces of both impellers and
stators are covered with rubber or similar materials. An optional protective cover is
arranged above the stator for reinforcing the mineralized froth flow of the flotation
machine.
2. WEMCO Smart Cell™ flotation machine
The Smart Cell flotation machine is a kind of mechanical agitation flotation machine
improved on the basis of WEMCO1+1 flotation machine. As the impeller rotates,
ambient air is sucked in via the vertical pipe, dispersed into fine bubbles through the
disperser cover and uniformly distributed throughout the pulp. The rotation mecha-
nism is located in the middle of the tank body so that the wear of the impeller and the
disperser cover is reduced, and the machine can be started immediately after shut-
down. The impeller of symmetrical structure can run clockwise or counterclockwise,
or run upside down, having a long service life [16–19].
In 1996, WEMCO Smart Cell™ flotation machine was tested in a copper mine,
and then Kennecott Copper Corp. purchased the copyright of this flotation machine.
The flotation machine is characterized by a cylindrical tank body with a volume of
14 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.11 WEMCO1+1 flotation machine
125 m3 . The design of the spindle mechanism is a typical 1+1-type spindle design,
but the tube line at the bottom of the spindle mechanism is expanded to increase the
suction volume of pulp. In 2003, FLSmidth installed the first Smart Cell™ flotation
machine with a capacity of 257 m3 . The design of this flotation machine was based
on fluid dynamics analysis and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
Since 2004, FL Smidth has cooperated with the Center for Advanced Spatial
Technologies (CAST) in in-depth research on CFD. Based on the results of CFD
model analysis, FL Smidth designed the large Super Cell™ flotation machine whose
volume reached up to 300 m3 . In 2009, two Super Cell™ flotation machines were
tested in the copper concentrator of Rio Tinto [20]. In 2012, FLSmidth produced
Supercell, a larger flotation machine with a volume of 660 m3 .
3. Dorr-Oliver pneumatic flotation machine
The Dorr-Oliver flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic mechanical agitation flota-

tion machine which has been developed rapidly in FLSmidth in the last few years. The
maximum single tank volume currently has reached 660 m3 . The structure diagram
is shown in Fig. 1.12. The blade properties of the impellers of this machine are gener-
ally similar to the blade properties of the Outokumpu flotation machine. Therefore,
Fig. 1.12 Dorr-Oliver

flotation machine
its pulp circulation form is basically the same as that of the Outokumpu flotation
machine. Its impeller is surrounded by short stator blades that are suspended radially
from the circular top to the ground. The air released from the hollow shaft is directly
supplied into the pumping guideway between the rotor blades, the pulp flows in from
below and the mixture is directly ejected from the upper part of the rotor.
(4) Outotec
Outotec was separated from its parent company Outokumpu in 2016. Outokumpu
was not engaged in the research of flotation equipment until 1958. In 1959, 1.5 and 3
m3 OKKO flotation machines were first put into service in the Kolatahti concentrator
[21]. Flotation has always been the research priority of Outokumpu whose Technical
Department has been developing a mechanism that can effectively mix air and pulp
and designing new tank bodies and froth treatment systems. Outokumpu has success-
fully applied its flotation technology to its concentrators all over the world and met
the needs of various mineral processing applications. They focused on the charac-
teristics of each flotation operation, and developed the flash flotation machine for
grinding circuit, OF flotation machine for roughing and scavenging and HG flotation
machine for concentration [22]. The characteristics of various flotation machines
developed by the company are described as follows:
1. Skim-air flash flotation machine
The flash flotation machine applies to grinding-classification circuit: Cyclone grit is

fed. The flotation concentrates are of high grade and mixed into the final concentrate,
and flotation tailings are returned to the ball mill. The flash flotation machine is
characterized in that: (1) Liberated coarse minerals are recovered in time so that
overgrinding of useful minerals is reduced, and the cost of ore grinding is decreased;
(2) The particles of concentrates are coarse, which facilitates subsequent dewatering
operation.
16 1 Introduction
2. OF flotation machine
As the result of Outokumpu’s long-term research, the OF flotation machine has the
advantages of small floor area, small equipment foundation, etc., as compared with
conventional flotation machines. It is characterized in that (1) The tank body is shaped
like a funnel without dead angle, which is conducive to froth flow to the froth tank;
(2) The tank body is light in weight to allow self-support; (3) With different impeller
stator systems, it can be used for separation of coarse or fine particles; (4) The conical
tank body reduces the surface area of the pulp, allowing the formation of a thick froth
layer and easy adjustment of thickness.
3. HG flotation machine
In 1987, Outokumpu developed the HG flotation machine in order to improve the

grade of concentrates [23]. Froth directly flows into the froth tank so that high-grade
froth is collected quickly with a high rate of recovery. This flotation machine has the
characteristics as follows: (1) Concentrates are not only high in grade but also are
clean; (2) The effective mixing of flocculates is broken to achieve effective recovery;
(3) The circulating load is small, and the process is simple.
4. Tank Cell flotation machine
Due to more and more frequent use of the flotation column, Outokumpu simulated the
structure of the flotation column and added a mechanical injection device (Tank Cell
flotation machine) to it. In 1983, the first Tank Cell flotation machine with a capacity
of 60 m3 was installed and used in the Pyhasalmi Concentrator. In 1995, the first
Tank Cell flotation machine with a capacity of 100 m3 was installed and used in the
Los Colorados Concentrator of Chile’s Escondida Mine. In 1997, Tank Cell flotation
machine with a capacity of 160 m3 was firstly applied in Chuquicamada Concentrator
in Chile. In 2002, the first Tank Cell-200 flotation machine was installed and used
in the Century mine in Australia. In 2007, Outokumpu developed the world’s largest
flotation machine with a single tank volume of 300 m3 , and this flotation machine was
installed and used in the Macaes Gold Mine in New Zealand. In January 2014, the first
TankCell e500 flotation machine was applied in the First Quantum Minerals’ Kevitsa
mine in Finland. The Tank Cell flotation machine is the most successful and widely
applied flotation machine developed by Outokumpu. At present, it is widely used
by concentrating mills around the world in roughing, scavenging and concentration
operations [24, 25]. TankCell e630, a flotation machine with a maximum volume of
630 m3 , was successfully developed in October 2014.
The Tank Cell flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine. Its structure is shown in Fig. 1.13. The tank body is cylindrical.
The air enters the impeller chamber through the hollow shaft. The pulp enters the
tank body from the lateral pulp circulation hole in the lower part of the tank body, and
the froth flows out of the overflow weir above the tank body. The Tank Cell flotation
machine has the features of both flotation column and mechanical agitation flotation
Fig. 1.13 TankCell flotation

machine
machine. It not only enables coarse particles to be fully suspended, but also makes
it possible to obtain concentrates of a higher grade.
(5) Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Since the 1960s, Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy
(BGRIMM) has devoted itself to the research, promotion and application of
BGRIMM series of flotation equipment technologies, and has developed into a sound
flotation machine system. There are more than ten types such as CHF-X, JJF, KYF,
SF, XJZ, XCF, LCH-X, CLF, YX and BF, and nearly 100 specifications of flotation
machines and flotation machine integral units [26, 27]. By aeration mode, there are
pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine and mechanical agitation flotation
machine; From the perspective of the sorted minerals, they can not only meet the
needs of non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals and other metallic minerals but also meet
the needs of non-metals, sewage treatment, etc. From the perspective of processing
capacity, they can not only meet the demand for a processing capacity of 10 t/d but
also of a 100,000 t/d concentrator. From the perspective of the size of minerals, both
conventional and coarse minerals can be sorted. From the perspective of applica-
tions, they can be used not only in roughing, scavenging, concentration and other
operations but also in grinding circuits. From the perspective of flotation machine
configuration, both stepwise configuration and planar configuration are allowed, and
its creative planar configuration mode is more suitable for equipment upgrading in
old plants. Its representative products include KYF flotation machine, XCF flotation
machine and XCF/KYF integral unit, GF flotation machine, BF flotation machine,
CLF flotation machine and flash flotation machine.
18 1 Introduction
1. KYF flotation machine
The KYF flotation machine, as a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine,

is an excellent example of the upsizing of BGRIMM flotation machines. In 2000, a
flotation machine with a single tank volume of 50 m3 was successfully developed
[28, 29], and nearly 1000 such flotation machines were quickly promoted and used
at home and abroad. In 2005, a flotation machine with a single tank volume of 160
m3 was successfully developed and used in the 34,000 t/d project of Wunugetushan
Cu–Mo deposit of China National Gold Group Co., Ltd. [30, 31]; In early 2008,
a 200 m3 of pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine was successfully
developed and used in the 90,000 t/d project of Dashan Concentrator of Jiangxi
Copper Corporation Limited [32, 33]. At the end of 2008, BGRIMM successfully
developed the KYF-320 pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine, which
is one of the flotation machines with the largest single tank volume industrially
applied in the world, whose enrichment ratio of copper reaches up to 20.62 for a
single flotation machine, enrichment ratio of sulfur is 71.44, and single-unit power
consumption is 160 kW. The Toromoch project of Aluminum Corporation of China
in Peru finally adopted 28 flotation machines (320 m3 ) [34]. In 2017, BGRIMM
newly developed the KYF-680 pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine
with the largest single tank volume in the world and organized industrial tests in
Dexing Copper Mine, the largest copper mine in Asia. The test results showed that
its unique structure form is beneficial to the separation of coarse minerals.
The structure diagram of KYF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 1.14. This
machine features the inverted-cone impeller with a backward-inclined blade and the
suspended stator, and a porous cylindrical air distributor is designed in the middle of
the impeller chamber. The working principle of the machine is that the low-pressure
air supplied by the blower enters the air distributor via the hollow spindle along with
the rotation of the impeller and enters the spaces between impeller blades through the
holes in the sidewall of the distributor. Meanwhile, the pulp in the tank is sucked into
the spaces between impeller blades from the lower end of the impeller, fully mixed
with air, discharged from the upper part of the impeller, stabilized by the stator and
supplied into the tank. Mineralized bubbles rise to the tank surface and form froth,
and the pulp returns to the impeller area for recirculation.
2. XCF flotation machine and XCF/KYF integral unit
The XCF flotation machine is developed to solve the following problems existing in
general pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machines: the capability of auto-
matic pulp suction is unavailable, the flotation machine must be configured in a
stepwise way, middlings need to be returned through a pump, resulting in complex
process of the concentrator, high cost of capital construction or upgrading, etc. The
equipment not only has the advantages of general pneumatic flotation machines but
also allows automatic pulp suction [35], and its structure is shown in Fig. 1.15.
The machine has the characteristics as follows: The impeller consists of upper and
lower blades and a spacing disc. The upper blades are radial blades forming a pulp
Fig. 1.14 KYF flotation

machine
Fig. 1.15 XCF flotation

machine
20 1 Introduction
suction area together with the cover plate, whose function is to suck the pulp from
outside the tank; The lower blades are backward leaning blades for circulating pulp
and dispersing air, and this is the aeration area; The diameter of the spacing disc is
greater than or equal to the outer circle diameter of the blade, and the spacing disc
has the function of distinguishing the aeration area from the pulp suction area.
The working principle of the machine is that: The low-pressure air supplied by
the blower enters the air distributor via the hollow spindle with the rotation of the
impeller and enters the spaces between impeller blades through the holes in the
sidewall of the distributor. Meanwhile, the upper blade of the impeller sucks the
external pulp into the tank, the pulp in the tank is sucked into the spaces between
lower impeller blades from the lower end of the impeller, fully mixed with air, and
supplied into the pulp in the tank after current stabilization and orientation by the
stator installed above the impeller. Mineralized bubbles rise to the tank surface and
form froth, and the pulp returns to the impeller area for recirculation.
The XCF flotation machine and the KYF flotation machine can form an integral
unit to realize the planar configuration, both of which have been widely applied to
non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals and chemical industries and produced remarkable
economic and social benefits. Compared with the original 6A flotation machine,
XCF-8 flotation machine in Yinshan Pb–Zn Deposit increases the lead recovery rate
and the zinc recovery rate by 0.67 and 1.94%, reduces the power consumption by
23.1% and saves the floor area by 40% [36].
3. GF flotation machine
At present, there are many types of flotation machines which can represent
BGRIMM’s high-efficiency and low-consumption automatic suction mechanical
agitation flotation machine, among which the GF flotation machine has the relatively
excellent technical performance. The structure of GF flotation machine is shown in
Fig. 1.16. This machine also has automatic suction of pulp and air, whose working
principle is that as the impeller rotates, negative pressure is formed in the centre area
of the upper blades of the impeller to suck air, feed and middlings. Meanwhile, the
lower blades of the impeller suck pulp from inside the tank, the upper and lower
streams of pulp flow are merged in the middle part of the blade, flow to the periphery
of the impeller and enter the pulp in the tank. Mineralized bubbles rise to the tank
surface and form froth, and the pulp returns to the impeller area for recirculation
[37]. This machine has the characteristics as follows: (1) Automatic air suction, with
automatic air suction volume up to 1.2 m3 /m2 min−1 ; (2) Automatic pulp suction,
allowing automatic suction of feed and froth middlings from outside the tank and
planar configuration of the flotation machine workshop; (3) Small impeller diam-
eter, low circumferential speed and low power consumption; (4) Long service life of
wearing parts.
The GF flotation machine applies to medium- and small-sized enterprises for the
separation of metallic and non-metallic minerals. The production practice of the GF
flotation machine in a gold mine in Shandong Province showed that the cold grade
Fig. 1.16 GF flotation

machine
of concentrates is 43.46 g/t, and the gold recovery rate is 94.3% with grind fineness
of –74 µm accounting for 75% and gold grade of raw ore of 3.07 g/t.
4. BF flotation machine
The BF flotation machine is an efficient separation plant developed by Beijing

General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, having the characteristics of
planar configuration, automatic air suction, automatic pulp suction, automatic return
of middlings froth, etc., without the need of any auxiliary equipment. Compared
with A-type flotation machine, it has the advantages of saving power consumption
per unit volume by 15–25%, adjustable suction rate, stable pulp level, high separation
efficiency, long service cycle of wearing parts, convenient operation, maintenance
and management, etc. It is a kind of fuel-efficient separation equipment.
As shown in Fig. 1.17, the BF flotation machine mainly consists of a motor device,
tank body components, a spindle mechanism, a froth scraper and other components.
The spindle mechanism comprises a big pulley, a bearing block, a central cylinder,
a spindle, a suction pipe, an impeller, a stator and other parts and components. The
spindle mechanism is fixed to the main beam of the tank body. The working principle
of this machine is similar to that of the GF flotation machine, allowing automatic
pulp suction from outside of the tank.
The No. 2 Concentrator of Gongchangling Mining Company of Ansteel adopts
39 BF-20 flotation machines developed by Beijing General Research Institute of
Mining & Metallurgy. The grade of iron concentrates is increased from 65.55%
22 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.17 BF flotation machine
before upgrading to 68.89%, and that of iron concentrates is increased by 3.34%;

The content of SiO2 is decreased by 4.41% from the previous 8.31 to 3.90% [38].
5. CLF flotation machine
The CLF flotation machine is a kind of wide-size-fraction mechanical agitation
flotation machine capable of separating conventional and coarse minerals with rela-
tively high density and concentration and is especially suitable for separation of
quartz sand, refining furnace slag and others containing coarse non-ferrous metals,
ferrous metals and non-metallic minerals [39].
The CLF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 1.18, whose working principle is that
as the impeller rotates, the low-pressure air supplied from the blower enters the spaces
between impeller blades via the hollow spindle through the distributor. Meanwhile,
the pulp below the false bottom is sucked into the spaces between impeller blades
from the lower part of the impeller, fully mixed with air and discharged from the upper
part of the impeller. Then, the pulp passes through the grid plate after stator current
stabilization and enters the upper area in the tank. At this time, a large number of
bubbles are contained in the flotation machine, while no bubbles or very few bubbles
are contained in the outer circulation channel so that a pressure difference is formed.
Under the action of this pressure difference and impeller suction, the internal pulp
and bubbles rise, pass through the grid plate and bring coarse minerals to the part
above the grid plate, forming a suspended layer. The mineralized bubbles and the
pulp containing fine mineral particles continue to rise. The mineralized bubbles rise
to the liquid surface so that a froth layer is formed, while the pulp containing fine
mineral particles is returned to the impeller area via the circulation channel for re-
separation [40, 41]. This machine has the characteristics as follows: (1) It adopts the
impeller with backward leaning blades featuring the high specific speed, the blade
shape is consistent with the flow line of pulp passing through the impeller, and it
has the characteristics of a large pulp circulation rate and low power consumption;
(2) The grid plate shortens the rising distance of coarse minerals and lowers the
falloff probability; (3) The circulation channel makes fine minerals pass through
the impeller area many times so that the collision probability is increased, which is
beneficial to fine particles flotation [42].
Fig. 1.18 CLF flotation

machine
6. YX flash flotation equipment
The YX flash flotation machine is a kind of single tank pneumatic flotation machine
used in a grinding-classification circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.19, and used for separa-
tion of grit from a spiral classifier or cyclone to obtain the liberated coarse minerals
in advance. This machine has the characteristics as follows: (1) A pulp circulating
cylinder is installed under the impeller stator for promoting pulp circulation and
suspension of mineral particles under the impeller, enabling floatable minerals to
enter the impeller area many times, and increasing the collection probability; (2) An
upper circulation channel is arranged at the upper part of the impeller to generate
the upper circulation, increase the agitation strength and uniformity, and make the
chemicals come into sufficient contact with the mineral particles; (3) The tank body
has a conical bottom for eliminating any dead angle in the tank to avoid plugging and
playing the role of densification so that tailings are discharged densely and evenly
through the lower cone [43]. The application of this machine in Sizhou Concen-
trator of Dexing Copper Mine showed that the gold content in concentrates is 8.348,
1.384 g/t higher than that of the total gold ores of the Concentrator and +74 µm
accounts for 68.89% in gold ores, much higher than 27.79% for the conventional
flotation concentrates, with the underflow concentration up to 70–75%.
24 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.19 YX flash flotation

machine
(6) China Coal Research Institute
The China Coal Research Institute is one of the units firstly engaged in flotation
machine research in China. It mainly studies flotation machines for coal preparation,
and its representative devices include XJM flotation machine and XJM-S flotation
machine.
The XJM flotation machine is a mechanical agitation flotation machine, which is
characterized in that: (1) Three-layer umbrella impellers are adopted. There are six
straight blades in the first layer, whose function is to suck pulp and air; an umbrella-
shaped baffle plate is in the second layer, forming a suction chamber together with the
first layer; the third layer is an umbrella-shaped plate with an opening in the centre,
forming a pulp suction chamber together with the baffle plate in the second layer for
sucking the pulp; (2) The stator is also shaped like an umbrella and installed above
the impeller. It consists of cylindrical surfaces and circular cone surfaces where pulp
circulating holes are formed separately. There are stator guide plates at an angle of
60° at the lower end of the conical surface of the stator, and the direction of the stator
guide plates is consistent with the rotating direction of the impeller. This machine is
widely applied to coal slime flotation, but it has poor selectivity for coal slime with
poor floatability, unsatisfactory flotation effect for coarse coal slime and great loss
in tailings.
The XJM-S flotation machine was successfully developed on the basis of XJM
flotation machine, and the structure is shown in Fig. 1.20. It is also a mechanical
agitation flotation machine. The biggest difference between this flotation machine
Fig. 1.20 XJM-S flotation

machine (1—Tank body;
2—Impeller; 3—Stator;
4—Steady flow plate;
5—False bottom; 6—Bubble
scraping mechanism;
7—Suction tube;
8—Middling container)
and XJM flotation machine lies in that the number of impeller layers is changed
from three to two, the umbrella-shaped baffle plate on the second layer of the XJM
flotation machine is replaced by other mechanisms and the design heights of blades
and impeller chambers are optimized. This machine has the characteristics as follows:
(1) The upper and lower circulation rates of the impellers are adjustable, and the
section of the circulating channel may be changed through the adjusting device on
the stator cover plate, thus adjusting the upper circulation rate. The lower circulation
rate is adjusted by changing the adjusting plate at the lower suction opening, with
adaptability to the separation of coal slime varying in floatability; (2) In the mixed
feeding mode, most of feeds are sucked into the impeller through the suction tube,
and the rest of the materials enter the agitation area through the gap between the
periphery of the false bottom and the tank wall; (3) The stator is a separated structure
of stator cover plate and guide blade, and the pulp suction pipe on the stator is directly
opposite to the lower suction opening of the impeller; the lower suction opening of
the impeller extends into the pulp suction pipe at a certain distance to ensure the
suction of enough new pulp.
(7) Other flotation machines
In addition to the flotation machines mentioned above, there were also some other
flotation machines that met the demands for some time then. However, with the devel-
opment of the mineral processing industry, these flotation machines were either not
adapted to the requirements of the flotation process, or failed to successfully achieve
upsizing. There were relatively few market demands for these flotation machines
which were gradually withdrawn from the market. But this part of flotation machines
has made certain contributions to the development of flotation equipment, and these
flotation machines are mainly:
26 1 Introduction
1. KHD Humboldt Wedag flotation machine
The mechanical agitation flotation machine manufactured by KHD Humboldt Wedag

International AG (KHD), with disc-shaped, single-runout, double-runout, multi-
runout and various other types of impellers. With the runout increase, the suction rate
of the flotation machine is also increased, and the processing capacity per unit volume
is enhanced, while the energy consumption is reduced. However, this machine failed
to achieve upsizing, and was gradually withdrawn from the flotation machine market.
2. Krupp flotation machine
Both KR and TR flotation machines manufactured by Krupp are automatic suction

mechanical agitation flotation machines with a minimum volume of 0.5m3 and a
maximum volume of 5m3 . Such machines feature that pulp and air are, respectively,
sucked from the feeding pipe and the hollow spindle when the impellers are rotating.
There are three types of impellers: (1) Ordinary impeller, wherein the pump blades are
of closed type, and the pulp inlet is arranged at the upper end of the impeller; (2) The
pulp inlet can be located at the upper or lower end of the impeller; (3) Straight-flow
impeller. These types may be selected according to the process requirements.
3. Warman flotation machine
The Warman flotation machine manufactured by Warman Equipment Company of

Australia was developed on the basis of Fagergren flotation machine. This machine
is mainly used in such countries as Australia, Japan, and those in Southeast Asia and
South America. The greatest features of the machine are the impeller and diversion
plate: The impeller is installed at the lower end of the hollow shaft and consists of
round bars and a disc, wherein the round bars are arranged at an inclination angle of
45° with the reverse direction of the impeller while extending outward, configured
symmetrically with the axis as the centre at equal intervals and fixed to the disc. The
advantage of such design lies in that the impeller will not be completely depressed
when the machine is shut down with less wear. The diversion plate consists of curved
plates with different curvature radii so that the upper part of the sorting area is kept
stable while violent agitation is occurring in the flotation machine.
4. AS flotation machine
The AS flotation machine was developed by Sala International (Sweden). This flota-
tion machine with a maximum volume of 44 m3 features a distinctive design. It
is mainly devoted to minimizing the circulating pulp flow. It is believed that the
natural stratification of pulp is beneficial to flotation. The impeller of this machine
is a flat disc with vertically radial blades on both sides, the upper blades are used
for dispersing air, and the lower blades are used for sucking pulp. This machine is
suitable for fine particle separation.
5. LM flotation machine
The LM flotation machine is a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine

manufactured in the former Soviet Union. This machine has a maximum volume of
25 m3 . It is reported that this machine as a substitute for MexaHoop flotation machine
has increased the production capacity per unit by more than 50% and reduced the
power consumption for processing pulp per unit by more than 26%.
6. XJN flotation machine
The XJN flotation machine is a flotation machine for coal preparation in early stages in
China. It consists of a feed box, an agitator, a tank body, a tailings box, froth scrapers,
etc. The feed box is a pulp preparation device, which makes coal slurry enter the
flotation tank smoothly. The agitator mainly consists of an impeller, a stator, a stator
cover plate and a transmission device. A false bottom and a suction pipe that can
help pulp circulation are designed at the bottom of the tank body, and an adjusting
ring is arranged on the suction pipe to allow adjustment of the centre height of the
suction pipe. The tailing box is a device for tailing disposal. A manual gate valve in
the box body is used for controlling the liquid level and tailings discharge capacity.
The froth scrapers are arranged on both sides of the flotation tank, and concentrate
froth at the upper part of the tank body is scraped into the froth tank when driven by
the motor.
7. XPM jet flotation machine
The XPM jet flotation machine, also a kind of flotation machine for coal preparation
developed in China, has the working principle that: Coal slurry is injected from the
nozzle at 15–20 m/s, forming a negative pressure and air is sucked in via the suction
pipe. Meanwhile, the air is evenly dispersed in the coal slurry under the actions of
“roll wraps” and “cutting emulsification” of jet stream, and then evenly distributed
into the flotation tank after passing through the venturi and the umbrella-shaped
disperser. When the pulp collides with the bubbles, the hydrophobic coal particles
adhere to the bubbles to form mineralized bubbles, the bubbles float upward to form
a froth layer, and then the froth layer is scraped out by the scrapers; coal particles
not adhering to the bubbles are supplied into the pneumatic agitation device after
pressurized by the circulating pump. Tailings are discharged from the tail end of the
flotation machine. This machine has the characteristics as follows: (1) A large number
of microbubbles are separated out of the flotation machine, which can intensify coal
flotation. The mixing chamber is a negative pressure area where the air dissolved in
coal is supersaturated and selectively separated out on the surface of hydrophobic
coal particles in the form of microbubbles, thus intensifying the flotation process;
(2) The pneumatic agitation device is a kind of emulsification device, which creates
good conditions for the mineralization of bubbles. Currently, this type of flotation
machine is seldom used, but it has fairly widespread influences.
28 1 Introduction
In addition, there are some other flotation equipment, such as fluidization flota-
tion machine of the former Soviet Union, Japanese V-flow flotation machine, BS-
X flotation machine of the General Research Institute for Nonferrous Metals in
Beijing, China, and ring efflux flotation machine of the Central South University of
Technology, etc.
1.2 Development Trend of Flotation Equipment
With the development and application of flotation equipment for over a hundred
years, the flotation technology has been greatly developed, the flotation machines
have gradually become diversified, serialized, upsized and automated, the applica-
tion fields keep expanding, and the application requirements in non-ferrous metals,
ferrous metals, water treatment, biological separation and other aspects are basically
met. However, with the depletion, refinement and hybridization of primary mineral
resources, the mineral separation process is becoming increasingly complex, the
production costs are rising, and new and higher requirements are put forward for the
development of flotation equipment.
(1) Intelligence: With the development of microelectronics technology, great
progress has been made in the automatic control technology of flotation equip-
ment. At present, automation of the process control of mineral pulp level,
aeration rate, pulp density, chemical addition, froth imaging analysis, etc. of
flotation equipment has been realized, and intelligence is the development trend
of flotation equipment. One sign of intelligence is the deep learning function. A
flotation machine can learn the key historical data that affect the process indica-
tors, deeply understand its own capabilities and attributes, automatically adjust
the operation parameters such as velocity, liquid level, aeration rate and chem-
ical addition of the flotation machine according to feeding changes, analyze the
whole system, and automatically optimize the process to achieve the flotation
objectives set by the concentrator; Another sign is the powerful self-diagnosis
function. Each flotation machine stores and analyses its own mechanical perfor-
mance data in real time, pushes diagnosis reports and maintenance suggestions
to customers regularly and makes customers know the changes in equipment
performance initiatively to achieve preventive maintenance.
(2) Specialization and upsizing: In terms of the sorting of conventional metallic
and non-metallic minerals, the current flotation equipment can basically meet
the demands. However, with the demands for mineral resources on the increase,
the scale of concentrators is increasing, and the mineral resource endowments
are continuously deteriorating. To improve the comprehensive utilization of
resources, the requirements for equipment specialization and upsizing are
higher, and the upsizing and serialization of special equipment needs to be
continuously advanced to meet the requirements of different mineral species
and different processing capacities. The research of differentiated solutions
1.2 Development Trend of Flotation Equipment 29
such as coarse flotation, high efficiency and energy saving flotation and flota-
tion equipment for fine and micro-fine particles in compound force fields for
the floatability and size distribution characteristics of different ores is still the
research direction of flotation machines in the future.
(3) Diversification of configuration: Flotation is a systematic process, and there
are many factors affecting the flotation indicators, involving mineral proper-
ties, reagent system, equipment performance, personnel operations, etc. The
mode of operation configuration is also an important influencing factor. Flota-
tion equipment having different features is selected according to different
characteristics of roughing and scavenging operations to achieve the optimal
configuration of the whole flotation process. For example, the combined use of
mechanical agitation flotation machine, pneumatic mechanical agitation flota-
tion machine and column flotation equipment, and the rational selection of
grinding circuit flash flotation machine, special flotation machine for tailings
recovery and other systems.
(4) Enrichment of research techniques: Flotation is a complex gas–liquid–solid
three-phase physicochemical reaction process, the flotation machine flow field
cannot be accurately measured and calculated, and the mineralization mech-
anism and coupling relationship are complex. The existing theories such as
fluid dynamics and flotation dynamics cannot support the research of flota-
tion machines well, especially the research of flotation machine upsizing,
thus resulting in high R&D expenditures and long R&D cycle. The devel-
opment of computer technology has promoted the development of Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in recent years, making large-scale complex
computing possible. Profound research on the fluid dynamics properties of
flotation machines is made using the Computational Fluid Dynamics to achieve
the effect of “virtual test”. It can also reduce the cost of equipment develop-
ment and development cycle and improve the performance of newly developed
flotation machines, and the application of CFD plays an irreplaceable role.
(5) New flotation equipment shows up prominently: Flotation equipment has been
developed for more than one century, and there are three types of mainstream
equipment: Mechanical agitation flotation machine, pneumatic mechanical
agitation flotation machine and column flotation equipment. However, with
further research on mineralization modes, several new types of flotation equip-
ment have been developed, and mineralization and separation are realized by
new methods or means, such as SFR, cascade flotation, etc.
1.2.1 Classification of Flotation Machines
There are a great variety of flotation machines, and the main difference is reflected
in the aeration method and agitator structure. According to the most commonly
used classification method, the flotation machines are divided into two categories,
30 1 Introduction
i.e. mechanical agitation type and non-mechanical agitation type (also known as
flotation column) depending on aeration and agitation methods.
Mechanical agitation flotation machines are divided into two categories depending
on air supply methods: Pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine and
mechanical agitation flotation machine.
The pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine is a kind of flotation
machine with gas fed under the action of external force, and the impeller only acts
as an agitator and mixer without air suction. Its main advantages lie in that the
aeration rate can be accurately adjusted as required, gas is sucked in without vacuum
production by the impeller, the velocity requirement is low, and the energy consump-
tion is less. The pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine is currently the
most widely applied flotation machine. It is widely applicable to the sorting of non-
ferrous, ferrous and non-metallic ores such as copper, lead, zinc, nickel, molybdenum,
sulphur, iron, gold, bauxite, apatite and leopoldite, especially to minerals with low
requirement for gas volume and precise control, such as bauxite and phosphate rocks,
etc.
The mechanical agitation flotation machine is a kind of flotation machine which
realizes vacuum air suction by mechanical agitation. Its main advantage lies in that air
can be automatically sucked without the addition of any inflator; Its main advantage
lies in that the adjustment range of suction rate is narrow, and accurate control is
impossible. It mainly applies to the sorting of metallic and non-metallic minerals
with wider requirements for the gas volume range.
It is divided into two types, i.e. free-flow tank and pulp suction tank according to
the configuration method. The flotation machine with the free-flow tank cannot suck
pulp, and has the characteristics of less wear and low electricity consumption; the
flotation machine with the pulp suction tank is capable of sucking the pulp, and it
can be used with the flotation machine with the free-flow tank to achieve a horizontal
configuration. Middlings are returned without froth pump so that the concentrator
process is simplified.
The classification of flotation machines is varied, and the specific classification is
shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 List of flotation machine classification

Classification basis Type of flotation machine
With or without mechanical agitator Flotation column/flotation machine
Flow direction of froth and pulp Downdraft/reflux
Air intake method Automatic suction/pneumatic/pressure
saturation
Tank body size Deep tank/shallow tank
Froth discharge method Unilateral froth discharge/bilateral froth
discharge/peripheral froth discharge
(continued)
References 31
Table 1.1 (continued)

Classification basis Type of flotation machine
Tank body shape Quadrilateral/polygonal/circular
Usage occasion Flash flotation machine/concentration flotation
machine/roughing and scavenging flotation
machine
According to the range of sorted size fraction Fine-size-fraction flotation
machine/coarse-size-fraction flotation
machine/conventional flotation
machine/wide-size-fraction flotation machine
Sorting material Special for oxidized ore/water treatment/etc.
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10. Fahrenwald AW (1928) Flotation practice in the Coeur d’Alene district. AIME Transactions,
Idaho, pp 107–132
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32 1 Introduction
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Metall 3:31–36
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Chapter 2
Basic Study of Flotation Dynamics
The main factors affecting the flotation process include ore properties (mineral
composition, size distribution, particle shape, floatability of minerals, etc.), flota-
tion process (workflow configuration, reagent system, pulp density and temperature,
etc.), operating factors, characteristics of flotation machine, etc. The technical indica-
tors of flotation mainly depend on the performance of the flotation machine provided
that other flotation conditions are determined. Therefore, the fluid dynamics state of
the flotation machine tank should meet the requirements of the flotation process for
different mineral particles in order to improve the mineral flotation efficiency.
To realize the flotation process for mineral particles, the primary conditions are
contact and adhesion of mineral particles to bubbles. After adhesion of mineral parti-
cles to bubbles, the particle-bubble aggregate rises in the flotation machine, forming
mineralized froth. In this process, the particle-bubble aggregate will undergo the
exchange process of detachment, re-collision and re-adhesion. According to the basic
theory of flotation dynamics, the flotation process of mineral particles is divided into
three stages: Collision between mineral particles and bubbles, adhesion of mineral
particles to bubbles and detachment of mineral particles from bubbles. The acqui-
sition of ideal flotation indicators requires a higher adhesion probability and lower
detachment probability of target minerals on bubbles, and lower adhesion probability
and higher detachment probability of non-target minerals on bubbles. In addition to
the influences of reagent system, a flotation machine with excellent performance
must be capable of being matched with the flotation process of mineral particles in
terms of flotation dynamics properties.
2.1 Collision Between Mineral Particles and Bubbles
There are mainly two mechanisms of contact between minerals and bubbles [1]:
Inertia mechanism and inertia-free mechanism for the force field on bubble surfaces.
The inertia mechanism is that the collision between inertial particles and bubbles is

34 2 Basic Study of Flotation Dynamics
generated by the inertia force. The greater the mass of minerals is, the higher the
relative velocity of minerals and bubbles is and the more opportunities for collision
and contact between mineral particles and bubbles are; the inertia-free mechanism
for the force field on bubble surfaces is that inertia-free particles are attracted by
the diffusion and electrostatic force of action at a distance generated by moving
bubbles. When the mineral size is smaller than a critical value, it is difficult for
mineral particles to collide with bubbles inertially. The contact with the bubbles is
reflected as the sliding contact (poor selectivity) in most cases, which is also one of
the reasons why fine minerals are difficult to separate.
When the bubbles and water are relatively static, all the mineral particles in the
water columns whose radius above the bubbles is Rb + Rp (Rb is the radius of bubbles,
and Rp denotes the radius of mineral particles) can come into contact with the bubbles
under the action of gravity settlement; when bubbles move relative to water, the flow
line bends when water passes over bubbles, the trajectory of mineral particles in
water deviates from bubbles under the influence of viscous force of the medium,
and only the mineral particles in the pitot tube with radius B may come into contact
with the bubbles, with b < Rb + Rp . The value of b depends on the equilibrium
state of the viscous force of medium and inertial force acting on mineral particles.
The viscous force bends the trajectory of mineral particles along with the flow line,
and the inertial force makes the trajectory of mineral particles deviate from the flow
line, as shown in Fig. 2.1. When the inertial force plays a leading role, the trajectory
of mineral particles deviates from the flow line, enabling the inertial collision with
the bubbles; when the viscous force plays a leading role, the trajectory of mineral
particles follows the flow line, mostly in sliding contact (viscous contact) with the
bubbles [2].
The above process of contact between minerals and bubbles is a prerequisite for the
completion of inertial contact mineralization and non-inertial contact mineralization.
Fig. 2.1 Trajectory of

mineral particles
R
b
b
2.1 Collision Between Mineral Particles and Bubbles 35
The success probability of collision between minerals and bubbles determines

the probability of mineral recovery in the whole flotation process. The collision
probability is determined by the fluid dynamics factors of the system and is affected
by the mineral size, bubble size and turbulence degree. Yoon and Kuttrell believed that
the collision probability depended largely on the collision section, and the collision
probability (Pc ) between mineral particles and bubbles is [3]
Pc ∝ 3rp /rb2 (2.1)
where
rp Radius of mineral particles;
rb Radius of bubbles.
As seen from Formula (2.1), collision is affected by the mineral size and the
bubble size and is proportional to the mineral size. The larger the mineral size is, the
greater the inertia force is and the greater the contact probability is; collision is in
inverse proportion to the square of the bubble size. The smaller the bubble size is,
the higher the collision efficiency is.
In addition to the mineral size and the bubble size, the collision probability is also
affected by the relative velocity between mineral particles and bubbles, gas holdup,
thickness of hydration shell on the mineral surface and other factors.
Formula (2.2) is derived from the collision theory:
Pc = σ · u ∞ · N (2.2)
where
u∞ Relative velocity of mineral particles and bubbles;
σ Collision section;
N Number of bubbles in the pulp.
The above formula showed that the collision probability is proportional to the
relative velocity of mineral particles and bubbles and the gas holdup in the flotation
tank.
Schulze believed that the collision probability depended on the thickness of the
hydration shell on the mineral surface [4, 5], as shown in Formula (2.3):
rp
Pc = 1.78 (Hcr )1/8 (2.3)
rb
where
Hcr Dimensionless critical thickness of the hydration shell;
h cr
Hcr =
Rp
h cr is the critical thickness of the hydration shell on the mineral surface,

Rp is related to the wettability of the mineral surface. The more hydrophobic the
mineral particles are and the larger the h cr is, the higher the collision probability is.
Therefore, the collision between mineral particles and bubbles is mainly related
to the mineral size, the thickness of the hydration shell on the mineral surface, the
bubble size, the relative velocity between the bubbles and mineral particles and the
gas holdup.
It can be known from the above analysis that the mineral size is closely related
to the particle-bubble collision process and is the main factor affecting the flota-
tion effect. Flotation requires not only the liberation of mineral monomers, but also
satisfactory mineral sizes. The optimum size range of froth flotation varies with the
flotation process parameters and flotation machine types. Too coarse or fine sizes are
not suitable for flotation, that is to say, a suitable flotation size is subject to upper
and lower limits. The optimum size range for froth flotation has the lower limit of
about 3–7 μm based on a large number of experiments and analysis of production
data. Generally, it is lower, i.e. 3–5 μm, for sulphides; It is higher, i.e. 5–7 μm, for
oxidized minerals; For the froth flotation process, the division of the range of mineral
size recommended by Lu Shouci is shown in Table 2.1:
Hu et al. [6] believed that coarse particles above 74–100 μm are excellent objects
of the physical multi-separation method, and on the contrary, it is difficult for froth
flotation to work; The typical size of colloidal particles is less than 0.1 μm; With the
size range of 5–0.1 μm, the particles having some properties of colloids are difficult
to be processed by the conventional froth separation method, this size range is exactly
the main size of silt carrying pulp, and such particles are called micro-particles; The
optimum size range suitable for the conventional froth flotation is 100–7 μm or
74–3 μm, i.e. the so-called fine particles.
The key to understand the flotation law and solve flotation problems is to research
the flotation dynamic properties of minerals with different size fractions and grasp
the influencing factors and characteristics of collision, adhesion and detachment
processes of coarse and fine minerals and bubbles.
Table 2.1 Division of the

Size fraction Range of size fraction (μm)
range of mineral size
Coarse particles >150
Fine particles 100~7
Micro-particles 3~0.1
Colloidal particles <0.1
2.1.1 Collision Process Mechanism of Coarse Minerals
As mentioned earlier, there are mainly two mechanisms for the contact between
minerals and bubbles: Inertial mechanism (inertial collision) and non-inertial
mechanism (sliding contact) for the force field on bubble surfaces.
Stokes number K is an important basis for judging the mode of contact between
mineral particles and bubbles. Theoretically, the inertial force plays a leading role
with K > 1, which is represented by the inertial collision; with K < 1, the inertial force
becomes less important, the movement of mineral particles is mainly affected by the
viscous resistance of the medium and the contact with bubbles is dominated by the
sliding contact. K value is related to the size and the Reynolds number of bubbles. The
coarser the size is, the greater the mass (K value) is, the greater the relative velocity
of minerals to bubbles is and the more collision opportunities between minerals and
bubbles are. Thus, the inertial collision mechanism plays a dominant role in the
flotation process in terms of coarse particles.
The inertial collision efficiency E c (the ratio of the number of mineral particles
in actual contact with bubbles to the total number of mineral particles within the
trajectory of bubbles in the forward direction of bubbles) may be approximated by
Formula (2.4):
K
Ec = (2.4)
(K + 0.5)
This formula is applicable to the case of K > 1/12, Re ≥ 1.

−2
1 + 3 ln 2K
Ec = (2.5)
4(K − 1.214)
Formula (2.5) is applicable to the case of K > 1.24, Re ≤ 1.
2.1.2 Collision Process Mechanism of Fine Minerals
Compared with coarse minerals, fine minerals have different processes of mineral
collision, adhesion and detachment. For fine minerals, the collision process is mainly
reflected as the non-inertial mechanism of the force field on bubble surfaces, that is
to say, the mineral particles are in the state of sliding contact with bubbles mainly
subject to the viscous force action of the medium. Two additional factors, i.e. near-
fluid mechanics effect and surface force effect, shall also be considered in the collision
process of fine particles.
The near-fluid mechanics effect refers to the fluid resistance suffered by two
objects when they are infinitely close to each other to push back the interstitial water.
The trajectory of mineral particles subject to the near-fluid mechanics effect near the
equator of bubbles will shift outward by H, and the contact probability between
two objects will be further reduced.
Surface forces mainly refer to the molecular force and the electrostatic force
generated by the overlapping of electric double layers. When the mineral particles
and bubbles are so closed that the surface force works, the trajectory of the mineral
particles will shift accordingly based on the nature of the surface force. The oper-
ating distance of the near-hydrodynamic force is equivalent to the radius of mineral
particles. Generally, the operating distance of surface forces does not exceed tens of
nanometers, and there is nearly one order of magnitude between them.
The non-inertial collision probability is extremely low, generally not more than
0.2%, but the contact efficiency can be significantly improved under some conditions.
When the Re value of bubbles is greater than 20, the water stream separated by the
bubbles begins to escape at the tail of the bubbles to form a whirlpool, the mineral
particles may be entrained by the backflow whirlpool and come into contact with the
tail of the bubbles, and such contact is called turbulent diffusion contact. Test results
showed that the size of the mineral particles enabling this contact is not greater than
3 μm for the bubbles with a radius of 1 mm. For example, the determined contact
efficiency E c between particles with a radius of 0.25 μm and paraffin spheres (taken
as bubble) with a radius of 2 mm in a turbulence field is 1–2%.
When the mineral particles reach the colloidal size (RP < 1 μm), the mineral parti-
cles obviously exhibit the characteristics of Brownian movement, and the trajectory
of mineral particles can be separated from the flow line to achieve diffusion contact
with the bubbles. The contact efficiency E c can be expressed by Formula (2.6):
1
Ec ∝ 2/3
(2.6)
Rb2 RP
At this time, E c increases with the decrease of the size.

The fine mineral particles dominated by non-inertial collision have small mass,
slow movement and long time (sliding time) from sliding along the bubble walls to
entrainment. According to theoretical calculation results, the sliding contact time of
mineral particles (RP is 5 μm) and bubbles (Rb is about 1 mm) can reach 440 ms.
Yang et al. [7] believed that fine particles came into contact with the bubble
surfaces by means of Brownian movement and were captured by rising bubbles
through interception. In the theoretical research, Stokes and potential flow func-
tions can be used to calculate the recovery efficiency of bubbles and particles. They
summarized the relational expression of Marangoni effect and fluid mechanics. The
Ma (Marangoni Number) is expressed by Formula (2.7).
E0
Ma = (2.7)
α R b ηf
In the above formula, α represents the particle adsorption parameter in the equi-
librium state, E 0 represents the Gibbs elasticity of surface active particles and the
Marangoni number represents the ratio of tension gradient force to the viscous force
at the interface.
In summary, the contact mode and contact efficiency of mineral particles and
bubbles are closely related to the size of mineral particles. The contact efficiency has
the minimum value with Rp of 1–10 μm.
2.2 Adhesion Between Mineral Particles and Bubbles
In fact, the contact between mineral particles and bubbles does not necessarily result
in adhesion. When hydrophilic mineral particles collide with bubbles inertially, they
are likely to be rebounded finally although they can come into contact with the bubbles
and deform the bubbles. The processes from collision to adhesion include: The hydra-
tion shell between mineral particles and bubbles is thinned and fractured, forming a
long enough three-phase contact periphery, and a solid–gas interface between mineral
particles and bubbles appears. The time spent on completion of the whole process
is called induction time. Therefore, the necessary condition for realizing adhesion
after the mineral particles come into contact with the bubbles is that: The required
induction time must be less than the actual contact time when the mineral particles
collide with the bubbles. Only in this case can the mineral particles adhere to the
bubbles, otherwise they will fall off since there’s no enough time to adhere. The
relational expression between induction time and size is as shown by Formula (2.8)
[8–10]:
t = kd n (2.8)
where
t Induction time;
k Coefficient;
d Size;
n Related to the movement state of the pulp, n = 0 for the laminar flow, n = 1.5
for the turbulence, n = 0–1.5 for the transition state.
The relationship between induction time and size is shown in Fig. 2.2. As the
movement state of the pulp changes from laminar flow to turbulence, the induction
time increases correspondingly. Due to the large size and great inertia, the contact
time of coarse minerals with bubbles is generally short, only a few milliseconds,
particularly in the turbulent condition, the time of contact between mineral particles
and bubbles is much shorter than the induction time, which is one of the reasons
why coarse minerals are difficult to float. The turbulence degree (agitation intensity)
must be reduced to enable the contact between the mineral particles and bubbles in
a stable environment in order to achieve the adhesion of coarse particles.
Fig. 2.2 Relationship

between induction time and
particle size
Recent researches by Zongfu Dai et al. showed that the induction time is also
related to the contact angle with particles, bubble size, etc. [11]. The induction time
increases with the increase of size, contact angle and bubbles. The contact time
between mineral particles and bubbles depends on the final velocity of mineral parti-
cles, so the movement velocity of mineral particles may be reduced by reducing the
agitation intensity, and then the contact time between mineral particles and bubbles
is increased, which is favourable for the adhesion of mineral particles to bubbles.
In consideration of the influences of induction time, particle diameter, bubble
diameter, turbulence intensity and other factors, the particle-bubble adhesion
probability can be expressed by Formula (2.9):

−(45+8Re0.72
b Vb ·ti )
Pa = sin2 2ar ctg exp R (2.9)
30Rb ( b +1)
Rp
where
Reb Reynolds number of bubbles Reb < 100;
Vb Average movement velocity of bubbles;
ti Induction time;
Rb Radius of bubbles;
Rp Radius of mineral particles.
Therefore, the adhesion of mineral particles to bubbles depends not only on the
properties of the mineral particles and those of the pulp, but also on the turbulence
degree in the flotation machine, the bubble size and other factors. The high turbulence
degree in the flotation machine is favourable for the adhesion of fine minerals, but
not for the adhesion of coarse minerals.
2.2 Adhesion Between Mineral Particles and Bubbles 41
2.2.1 Adhesion of Coarse Minerals
The adhesion of coarse minerals to bubbles is mainly caused by inertial collision,

and the contact between mineral particles and bubbles does not necessarily result in
adhesion. The necessary conditions for particles to adhere to bubbles are as follows:
(1) The hydration shell between mineral particles and bubbles is fractured; (2) A
three-phase contact periphery is formed and expanded to a sufficient length. This
necessary condition is particularly important for coarse minerals in the inertial colli-
sion state. Otherwise, the coarse minerals might fall off from the bubbles due to
the excessive inertial force caused by greater mass of the mineral particles even if
adhesion occurs.
The fracture of the hydration shell depends on the correlation of various surface
forces. Depgin l.B. et al. put forward the concept of shell fracture pressure (the
additional energy for thinning the hydration shell until it is fractured) based on the
analysis of various surface forces during the action between minerals and bubbles, and
argued that the shell fracture pressure consisted of electrostatic components, molec-
ular components and structural components. The changes in the structure components
mainly include the energy changes caused by the hydrophobic interaction. Although
the distance of the hydrophobic interaction is less than the interaction distance of
the other two components, the hydrophobic interaction becomes a decisive factor as
long as the hydrophobic particles approach the bubbles to the interaction distance
with the help of external energy, and as a result, the hydration shell is fractured.
After the hydration shell is fractured, the three-phase periphery must be formed
and gradually expanded to finally achieve equilibrium so that the mineral particles can
adhere to the bubbles. The research results showed that the expansion of the three-
phase periphery is affected by the factors such as surface water viscosity, surface
roughness and surface inhomogeneity of mineral particles and the diffusion effect of
reagents at the particle-bubble interface.
2.2.2 Adhesion of Fine Minerals
With regard to the non-inertial collision of fine minerals, there may be two cases in
which the adhesion process is realized: One is the fracture of the hydration shell,
forming the three-phase contact periphery; The other kind of adhesion does not
necessarily accompany the fracture of the hydration shell, and the mineral particles
can also “adhere” to the bubble phase as long as the distance between mineral particles
and bubbles reaches the energy valley of their surface-effect potential energy. Two
conditions are required for realizing the latter: (1) the mineral particles and bubbles
shall approach the distance where the surface force starts to work; (2) the interaction
potential energy of them is negative, with the minimal value on the potential energy
curve.
Note that: the fracture of the hydration shell and the generation of the solid–gas
interface are the necessary conditions for ensuring the flotation selectivity of mineral
particles; the “adhesion” in the energy valley state is in lack of selectivity, which is
exactly one of the reasons for non-selective floatation of slime.
2.3 Detachment of Mineral Particles and Bubbles
After the mineral particles collide with and adhere to the bubbles, detachment may
occur under the action of the turbulence force field, and the detachment probability
may be expressed by Formulas (2.10) and (2.11):
When dp < dmax ,
d
Pd = ( dmax
p
)1/2 (2.10)
When dp ≥ dmax ,
Pd = 1 (2.11)
where d max —Maximum size of mineral particles stably adhering to the bubbles.
The smaller the size is, the smaller the detachment probability is. The greater the
maximum size of mineral particles adhering to bubbles is, the smaller the detachment
probability is. The diameter of the maximum size adhering to the bubbles can be
calculated according to Schultz’s derived Formula (2.12) [12]:

1 1
3γg sin(180− θ)(180+ θ)
dmax = 2
2[(ρp −ρl )g+ρp ·bm ]
2 (2.12)
where
γg Liquid–gas surface tension;
θ Contact angle;
bm Turbulent acceleration.
It can be seen from Formula (2.12) that the maximum size that can float decreases
with the increase of turbulent acceleration, and the detachment probability of mineral
particles will increase; the smaller the contact angle is, the faster the detachment
probability increases. Not only the coarse minerals do not float, but also the fine
minerals may not float.
The firmness of particles adhesion to bubbles and the influencing factors causing
the detachment of particles may be evaluated through force analysis under static
conditions and energy balance calculation under dynamic conditions.
2.3 Detachment of Mineral Particles and Bubbles 43
The forces acting on spherical mineral particles at the gas–liquid interface include
adhesive force, buoyant force, hydrostatic pressure, gravity, capillary pressure and
additional inertia force.
Under statics conditions, the total resultant force acting on mineral particles F
is expressed by Formula (2.13):

2ρP 3h 3
F= − 1 + cos3 ω − sin ω + sin ω sin(ω + θ ) (2.13)
ρl 2RP 2
a R2p
where
ρP Particle density;
ρl Liquid density;
h Immersion depth of mineral particles;
RP Particle diameter;
ω Central angle;
θ Wetting angle.
It can be seen from the above formula that when the mineral particles are given,
ρ
RP and θ are also given. The resultant force acting on the mineral particles
P ,
F = 0 when the mineral particles is in an adhesive equilibrium state at the gas–
liquid interface under static conditions. At this time, the immersion depth of mineral
particles is hl (Fig. 2.3a). The mineral particles continue to sink due to a great enough
external force exerted on the mineral particles or great dead weight of the mineral
particles. As the h increases, F is accordingly changed ([ F = f (h)]), and the
mineral particles will fall off by themselves until they reach the critical immersion
depth hcr (Fig. 2.3b).
Therefore, the detachment work E cr shall be represented as Formula (2.14):
hcr (ω)

E cr = Fdh(ω) (2.14)
h l (ω
Under the turbulent pulp flow state, the necessary condition for the mineral parti-
cles to fall off is that the movement of the pulp enables the mineral particles to obtain
(a)
N
(b)
Fig. 2.3 Immersion depth of mineral particles: a immersion depth is h1 where the particles are in
equilibrium state; b immersion depth is hcr where the particles will lose their force equilibrium
the kinetic energy quantitatively greater than the detachment work. Both velocity
and pressure of any point in the turbulent motion of a fluid fluctuate continuously
over time, and its actual movement speed ν is manifested as the sum of the average
velocity of the fluid and the additional fluctuating velocity v , namely, v = (v + v ).
Set vt = v 2
0 to be the mean square value of the additional fluctuating velocity, which
represents the intensity of turbulence.
For the locally isotropic turbulence, Formula 2.15 can be used to calculate vt :

ε1/9 (2Ragr )7/9 ρ 2/3
vt = 0.33 (2.15)
ν 1/3 ρL
where
υ Kinematic viscosity, Pa s;
Ragr Radius of mineralized bubbles, cm;
ρ = ρs − ρl , g/cm3 ;
ε Average energy dissipation.
The mineral particles will fall off from the bubble surface once the kinetic energy
E min obtained by the mineral particles is greater than or equal to the detachment work
E det , i.e. E min ≥ E det , and Formula (2.16) can be obtained:
hcr
2 2 2ρp 3h
π RP3 ρvl2 ≥ π RP3 ρl g − 1 + cos3 ω − sin3 ω
3 3 ρl 2R
heq

3
+ 2 sin ω sin(ω + θ ) dh (2.16)
a RP
According to the above discussion and calculation, it can be known that the influ-
encing factors of the adhesion firmness and detachment of particles include: Density
of mineral particles ρ P , particle size RP , wettability θ, liquid density ρ l , gas–liquid
interface tension γ gl and average fluctuating velocity of the pulp vt . For the given
mineral particle and liquid system, the wettability θ and gas–liquid interface tension
γ gl of mineral particles can be changed by adding different surfactants to control the
detachment probability of mineral particles to a certain degree.
In addition, the adhesion firmness decreases accordingly with the increase of
the density and size of mineral particles. Under statics conditions, the detachment
of mineral particles is due to the increase of gravity as a detachment force; under
turbulence conditions, either the increase of particle mass or the increase of average
fluctuating velocity v leads to the increase of inertial detachment force of mineral
particles.
2.4 Influence of Size on Flotation 45
2.4 Influence of Size on Flotation
The size fraction distribution of suspended particles is one of the important factors
affecting the flotation recovery. Fine particles and coarse particles have different
flotation rate constants. Very coarse particles cannot be recovered largely due to easy
detachment; Very fine particles have a small adhesion probability, and fine particles
that cannot adhere to bubbles will also consume a large number of reagents, which
limits the recovery of useful minerals in conventional size fraction. Therefore, both
too coarse and too fine mineral particles can affect the flotation effect in different
ways.
2.4.1 Influence of Coarse Particles on Flotation
Coarse minerals have the characteristics of large size and great mass. A large number
of production data and laboratory observations showed that both too coarse and too
fine sizes of flotation minerals will cause obvious decrease of the flotation efficiency
and deterioration of the flotation effect. As seen from the force analysis of particles
under static conditions and the calculation of energy balance under dynamic condi-
tions in Sect. 2.3, there are two main reasons for the adverse effects of too large
mineral particles on the flotation process:
(1) The increase of particle–bubble induction time makes it difficult for particles
to adhere to bubbles. The contact between mineral particles and bubbles does
not necessarily result in adhesion. The necessary conditions for realizing the
adhesion of particles to bubbles are that the hydration shell between mineral
particles and bubbles is fractured, and the collision time is longer than or equal
to the induction time.
Through high-speed photography observation of the bubble mineralization
process of coarse minerals, it is found that when 0.5 mm galena particles collide
with 2 mm bubbles, the bubbles are significantly deformed, the contact portion is
flattened, and the bubbles change from spheres to 1.5 mm × 3 mm elliptical spheres.
The deformation occurs in 2–3 ms and recovers within 2–3 ms later, and the mineral
particles can even be thrown out due to such elastic vibration. The observation results
also showed that the bubbles can be deformed when the coarse particles collide with
the bubbles. Since the contact area is too large, water in the central zone of the contact
area cannot be discharged, and a sandwich water zone is formed so that the mineral
particles cannot really come into contact with the bubbles.
Base on theoretical analysis of the floatability of sulphide minerals with different
size fractions, Jowett pointed out that the main reason for deterioration of coarse
flotation was that the induction time increased accordingly with the increase of
particle size, and presented the relationship between particle-bubble induction time
and mineral size. When the time of contact between mineral particles and bubbles
is less than the induction time, the adhesion process is impossible and the miner-
alization cannot be realized. The coarser the size is, the longer the induction time
accordingly becomes as the movement state of the pulp transits from laminar flow
to turbulent flow, while the contact time is only a few milliseconds, which is much
shorter than the induction time, and adhesion is obviously unachievable.
(2) Coarse minerals are easy to fall off from the bubbles. Since the dead weight
of mineral particles with too coarse sizes exceed the load capacity of bubbles,
these mineral particles are difficult to float even if they adhere to the bubbles;
under static conditions, the main detachment force of coarse and heavy mineral
particles is gravity, with a higher probability of detachment; under turbulence
conditions, the increase of particle mass or the increase of average fluctuating
velocity v may lead to the increase of the inertial detachment force of mineral
particles [13]. For a series of characteristics of the coarse minerals causing
flotation deterioration, the measures may be taken to improve the flotation of
coarse minerals from the aspects of flotation process and flotation equipment.
(1) In the flotation process aspect.
1. Make appropriate changes to the reagent system. Strengthen the
hydrophobicity of the coarse particle surface, and enhance the adhesion
firmness of mineralized bubbles; adjust the bubble strength, and control
the bubble diameter and the speed of bubble coalescence and fracture to
a certain extent.
2. Introduce the regrinding process of middlings. Regrind middlings to
effectively reduce the mineral size.
3. Strengthen the particle size separation. Discard coarse gangue in advance
to avoid the short cut of coarse mineral particle in size seperation.
(2) In the flotation equipment aspect.
1. Change the structure of the tank body of the flotation machine and create a
suitable circulation mode for coarse minerals separation. From the above
analysis, it can be seen that the intense turbulent movement of the pulp
in the mechanical agitation flotation machine increase detachment possi-
bility of coarse minerals. Create a circulation mode suitable for the sorting
of coarse-fraction minerals, reduce the average fluctuating velocity of
the pulp so that the relative velocity of mineral particles and bubbles
is reduced, slow down the collision of mineral particles with bubbles,
prevent the elastic vibration of bubbles generated by intense collision,
thus prolonging the contact time between mineral particles and bubbles,
and improve the probability of adhesion of mineral particles to bubbles.
2. Change the agitation mode of flotation machines. To reduce the influence
of intense turbulence in the flotation machine on the adhesion of coarse
minerals, grid plates may be added above the impeller area of the mechan-
ical agitation flotation machine to reduce the turbulence intensity, inhibit
the rising speed of the mineralized bubble and ensure that the hydrophobic
mineral particles have higher stability at the gas–liquid interface so that

they can directly bring the mineral particles into the froth layer.
3. Reasonably design the froth tank and froth scrapers. Effectively extend
the length of the froth overflow weir, and discharge the floating products
as quickly as possible to avoid detachment of the mineral particles.
4. Optimize the aeration mode. A high aeration rate and even air disper-
sion degree shall be provided to create favourable conditions for carrying
coarse particles jointly by multiple bubbles.
2.4.2 Influence of Fine Particles on Flotation
The physical and chemical properties of fine minerals often have a negative impact
on the flotation process. Too fine mineral particles will not only obviously reduce
the recovery rate, but also significantly affect the grade of flotation concentrates.
(1) Influence of physical properties
1. The collision and adhesion between mineral particles and bubbles are
influenced. Fine minerals have the small diameter, small mass and low
momentum. The probability of collision and adhesion between parti-
cles and bubbles decreases with the reduction of size. Therefore, the
probability of collision and adhesion between particles and bubbles is
low, resulting in poor mineralization and low recovery; once adhering
to the surface of the bubbles, the fine particles are not easy to fall off,
which causes excessive stability and tackiness of the froth in the flotation
process, makes the selectivity of the flotation process worse and affects
the improvement of concentrate quality.
2. Reduce the flotation rate. Due to the low probability of collision between
fine minerals and bubbles, the flotation rate of fine minerals will decrease
with the reduction of the mineral size.
3. Increase the hydraulic entrainment. The research showed that: the finer
the mineral particles are, the smaller the mass is and the higher the degree
of hydraulic entrainment is. The entrainment of fine particles will also
destroy the selectivity of the flotation process and affect the grade of
flotation concentrates.
(2) Influence of chemical properties
1. Slime coating. Due to the electrostatic interactions under different condi-
tions, fine particles will cover the surface of coarse particles, which will
inhibit the flotation of target mineral and deteriorate the flotation indicators
2. Coagulation of fine particles. Fine particles with different charges will
coagulate with each other because of the same reason of electrostatic
interaction. Non-selective coagulation can also deteriorate the flotation
indicators.
3. Reagent consumption. The fine minerals have large specific surface area
and specific surface energy so that they have higher reagent adsorption
capacity. Poor selectivity of reagent adsorption is unfavourable for the
flotation process.
4. Solubility. The fine minerals have large specific surface areas, higher
oxidation rate and increased solubility, the ionic components in the pulp
will be increased, and the mutual activation between minerals will be
strengthened, causing difficulties in flotation separation. The dissolved
components will react with the mineral surfaces, causing transformation
of the mineral surfaces. The mutual transformation of mineral surfaces
will have an important impact on the electrical properties and flotation
behaviours of the mineral surfaces so that different mineral surfaces may
represent similar surface electrical properties and flotation behaviours in
the pulp, thus further deteriorating the flotation separation effect.
For a series of characteristics of the fine minerals causing flotation deterioration,
the measures may be taken to improve the flotation of fine minerals from the aspects
of flotation process and flotation equipment:
(1) Flotation process
1. Use the desliming process (removal of fine minerals that deteriorate the
flotation effect) before the flotation process;
2. Prevent non-selective coagulation of fine minerals to ensure full dispersion
of the pulp;
3. Use a flotation reagent suitable for fine particles to selectively hydropho-
bize the target mineral surface;
4. Selectively agglomerate the fine mineral particles to increase their
flotation size;
(2) Flotation equipment
1. Particle size separation. Fine minerals can be extracted by adding an auxil-
iary device having the sizing function into the flotation machine. An apatite
concentrator added a double-outlet device to an independent 5 m3 flota-
tion machine in the production flow. The semi-industrial research on the
separation efficiency of phosphorus ores by this flotation machine has
achieved ideal results. The feed of the flotation machine is cyclone under-
flow, with the dry ore flowrate of 50 t/h. The device draws a third product
flow accounting for 5–15% of the feed from the flotation machine, with
relatively fine suspended particles. The product analysis results showed
that the recovery rate of particles less than 74 μm is more than 31% for the
double-outlet device with an obvious enrichment effect on the fine parti-
cles. The device makes it possible to remove a part of the fine mineral
particles that failed to adhere to bubble from the flotation machine, these
particles are fed to the next flow for further treatment and recovery, and
the recovery of coarse particles in the flotation concentrates will also be

improved [14].
2. Froth spray water device design. The thinner the mineral particles are,
the higher the degree of hydraulic entrainment is. The froth spray device
is added into the flotation equipment to make full use of the secondary
enrichment of the froth in the flotation process.
3. Aeration way optimization. The research on the flotation dynamics of
fine particles showed that the flotation rate constant is K ∝ d p /d b for
fine particles (where d p and d b are the diameters of mineral particles and
bubbles, respectively, n = 2, m = 2.67–3). Therefore, reduction of the
bubble diameter is one of the main ways to improve the flotation of fine
minerals.
4. Agitation way optimization. Optimize the agitation way to prevent non-
selective flocculation of fine minerals.
5. Tank structure improvement. Change the structure of the tank body of the
flotation machine to create a suitable circulation mode for the flotation of
fine minerals.
2.5 Dynamic Zoning of Flotation Machine
There is actually no strict and clear boundary between dynamic zones in the flotation
machine, and the dynamic zones of different flotation machines are also different.
Generally, the conventional flotation machine may involve four dynamic areas:
agitating and mixing zone, transport zone, separation zone and froth zone.
The properties of different dynamic zones in air force flotation cell are elaborated
as an example combined with the flotation process of mineral particles, as shown in
Fig. 2.4.
2.5.1 Agitating and Mixing Zone
The agitating and mixing zone is an essential zone in the flotation machine. Most of
the processes, such as pulp suspension and circulation, bubble dispersion, collision
and adhesion between mineral particles and bubbles, occur in this zone.
The pulp suspends in the tank through impeller rotation. The suspension state
and circulation rate of the pulp mainly depend on impeller geometric structural and
rotation speed. In a definite flotation machine, an appropriate impeller rotation speed
is required by a dynamic environment that is suitable for flotation process. The pulp
cannot be sufficiently suspended at a too low impeller speed, which not only affects
the collision between mineral particles and bubbles, but also easily produces dead
zones or even sediment; a too high impeller speed will affect the effective adhesion
Fig. 2.4 Flotation dynamic zones in flotation cell
between mineral particles and bubbles and increase the detachment probability, which
is unfavourable for the flotation.
Bubble dispersion mainly depends on the impeller structure and its operating
parameters (such as impeller speed, clearance between impeller and stator and air
speed) will significantly affect air dispersion. The impeller agitation force needs to
satisfy smooth circulation of the pulp, ensure that coarser mineral particles can be
fully suspended without obvious sediment at the tank bottom and ensure that the
turbulence generated by impeller agitation has moderate intensity in order to avoid
detachment of the mineral particles adhering to the bubbles.
2.5.2 Transport Zone
The main function of the transport zone is to form an ascending pulp flow so that the
mineralized bubbles are transported to the upper part of the flotation machine tank
body under the action of fluid dynamics and their own velocity. According to the
observations of researchers, the particle-bubble aggregates are almost disintegrated
due to the strong agitation force when leaving the agitating and mixing zone, and all
2.5 Dynamic Zoning of Flotation Machine 51
the bubbles have a weak degree of mineralization. In the transport zone, the collision
and adhesion between mineral particles and bubbles occur again, and this kind of
phenomenon is called secondary collision and adhesion. Therefore, this zone requires
not only the formation of an ascending flow to transport the mineralized bubbles to
the separation zone, but also an appropriate ascending speed, which can increase
the probability of secondary collision between mineral particles and bubbles while
reducing the detachment probability of mineral particles.
Figures 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7 shows the overall flow field of the flotation machine
measured by PIV under three-speed conditions. It can be seen that two kinds of flow,
i.e. obviously oblique upward and oblique downward are formed after fluid being
deflected from the stator blade. The oblique upward flow gradually forms a clockwise
upper circulating flow field under the action of sidewalls, top free surface, etc. The
oblique downward flow also gradually forms a counterclockwise lower circulating
flow field which is finally sucked into the impeller zone at the bottom of the impeller.
Base on the analysis of the ascending stream in the flow field under three-speed
conditions, it can be seen that the transport zone is located in a vortex field with
zero-point energy (singular point) in the centre. Later, the zone near the tank wall is
dominated by vertical ascending flow which is deflected gradually to the centre of
the tank body, and a vortex flowing downward is slowly formed. The fluid returns
Fig. 2.5 Overall flow field of the flotation machine measured by PIV at impeller speed of 195 r/min
to the zone above the impeller stator and converges with the fluid transported by the
impeller pumping function, and then continues to flow upward. Based on the above
analysis, it can be deduced that the contour shape of the transport zone along the
impeller centreline section presents a near-trapezoidal structure with one side at the
singular point, as shown in Fig. 2.8. The height of the transport zone on this section
jet-flows is from the port of stator to the boundary with the upward velocity of zero
(H = Te − Ts). The width of the transport zone is from the tank wall to the liquid
stream boundary where the direction keeps 45° angle with horizontal line (; W =
Bt − Te), K is the velocity zero point of the section vortex, and the lower width of the
transport zone is the constant velocity line of the vortex whirled from the impeller
zone at an angle of 45° with the horizontal direction.
According to the flotation dynamics theory and the structural features of the
transport zone, it can be deduced that on the one hand, if the height of the transport
zone is increased, i.e. the upper boundary Te − Bt or the lower boundary Ts −
To of the transport zone, the ascending liquid flow will transport the particles to a
location closer to the overflow weir, or the length of the transport zone is reduced,
thus reducing the detachment probability of coarse particles; on the other hand, if
the width of the transport zone is increased, the receiving zone of particles detached
from the froth phase can be enlarged, thus increasing the probability of secondary
collision of coarse particles.
2.5.3 Separation Zone
The key function of the separation zone is to form a clear pulp-froth interface. To
achieve this dynamic condition for the flotation machine, the bubble diameter shall
be within a certain range, and the gas velocity at the cross section shall not be too
high but must be lower than a certain critical value [16]. With the bubble size d b =
0.8–1.2 mm, the upper limit of the gas velocity at the cross section can be adjusted
to 2.7 cm/s. When the bubble size is small (<0.5 mm), the range of allowable gas
velocity at the cross section is small, the pulp-froth interface is easily missing and
gangue minerals are easily entrapped into the froth layer by the bubbles; when the
bubble size is large (>3 mm), the bubble load capacity is small and the froth stability
is poor.
Fig. 2.8 Structural features of transportation zone in cross section
The separation zone also requires a relatively stable pulp flow, while the relation-
ship between particle movement speed and particle-bubble collision in a suspended
state is considered. Zeng et al. [17] measured the particle velocity in all dynamics
zones in the XFD-12 8L flotation machine with the world’s advanced Particle
Dynamics Analyzer (PDA). The test points were radially distributed outside the
axial wall with the central axis as the datum line and with 7.8 mm as the step length.
A total of 9 points were measured in the separation zone. Figures 2.9 and 2.10 showed
that the distribution of the time mean velocity V X (tangential velocity of the cross
section of the flotation machine tank body) in the separation zone is similar to that
in the mixing zone, and the time mean velocity V X of radial distribution changes
from large to small until becomes zero, and then changes to negative. The absolute
value of the time mean velocity of mineral particles in the separation zone is just less
than that in the mixing zone. The test results showed that reflux is encountered at a
point 40–50 mm away from the axis centre, which is unfavourable to flotation, and
the intensity is just less than that in the mixing zone. The radial distribution rule of
the time mean velocity V Y (the velocity in the axial direction of the flotation tank
Fig. 2.9 Tangential time

mean velocity and
fluctuating velocity
distribution along radial
direction in transportation
zone in cross section of
flotation cell (1—Tangential
fluctuating velocity V X ’ in
the separation zone;
2—Tangential time mean
velocity V X in the separation
zone)
Fig. 2.10 Axial time mean

velocity and fluctuating
velocity distribution along
radial direction in
transportation zone in cross
section of flotation cell
(1—Axial time mean
velocity V Y in the separation
zone; 2—Axial fluctuating
velocity V Y ’ in the
separation zone)
body) is changing from small to large, and then getting smaller gradually. This is
unfavourable to the suspension of mineral particles near the tank wall, but beneficial
to the suspension of mineral particles near the axis. Mineral particles that have not
adhered to the bubbles can be better suspended near the axis, and re-collide with the
bubbles for adhesion. The fluctuating velocity V X ’ of the particles is not high and
is relatively uniform; however, the radial attenuation of fluctuating velocity V Y ’ is
great, which is unfavourable to the particle suspension. This will reduce the oppor-
tunities of collision between mineral particles and bubbles and affect the flotation
effect.
Therefore, the gangue particles can be fully separated from the mineralized
bubbles by mastering and making good use of the dynamic properties of the sepa-
ration zone, the probability of detachment of the target mineral particles from
the bubbles is reduced, and then the product recovery and concentrate quality are
improved.
2.5.4 Froth Zone
The function of the froth zone is to further enrich the minerals. A steady froth layer
can ensure that the mineral particles adhering to the bubbles do not fall off, and the
mineral particles are collected by froth flowing smoothly into the froth tank. This
zone focuses on investigating the thickness of the froth layer and the residence time
of the froth.
The thickness of the froth layer is a key operating parameter, which has a direct
effect on the concentrate recovery and grade. For the flotation operation, the thickness
of the froth layer is indirectly controlled by adjusting the pulp liquid level through
the pulp valve of the middling box or tailing box. Besides, the reagent systems, pulp
properties and other factors can also affect the thickness of the froth layer. The general
conditions in the flotation machine are that: The thicker the froth layer is, the better
the capacity of mineral enrichment is; the thinner the froth layer is, the worse the
capacity of mineral enrichment is; ensuring a reasonable thickness of the froth layer
is favourable for the secondary enrichment of the froth layer on the mineral particles
and the improvement of the concentrate grade. But too thick froth layer should be
prevented because if the froth layer is too thick, bubbles in the upper layer will
become larger, the total surface area of the bubbles will decrease, and some coarse
particles that have floated up or mineral particles that are more difficult to float will
fall off from the bubbles; too thin froth layer is also unfavourable because it will not
only weaken the secondary enrichment, but also cause “pulp spring” phenomena, i.e.
fluctuation of the pulp level, which will affect the concentrate quality. In the practical
operation of the flotation process, there is often a thick froth layer in the concentration
operation to ensure that high quality concentrates are obtained, that is, focusing on the
concentrate grade; there is a thin froth layer for the rougher and scavenger operations
to ensure that minerals with poor floatability and part of coenobiums are recovered
as much as possible, that is, focusing on the mineral recovery rate.
The ultimate aim of the flotation machine is to discharge the enriched froth from
the overflow weir for recovery. The quicker and more complete the froth is discharged,
the better the effect is. The mineral recovery in froth is reduced exponentially with
the increase of the froth residence time [18].
Therefore, the froth residence time is one of the important indicators for evaluating
the recovery rate. Shortening of the froth residence time in the design process of the
flotation machine will be very helpful to improve the recovery rate. The relationship
between recovery rate and froth residence time is shown in Formula (2.17).
ε(t) = exp(−kt) (2.17)

where
ε(t) Recovery rate at moment t;
t Froth residence time;
k Coefficient;
In consideration of the velocity of particles in both vertical and horizontal direc-
tions in the froth layer, the froth residence time t can be expressed as Formula 2.18
[19].

Hf εf 2h f εf R
t(r ) = + ln (2.18)
Jg Jg r
where
Hf Distance from the gas–liquid interface to the overflow weir;
hf Distance from the overflow weir to the froth top;
Jg Surface gas velocity rate;
R Equivalent radius of the flotation tank;
r Radius of the position where mineralized bubbles enter the froth layer;
εf Gas holdup in the froth layer.
It can be seen from the above formula that the froth residence time is related to
the operating conditions (the thickness of the froth layer and the surface gas velocity
rate) of the flotation machine, the distance of froth movement (equivalent radius of
flotation tank) and the position where mineralized bubbles enter the froth phase. The
froth residence time will be increased by extending the thickness of the froth layer
and the gas holdup in the froth, and the froth residence time will be reduced by
increasing the surface gas velocity rate of the froth phase.
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12. Lu S, Weng D (1992) Interface separation principle and application. Metallurgical Industry
Press, Beijing
13. Zheng X, Franzidis JP, Manlaping E Modeling of froth transportation in industrial flotation
cells Part I: development of froth transportation models for attached particles
14. Wierink GA, Heiskanen K, Niitti T et al (2008) The dual outlet device—key to size-selective
flotation. Miner Eng 21:894–898
15. Ji SB (1984) Current situation and prospect of flotation theory. Translated by Liu Enhong.
Metallurgical Industry Press, Beijing
16. Anatos B (2004) design, modeling and control of flotation equipment. Met Ore Dress Abroad
4:19–24
17. Zeng K, Xue Y, Yu Y (2001) Particle velocity in solid-liquid-gas three phase flow in flotation
cell. Metal Min 2001(5)
18. Gorain BK, Harris MC, Franzidis JP et al (1998) The effect of froth residence time on the
kinetics of flotation. Miner Process 11(7):627–638
19. Zheng X, Franzidis JP, Manlaping E (2004) Modeling of froth transportation in industrial
flotation cells Part I: Development of froth transportation models for attached particles. Miner
Eng (9–10):981–988
Chapter 3
Dynamic Characteristics and Evaluation
The dynamic characteristic of flotation machines is a key factor to evaluate the

performance of flotation machines, and also an important link to improve the flota-
tion indicators. The characteristic parameters of dynamics performance of flotation
machines are discussed in this chapter, including aeration (suction) rate, disper-
sion degree of air, diameter and distribution of bubbles, bubble surface area flux,
gas holdup, bubble-loading rate, distribution of pulp resident time, definition and
measurement method of pulp suspension capacity and critical impeller speed, etc.
3.1 Characteristic Parameters and Evaluation of Flotation

Machines
3.1.1 Aeration (Suction) Rate
The aeration (suction) rate refers to the volume of air overflowing out of each square
meter of the liquid surface of a flotation machine every minute, which represents the
aeration (suction) capacity of the flotation machine. For the froth flotation, bubbles
are used as carriers which capture mineral particles with good hydrophobicity and
float up to the liquid level in the flotation machine. The aeration (suction) rate will
directly affect the flotation rate, which is one of the most commonly used dynamics
parameters of flotation machines for industrial production.
In academic researches, the aeration (suction) capacity of a flotation machine is
usually expressed by the incoming air volume flow rate, i.e. superficial gas velocity,
per unit of cross-sectional area of the flotation machine. That is to say, the superficial
gas velocity is actually another expression of the aeration (suction) rate of a flota-
tion machine, and their influencing factors and determination methods are described
below.

60 3 Dynamic Characteristics and Evaluation of Flotation Machines
3.1.1.1 Influencing Factors of Aeration (Suction) Rate
For air-forced flotation machine, the aeration (suction) rate depends on the fan perfor-
mance and its operating parameters; for the mechanical agitation flotation machine,
the suction rate is also affected by the structure of the flotation machine itself and its
operating parameters:
(1) Clearance between the impeller and the stator. If the clearance is large, the
aeration rate will decrease, but a too small clearance will cause impact and
friction between the impeller and the stator and reduce the suction rate. The
suitable clearance is 5 ~ 15 mm.
(2) Revolution of the impeller. If the impeller rotates at a high speed within a
certain range, the suction rate will also be high, but a too high speed will
accelerate impeller wear, increase the power consumption and make the liquid
level unstable. In addition, argillation is easy to occur to some brittle ores.
(3) Circulation rate. When the pulp volume entering the centre of the impeller is
the most appropriate, the suction rate reaches the maximum value. But when
the pulp feeding volume exceeds the production capacity of the impeller, the
pulp will block the air cylinder so that the suction rate decreases. In addition,
if the circulation rate of internal pulp is large (i.e. the pulp volume returning
from the circulation holes in the stator into the impeller chamber), the suction
rate will be high, but the power consumption will increase accordingly.
(4) Pulp density at the upper part of the impeller. The greater the value is, the greater
the static pressure acting on the impeller is, the impeller rotating resistance is
increased, and the suction rate is reduced.
3.1.1.2 Measurement Methods of Aeration (Suction) Rate
The measurement methods of aeration (suction) rate mainly include

(1) Water drainage and gas collection. The suction rate of a flotation machine is
measured by water drainage and gas collection, as shown in Fig. 3.1. Select
several representative measurement points in the flotation machine, take a
PMMA tube with height marks and one end closed, fill up PMMA tube with
water, then vertically invert and insert the tube into clear water or pulp, and
ensure that the tube opening is below the liquid level. Start timing when the
liquid level drops to the mark 1, stop timing when the liquid level drops to
the mark 2, and record the time spent. Measure the next point in the same
way until all the measurement points are measured. To ensure the accuracy of
measurements, each measurement point is repeatedly measured twice. If the
time interval between two measurements is large, the third measurement shall
be conducted. Then calculate the aeration rate at each point, and calculate the
dispersion degree of air in the flotation machine.
The aeration (suction) rate of the flotation machine is expressed by the air volume
passing through the 1 m2 cross section of the tank body within 1 min, and the air
3.1 Characteristic Parameters and Evaluation of Flotation Machines 61
Fig. 3.1 Air dispersion measurement
volume is represented by the volume of drained water in the measurement.
V S×L L L 60 × L
Q= = = = t = (3.1)
T ×S T ×S T 60
t
where
Q Aeration (suction) rate at the measurement point, m3 /(m2 ·min);
V Volume of clear water drained from PMMA tube, m3 ;
T Measurement time, min;
S Cross-sectional area of the PMMA tube, m2 ;
L Length of effective measuring section, m;
t Measurement time, s.
To improve the accuracy of measurement, the length of effective measuring section

L is generally taken as 150 mm. Q = 1 m3 /(m2 ·min) when t=9 s.
Calculation process: Firstly, calculate the average value of water drainage time
at each measurement point, substitute into the formula Q = 9/t to calculate the
average aeration rate Q of all the points, and then calculate the average value Q of
all the measurement points. This value is the aeration (suction) rate of the flotation
machine.
(2) Pitot tube method. Install a pitot tube with a micromanometer to the intake
tube of the flotation machine (Fig. 3.2), and calculate the result of the measured
intake volume Q (m3 /s) according to Formula 3.2:

Q = F 2 giρ L K (h − h 0 )/ρa (3.2)
Fig. 3.2 Aeration rate

measured by pitot tube. 1
1—Intake tube; 2—Pitot
tube; 3—Micromanometer
where
F Cross-sectional area of the intake tube, m2 ;

g Acceleration of gravity;
i Sine of the manometer to the horizontal inclination angle;
K Correction coefficient of the pitot tube;
h0 ,h Liquid level of the piezometer tube before and after measurement, respec-
tively, m;
ρL Density of liquid (usually alcohol) in the manometer, kg/m3 ;
ρa Air density under measurement conditions, kg/m3 .
(3) Anemometer method. Install an anemometer to the aeration (suction) tube of

the flotation machine, and calculate the air intake volume by Formula 3.3:
Q = KVF (3.3)
where
V Wind velocity indicated by the anemometer, m/s;
F Effective area of the anemometer ring, m2 ;
K Head loss correction factor.
(4) Flowmeter method. Vertically install a gas rotor flowmeter to the air induced
or air-forced flotation machine, and directly measure the air flow rate.
The water drainage and gas collection method is the most commonly used method
since the error is substantial in the last three methods of the above four aeration
(suction) rate measurement methods.
In addition, according to the relationship between the superficial gas velocity and
the aeration rate, it can be considered that the superficial gas velocity is the velocity
at which the gas drains the liquid phase, thus the superficial gas velocity can be
determined by water drainage and gas collection which is the same as the aeration
rate, and is calculated by Formula 3.4.
Qc Qm V 60LS 5L
Jg = = = = (3.4)
Sc S TS 100tS 3 t
where
Jg Superficial gas velocity in the flotation machine, cm/min;
Qc Volume flow rate of air coming into the tank body of the flotation machine,
m3 /min;
Sc Cross-sectional area of the tank body of the flotation machine, m2 ;
Qm Flow rate of air coming into the PMMA tube, m3 /min;
V Volume of clear water drained from the PMMA tube, m3 ;
T Measurement time, min;
S Cross-sectional area of the PMMA tube, m2 ;
L Length of effective measuring section, m;
t Measurement time, s.
Substitute Formula 3.4 into Formula 3.1, and it can be seen that
5
Q= Jg (3.5)
3
Therefore, the flow rate of air induced or forced can also be indirectly measured by
measuring the superficial gas velocity in the flotation machine, as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Use a PMMA tube with one end closed and one end open, insert the opening end into
Fig. 3.3 Superficial air velocity measurement

the pulp of the flotation machine, and connect the closed end with the air flowmeter.
Then
Jg = Qg/Ac (3.6)
where
Qg Volume flow rate of air entering the PMMA tube per unit time, m3 /s;
Ac Cross-sectional area of PMMA tube, cm2 .
Based on Formula 3.5, the flow rate of air induced or forced can also be measured
by two other methods.
(5) McGill valve open/close reactor [1].
This sensor consists of two tubes (generally 10 cm in diameter), an inductor and a

diffuser. The top may be closed, and the outer wall is connected with a valve and a
pressure sensor, see Fig. 3.4. The pressure sensor is connected by an electronic board
to obtain signals and provide them to the computer for further analysis. The marked
sensor is used to collect bubbles and record the increased pressure when the valve is
closed.
The J g value depends on the gradient change of pressure increased with time, as
shown in calculation formula 3.7.
Fig. 3.4 McGill switching valve measuring device and its pressure signal

Patm + ρb · HL dP
Jg = · (cm/s) (3.7)
ρb · [Patm + ρb · (HL − H0 )] dt
where
Patm Represents the atmospheric pressure at that time, expressed in the water
column height cm;
HL Total length of sensor tube;
H0 Distance between the sensor top and the overflow weir of the flotation
machine;
ρb Density of aerated pulp calculated according to the pressure difference when
the sensor and the diffuser tubes are filled with air, as shown in Formula 3.8.
P2 − P1
ρb = (g/cm2 ) (3.8)
HBD
where
P1 , P2 Pressure calculated by water column height, cm;
H BD Distance between the bottoms of two tubes, cm.
(6) McGill continuous reactor
The top of the inductive electronic tube used is equipped with one pressure sensor and
one orifice with scale marks, see Fig. 3.5. Bubbles enter the tube, and air overflows
through the orifice with scale marks. The liquid level in the tube drops until reaching
a steady state.
J g is estimated by the pressure drop P of the orifice with scale marks on the
cross section, and the calculation formula is as shown in 3.9.

P
Jg = α · +b (3.9)
ρα
where
a, b Empirical constant;
ρa Air density.
3.1.2 Dispersion Degree of Air
The dispersion degree of air is both a parameter that represents the uniformity of air
dispersion in the flotation machine and an important evaluation parameter for the gas
Fig. 3.5 McGill continuous reactor and its pressure signal
dispersion function of the impeller stator of the flotation machine. The uniform air
distribution in the flotation machine is favourable for fuller contact between bubbles
and mineral particles and effectively increases the probability of bubble–particle
collision, thus improving the flotation efficiency.
The dispersion degree of air is mainly affected by the aeration performance,
agitation mode and geometrical structure of the flotation machine itself. The more
uniform and stable the aeration of the flotation machine is, the higher the dispersion
degree of air in flotation is. Generally, the dispersion degree of air can be improved
by adding an air distributor to the impeller stator system, increasing the impeller
speed and designing a symmetrical tank structure.
According to the calculation method of aeration (suction) rate described in
Sect. 3.1.1.2, the calculation formula 3.10 of the dispersion degree of air is
Q
η= (3.10)
Q max − Q min
where
Q Average value of aeration (suction) rates at all measurement points;
Qmax , Qmin The maximum and minimum aeration rates in all measurement points.
3.1.3 Diameter and Distribution of Bubbles
The diameter and distribution of bubbles is an important parameter in the flotation

process. The fluid dynamics characteristics and the flotation effects are affected
to a certain extent by the air velocity and dispersion mode in the flotation machine.
Coalescence and fracture between bubbles in different diameters occur in the process
of bubble ascending, thus affecting the fluid dynamics environment in the flotation
machine.
3.1.3.1 Influencing Factors of Diameter and Distribution of Bubbles
An increase in the froth concentration will result in a decrease in the froth surface
mobility, thus reducing the ascending velocity of the bubbles. Also, the reduction
of surface tension can significantly reduce the bubble coalescence intensity, thus
significantly reducing the average bubble size.
If the tank body of the flotation machine is infinitely high, the bubble size distribu-
tion at the upper part of the tank body will tend to be constant. After the bubbles rise
to a large distance, the average size of the bubbles depends not on the positions where
the bubbles are generated, but on the potential energy in the positions of the bubbles.
To simulate the flotation behaviour, the decreased hydrostatic pressure and increased
bubble diameter in the process of bubble ascending should be considered. The gas
holdup is high at the high velocity gradient of the near-wall surface course (with the
thickness of several centimeters) of the flotation machine and near the agitator shaft,
which results in bubble coalescence, and the average size of bubbles in these areas
is larger than that in other areas.
It takes time to form a constant state of bubble size distribution, and this time
depends on the aeration rate, surfactant and solid concentration and characteristics.
When the gas and liquid velocity on the surface increases and the surfactant concen-
tration decreases, coalescence is the primary cause that affects the bubble diameter.
Bubble coalescence easily leads to the formation of big bubbles, and the fluctuating
velocities of gas and liquid phases in the tank body of the flotation machine cut the
initial bubbles into bubbles with smaller diameters. In the case of low surfactant
concentration and moderate pulp velocity, the influence of the final bubble velocity
on the surface migration and deformation of the bubbles becomes greater as the
bubble diameter increases.
Two types of bubbles will be generated in the froth layer: big bubbles and fine
bubbles. The experimental research on the froth layer by the segregation process
showed that most of the gases exist in the big bubbles, and about 80 ~ 90% of gas–
liquid interfaces in the flotation machine consist of 0.5 ~ 2 mm bubbles under normal
conditions.
Due to different ascending velocities of coarse and minute bubbles, they have
different resident times in the flotation machine. In the flotation machine, the bubble
size distribution at different heights is different from the average bubble distribution
in the tank body of the flotation machine even if bubble coalescence, fracture and
bubble growth due to different hydrostatic pressures are not considered.
3.1.4 Bubble Surface Area Flux
Gas dispersion should generate minute bubbles with a large enough surface area.
The bubble interface generated per unit surface area of the flotation machine per unit
time is called the bubble surface area flux (S b ). The gas surface area flux having the
same effect as the dispersion degree of air is both a commonly used variable which
indicates the degree of gas dispersion. Generally, the dispersion degree of air is used
for actual production, while the gas surface area flux is mainly used for academic
research. The latter is characterized by the combination of the gas surface velocity
and bubble size into a single variable.
For a group of bubbles with the average size of db at the gas surface velocity of
Jg , the bubble surface area flux can be derived from geometry [2]:
Sb = 6 ∗ Jg /db (3.11)
It can be seen from this formula that the gas surface area flux is proportional to
the superficial gas velocity and inversely proportional to the average diameter of
bubbles.
To calculate the value S b , the first step is to determine the average diameter
of bubbles, then determine the superficial gas velocity according to the method
described in Sect. 3.1.1.2, substitute them into Formula 3.11 and calculate.
3.1.5 Gas Holdup
The gas holdup in the flotation machine refers to the volume fraction of air in all
mixtures (pulp and air). The gas holdup affects not only the bubble size distribution,
but also the flotation and selectivity. The flotation dynamics can be improved by
increasing the gas holdup to a certain value because the number of bubbles per unit
volume increases; however, excessive air holdup will have negative impacts on the
flotation effect because this will significantly reduce the resident time of the pulp
in the tank body of the flotation machine. Thus, different types of flotation machine
operations need to correspond to different gas holdups.
The air holdup is determined by the phase velocity and bubble size. Assuming
that the bubble sizes are the same and the phase velocities are also the same, the
volume occupied by gas on a section of the flotation machine is the gas holdup δ in
this case; the gas holdup is determined by the following method (Fig. 3.6).
Firstly, add the pulp into the tank of the flotation machine until it approaches the
overflow weir (height H1 ). Secondly, fill the flotation machine with air, and start
Fig. 3.6 GAS holdup measurement. a—Initial pulp liquid level; b—Pulp liquid level with aeration,
c—Pulp liquid level without aeration
the motor of the flotation machine. At this time, the pulp will overflow from the
overflow weir (if the pulp does not overflow, continue to fill the tank body of the
flotation machine with the pulp). Stop supplying air after the aeration state becomes
stable, and then the pulp in the flotation machine will drop to a new height. Record
this new height H2 , and then the air holdup of the flotation machine is
H1 − H2
δ= (3.12)
H1
In fact, the air holdup in the flotation machine varies from place to place, and the
local air holdups should be tested if necessary. The test tool consists of a handle,
a PMMA tube with openings at both ends, an elastic band and a sealing ball. Put
the PMMA tube into the measuring point with a certain air holdup in the flotation
machine with the handle, and keep the sealing ball in the a) state by external force.
When the pulp in the measuring point fills the PMMA tube up, remove the external
force, and then the sealing ball is changed into state B under the elastic force of the
elastic band. Seal the pulp in the PMMA tube, remove the PMMA tube from the
flotation machine with the handle, pour the pulp in the PMMA tube into a measuring
cylinder, refer to Fig. 3.7, then
δlocal = Vb /Va ∗ 100% (3.13)
where
δ local Local air holdup, %;
Va Spatial volume of the PMMA tube closed by the sealing ball, L;
Vb Pulp volume measured by the measuring cylinder, L.
Fig. 3.7 Measuring device for local air holdup. a sealing balls controlled by external force b sealing
balls controlled by elastic band
3.1.6 Bubble-Loading Rate
The bubble-loading rate L refers to the mass of mineral particles carried per unit area
of mineralized bubbles in the pulp phase, generally in g/m2 . It can also be expressed
by the mass g/L of mineral particles carried per unit volume of bubbles, i.e. the ratio
of the total mass m of minerals carried by bubbles to the total volume V of bubbles,
L = m/V. The bubble-loading rate is mainly used to represent the loading capacity
of bubbles on mineral particles in the pulp phase. On the one hand, it can reflect the
effect of reagents on the mineralization process; on the other hand, it can reveal the
influence of fluid dynamic environment in the flotation machine on mineralization.
Figure 3.8 shows a bubble load measuring device, which consists of a sampling
pipe, a collecting chamber, a diversion cone, an exhaust valve and an ore-drawing
valve. Firstly, fill the measuring device with clean water. Secondly, close the exhaust
valve and the ore-drawing valve, insert the sampling pipe to a location below the liquid
level of the flotation machine (i.e. in the pulp) so that the mineralized bubbles can enter
the collecting chamber through the sampling pipe orifice. The bubbles are fractured
when rising to the gas–liquid interface in the collection chamber, and the mineral
particles adhering to the bubbles will be separated from the bubbles and deposited
to the bottom of the collecting chamber. Open the exhaust valve (connected with a
peristaltic pump for sucking air, with measurable air volume), adjust the frequency
of the peristaltic pump to balance the volumes of incoming air and discharged air. If
the air generated by the fractured bubbles is timely eliminated, the liquid level in the
collecting chamber will remain unchanged. The diversion cone arranged at the upper
Fig. 3.8 Bubble load

measuring device Collecng
chamber
Diversion
cone
Ore-drawing
ball valve
Sampling pipe
end of the sampling pipe can avoid falling particles falling back into the sampling
pipe. After the completion of testing, the minerals in the collecting chamber are taken
out from the ore-drawing hole. The mass of the mineral particles taken out is m, and
the volume of air drawn out by the peristaltic pump is V.
3.1.7 Pulp Resident Time Distribution
Resident Time Distribution (RTD) refers to the distribution of time consumed from
the moment the materials enter the flotation machine to the moment the materials
leave the flotation machine, which is the best representation method of material flow
in the flotation machine. It is directly related to the flotation efficiency of flotation
machines. The most commonly used method for determining the RTD is using water-
soluble substances as pulse tracer particles after a stream of solid substance is injected,
and determine the RTD by testing the concentration of such tracers appearing at the
outlet of the flotation machine and the time.
To conduct a full analysis on the degree of continuity of pulp flow in the flotation
machine, it is necessary to clarify the duration of mineral particles from the inlet to the
outlet of the flotation machine. The flow pattern of the pulp can be judged by injecting
the pulse tracer particles made of monitorable materials into the flotation machine
and observing the effluent state of these particles at the outlet of the flotation machine.
Another method is to suddenly change the feed concentration, and then observe the
change of the effluent concentration at the outlet. The flow pattern of the pulp inside
the flotation machine is usually considered in two ideal types: plug flow and ideal
mixing.
The simplest flow pattern in the flotation process is that all the components of
the pulp in the flotation machine have the same resident time τ, i.e. plug flow. τ is
obtained from the following formula:
τ = volume of flotation cell/pulp volumetric flow rate (3.14)
In this case, the resident times of all the units in the flotation machine are equal,
and the mixing action occurs in the lateral direction rather than in the movement
direction. If a pulse tracer is introduced into the feed, the tracer will be immersed in
the pulp after t = τ (Fig. 3.9).
In the ideal mixing state, the feed component will be evenly mixed in the whole
flotation machine immediately, the tracer particles are injected at the moment of t =
0, and the outlet concentration C at the moment t is calculated as follows:
Iν
C = C1 exp(− t) (3.15)
V
C1 : The initial concentration at t = 0 is shown in Fig. 3.10. As can be seen
from Fig. 3.10, some tracers immediately flow out of the tank body, while others
Fig. 3.9 Residence time

distribution (pulse tracer)
Fig. 3.10 Residence time distribution in ideal mixing state of multiple flotation machines predicted
by formula 3.17
theoretically do not leave the tank body, thus RTD is equal to zero or infinitely great,
so the greatest significance of the RTD test lies in obtaining the average RTD [3].
If the nominal resident time still uses the definition in Formula 3.15, then
Formula 3.16 can be written as
t
C = C1 exp(− ) (3.16)
τ
Formula 3.16 can be extended to the mixing process of N flotation machines in a
series, then
CN (t/τ ) N −1 exp(−t/τ )
= (3.17)
C1 (N − 1)!
where
CN Concentration of products discharged from the Nth tank body of the flotation
machine at the moment t;
τ Nominal resident time of each tank body of the flotation machine.
The theoretical curve derived from Formula 3.17 is shown in Fig. 3.10.
It is significant to compare the ideal mixing state with plug flow state in this series.
Figure 3.10 indicates that the pulp will be dispersed in time when flowing through
a series of tank bodies of the flotation machine, and the total nominal resident time
τ remains the same constant even though the number of tank bodies is changing.
It follows such a law that a small number of continuous flotation equipment is less
effective in the ideal mixing state than in the plug flow state because the resident
time of some materials is too short, while that of others is too long.
3.1.8 Short Circuit
The short circuit in the flotation process refers to the pulp that flow out directly and
the direct flow of pulp without full circulation in the flotation machine. This case
means that there is a dead zone in the flotation equipment, and the flotation time is
shorter than the design requirement, resulting in a poor flotation effect.
The occurrence of a short circuit to the pulp in the flotation machine is related
to the process parameters, reagent system and flotation machine characteristics. In
the previously conventional design of flotation circuits, the method of increasing the
number of flotation machines is often used for the flotation machine operations to
increase the resident time of minerals in the operations, that is, to prevent the “short
circuit” in order to avoid the loss of useful minerals, so as to increase the opportunities
of useful minerals recovery, such as rougher and scavenger operations, which usually
have 4 ~ 8 tanks or more per row. This mode has changed with improvements in
the technical level of flotation equipment, equipment upsizing and control level of
concentrators.
Firstly, the short circuit of pulp can be avoided to a certain extent by adjusting
the reagent system and control strategy in the actual production; secondly, the deter-
mination of the resident time of pulp showed that the nominal resident time of
pulp is a constant (refer to Sect. 3.1.7) when the pulp mixing flow state in the
flotation machine is the plug flow. In this case, adding the number of flotation
machines will not have a significant impact on the dynamic properties of the flotation
machine; thirdly, different flotation dynamics and geometric structure characteristics
of flotation machines also provide the ideas to solve and avoid the short circuit of
pulp.
From the perspective of flotation dynamics, the flotation of useful mineral particles
is the result of competition with gangue mineral particles in bubble adhesion. When
medium and small flotation machines are used, the flotation machines have small
volumes, short pulp resident time, small pulp depth and great influence of impact
force of pulp flow on the adhesion of particles to bubbles. After falling off in the
adhesion competition with the gangue mineral particles, the useful mineral particles
always move a certain distance horizontally in the direction of pulp flow under the
action of gravity, centrifugal force and transverse impact force. In this case, the
probability of adhesion of useful mineral particles to bubbles again is always less
than 100%; when large flotation machines are used, the flotation machines have
large volumes, long pulp resident times and large pulp depths. Especially, because
of different internal structures and agitator principles of the flotation machines, the
influence of pulp flow impact force in the flotation system on the adhesion of particles
to bubbles is almost negligible. After useful mineral particles fall off from the bubbles
to which they adhere, the probability of adhesion of useful mineral particles to bubbles
again is close to 100% due to a long descending distance when influenced only
by gravity and centrifugal force; at present, cylindrical tanks are used in all large
mechanical agitation flotation equipment worldwide. Their symmetry can improve
the degree of air dispersion and pulp surface stability, and improve the efficiency of
flotation machines. The tank bottom is designed into the shape of a conical bottom
to facilitate the movement of coarse and heavy mineral particles to the tank centre so
as to return to the impeller area for recirculation and reduce the phenomenon of pulp
short circuit. Therefore, the “short-circuit” phenomenon which is easy to appear in
the conventional configuration is not easy to occur in the configuration circuit of the
short column flotation machine [4].
3.1.9 Volume Utilization Coefficient
The volume utilization coefficient refers to the ratio of the pulp volume in the tank
body of the flotation machine to the geometric volume of the tank body. Flotation
time is an extremely important basic data for concentrators in the expanding test
and engineering design. The determination of flotation time involves the utilization
characteristic of the flotation machine volume. This characteristic is usually described
by the volume utilization coefficient, i.e. K value. The selection of K value has a great
influence on the calculation results of the flotation time.
3.1.9.1 Influencing Factors of Volume Utilization Coefficient
The geometric volume of the flotation machine can be divided into four parts, i.e.
pulp volume, froth layer volume, volume of air dissolved in the pulp, and volume of
other parts and components in the tank body of the flotation machine. The volume
utilization coefficient is related to the proportion of the last three volumes to the
geometric volume of the flotation machine. In actual production, the above three
volumes are related to the flotation process (froth layer thickness), reagent system
(air dissolved in the pulp) and flotation machine structure (parts contained in the
tank).
3.1.9.2 Calculation of Volume Coefficient
In general, the volume utilization coefficient can be calculated by the following

formula:
K = (v − v1 − v2 − v3 )/v (3.18)
where
v Geometric volume of the tank body of the flotation machine;
v1 Froth layer volume, which is calculated from the froth thickness actually
measured in the production of the flotation machine. When the froth is below
the overflow weir, v1 also contains the volume of the “depressed” froth part;
v2 Volume of air bubbles contained in the pulp during flotation;
v3 Volume of flotation machine parts and components immersed in the pulp during
production.
3.1.10 Pulp Suspension
Pulp suspension refers to a suspended state of mineral particles in the pulp. It directly
affects the mixing effect of pulp and reagent and the collision probability between
particles and bubbles. Sufficient mineral suspension in the flotation machine is the
prerequisite for obtaining good flotation indicators.
The suspended state of mineral particles in the flotation machine is related to
the mechanical structure of the flotation machine (structure of the tank body of the
flotation machine, structure of the impeller stator), operating parameters of the flota-
tion machine (impeller speed, aeration rate) and the properties of mineral particles
themselves (particle size, particle density).
Flotation machine is in different model and specification, but there are mainly
two agitation states of flotation machine when divided from the characteristics of
solid–liquid suspension [5]: The mineral particles are completely suspended away
from the tank bottom, i.e. complete off-bottom suspension; the mineral particles are
suspended and evenly distributed in the tank, i.e. uniform suspension.
For the two different states of solid–liquid suspension, two bases for judging two
solid–liquid suspended states are put forward.
(1) The unsuspended solid volume at the tank bottom is regarded as the judgment
basis. If the resident time of solid particles at the tank bottom is no more than 1 ~
2 s, it is believed that the solid particles are completely off-bottom suspended.
When the solid particles are completely suspended away from the bottom,
the solid contents in all positions in the tank are not completely uniform.
Accordingly, a qualitative analysis of the suspended state of mineral particles
in the flotation machine can be made. Figure 3.11 indicates the change of the
suspended state of particles in the tank as the speed of the agitating mechanism
gradually increases.
(2) The movement velocity of mineral particles is regarded as the judgement
basis. Since the solid particles in the centre of the tank bottom are the finally
suspended portions, the investigation on the velocity variation of the solid
particles in this position at different agitation speeds may also be regarded
as the basis for judging whether the particles are completely suspended or
not. When the particles are not completely suspended, the movement speed of
complete suspension uniform suspension
Fig. 3.11 The particle suspension state changes when the stirring speed increases gradually
particles in the centre of tank bottom changes very little; when the particles
are completely suspended, the movement speed of particles varies significantly
with the agitation speed.
3.1.11 Critical Speed of Impeller
The critical speed of the impeller of a flotation machine refers to the minimum speed
of the impeller when the air in the flotation machine is completely dispersed or the
pulp is completely off-bottom suspended.
3.1.11.1 Critical Dispersion Speed of Air
In the gas–liquid agitation equipment, the gas is dispersed in the liquid in the form
of minute bubbles, and the dispersed state will change with the changes in agitation
speed and aeration rate. Figure 3.12 describes the changes in the gas–liquid dispersion
state when the agitation speed gradually increases at a certain aeration rate, which
may be divided into three states:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig. 3.12 Bubbles distributed in flotation cell

(1) Flooding state. At this time, most of the gas is not dispersed, the bubble diameter
is also relatively large, and the bubbles rise directly to the liquid level along
the agitator shaft, which is equivalent to a bubble kettle (Fig. 3.12a, b).
(2) Loading state. The gas is basically dispersed, the bubbles have already been
close to the wall surface of the tank body of the flotation machine, but the
gas is not well dispersed in the area below the impeller, and the bubbles can
only circulate with the liquid flow in a limited way (Fig. 3.12c). There is a
critical speed in the mutual transformation between this state and the flooding
state, which is called the flooding point speed Nf . It usually increases with the
increase of aeration rate.
(3) Completely dispersed state. The gas is well dispersed in the equipment, and
the bubbles are small and often recirculated with the liquid (Fig. 3.12d, e).
There is also a critical speed in the transition between this state and the loading
state, which is called the full dispersion speed N cd . N f and N cd are not so far
different from each other due to the narrow operating conditions of the loading
state, and these two critical speeds are generally not strictly distinguished in
engineering.
3.1.11.2 Critical Pulp Suspension Speed
The critical pulp suspension speed refers to the minimum speed for suspending all
mineral particles in the flotation machine, which is expressed in Nc and usually used
as the criterion for judging the suspension effect of flotation machines. The critical
suspension speed of impellers is very important for the design of flotation machines
[6].
A. Influencing factors of critical pulp suspension speed
The critical impeller speed can be visually considered as the result of two opposite
mechanisms. The first kind of mechanism is the particle suspension mechanism,
which is mainly influenced by the impeller performance and geometry. The particle
suspension mechanism is related to the flow state of the overall pulp flow, which
depends on the suction capacity of impellers and the turbulence vortex caused by
local energy dispersion. The second mechanism is opposite to the first one, i.e. the
settlement mechanism of particles. The driving force of the settling process is the
well-known critical settling velocity of particles. This will result in phase separation,
which is mainly influenced by particle properties (particle size, solid concentration
and relative solid density) and pulp properties (liquid phase viscosity and superfi-
cial gas velocity). O.A. Lima, D.A. Deglon b and L.S. Leal Filho performed the
comparative test on the critical impeller speed using 6L Denver and Wemco flota-
tion machines [7]. Three kinds of minerals were used in the test: Apatite, quartz
and mica. The research showed that the critical impeller speed mainly depends on
the particle size, particle density and air volume (superficial gas velocity), while the
solid concentration has only subtle effects on it, and the influence of liquid viscosity
on it is negligible. For the three kinds of flotation machines, the influence indices of
particle size, solid concentration and liquid viscosity are equal. The influence index
of solid density on the critical impeller speed is not as great as that observed by
previous researchers, and it is consistent with the result measured by testing in the
agitation tanks as reported in the general literature.
B. Determination of critical pulp suspension speed
The mineral particles contained in the pulp treated by the flotation machine do not
have the same size. Generally, their sizes are normally distributed, so it shall be
ensured that large minerals in the pulp can be completely off-bottom suspended
when determining the impeller speed. At this time, particles smaller than this size
can be generally off-bottom suspended, that is to say, the impeller speed must be
greater than the speed for the largest particles in the pulp to achieve the completely
off-bottom suspended state.
A large number of flotation tests and theoretical researches showed that the critical
speed calculation formula of solid complete off-bottom suspension for mechanical
agitation flotation machines design is
(ρs − ρl ) 0.45
Nc = K s T −0.85 d 0.20
p B υ g
0.13 0.10 0.45
(3.19)
ρl
where
Nc Critical speed, r/min;
Ks Geometry factor of the tank body;
T Diameter of the tank body of flotation machine, m;
dp Diameter of large particles in the pulp, mm;
B Ratio of solid mass to liquid mass in the pulp of flotation machine;
υ Kinematic viscosity of pulp, MPa·s;
g Gravity acceleration, m/s2 ;
ρs Density of solid particles, g/cm3 ;
ρl Liquid density, g/cm3 .
3.1.12 Spindle Power Consumption
The spindle power consumption refers to the actual power consumption generated
by the flotation machine in the working process, and the motor power consumption
may be regarded as the spindle power consumption without considering the trans-
mission loss. For concentrators, the energy consumption of the flotation operation
is second only to that of the grinding operation, so the energy consumption of the
flotation machine naturally becomes an important technical indicator that indicates
the performance of the flotation machine [8].
3.1.12.1 Influencing Factors of Spindle Power Consumption
Without considering the influence of the flotation process on flotation machine energy
consumption, the energy consumption of a mechanical flotation machine is mainly
influenced by the structure parameters of the flotation machine, including the dimen-
sions of the flotation tank (depth of the tank body), impeller structure form (impeller
diameter, impeller speed, number of blades, blade height), operating parameters of
the flotation machine (impeller speed). Therefore, analysis must be conducted from
these aspects in order to reduce the energy consumption of the flotation machine,
with the emphasis on the form and structure parameters of the impeller.
When the impeller of the flotation machine rotates, the power consumption is
used to overcome the resistance of the pulp, suck the pulp and throw the pulp out
of the impeller area. When the impeller rotates, the power can be expressed by the
formula below:
N = N1 + N2 (3.20)
where
N Total power consumed by the rotating impellers of the flotation machine,
excluding energy consumption of bubble scraping in the flotation machine
and that of the blowing system of the pneumatic agitation flotation machine,
kW;
N1 Power consumed in sucking the pulp by the impeller, overcoming the static
pressure head of the pulp and throwing the pulp out of the impeller area, kW;
N2 Power consumed for overcoming pulp resistance when the impeller rotates,
kW.
γ QH
N1 = (3.21)
102η1 η2
where
γ Pulp density, kg/m3 ;
Q Pulp volume sucked by the impeller (including feed and circulating pulp),
m3 /s;
H’ Pressure head generated by impeller rotation (its value is equal to the static
pressure head of the pulp in the tank body), m;
η1 , η2 Hydraulic and mechanical efficiency of impellers.
Ψ π Z D 2 n H Sγ
N2 = (3.22)
102 × 102
where
Positive drag coefficient of impeller blades;
Z Number of blades, piece;
D Impeller diameter, m;
n Impeller rotating speed,r/min;
H Static pressure head of pulp in the tank body (H = H’), m;
S Impeller height, m;
γ Pulp volume-weight, kg/m3 .
Where, N 1 is much smaller than N 2 , which often accounts for only about 10% of the
total impeller rotating power, while N 2 accounts for about 90%, that is to say, power
consumption is mainly used to overcome the pulp resistance.
From Formula 3.22, we can see the influence of the parameters related to the tank
body, impeller and pulp on the spindle power of the flotation machine.
3.1.12.2 Calculation and Measurement of Spindle Power Consumption
The flotation power can be expressed in the following expression:
P = N p ρn 3 D 5 (3.23)
where
P Spindle power, kW;
Np Power number;
ρ Pulp density, g/cm3 ;
n Impeller speed, r/min;
D Impeller diameter, m.
The formula above is generally used to calculate the installed power design of
flotation machines. In actual production, we pay more attention to the real power
consumption of the flotation machine spindle, and this power can be measured
directly by a power meter or calculated from the measured current.
3.2 Performance Evaluation of Flotation Machines
The separation process of the flotation machine is the result of interaction of multiple
variables. Klimpel et al. [9] considered the flotation process as a system in which
chemical, operational and mechanical factors influenced each other. The balance
research on the three factors has changed for a long time, and factor researches
on machinery have begun to flourish. The work presently carried out focuses on
the researches on the dimensionless number related to the dynamic performance
of flotation machines [10]. These researches showed that single mechanical factors
(such as impeller speed, aeration rate and tank body design) will not significantly
affect the dynamic performance of flotation machines, but the dynamic conditions
of flotation—flow state, strength of mixture, suspension state of particles, degree
of air dispersion, bubble–particle interaction—formed by them will in turn control
the dynamic performance. Therefore, the flotation performance evaluation of the
flotation equipment itself depends on the flotation dynamics and operating parameters
during its operation.
As mentioned above, there are many dynamic and operating parameters of flota-
tion machines. In the actual production process, the froth loading rate, pulp resident
time and operating speed of the prototype equipment for certain pulp properties
and reagent system are unchangeable, so these parameters of flotation machines are
generally not used for the investigation on the dynamic performance of flotation
machines in the actual production. The performance evaluation parameters of flota-
tion machines commonly used in engineering practices need to have the following
characteristics:
(1) They will have a significant impact on the flotation effect, such as degree of
air dispersion, which directly affects the collision and adhesion probabilities
between bubbles and particles.
(2) They are closely linked to the process operations, affected by the process
conditions or may be adjusted according to the process requirements, such
as aeration rate. They are important parameters that represent the aeration
capacity of flotation machines, and can be adjusted according to different pulp
properties at any time.
(3) They are easy to measure. For example, gas holdup, pulp suspension capacity
and spindle power consumption. The measurement process is simple and
accurate.
Therefore, the most commonly used parameters for evaluating the performance of
flotation machines are aeration rate, degree of air dispersion, gas holdup, pulp suspen-
sion capacity and spindle power consumption, which are also used to evaluate the
performance of the flotation machines in engineering practices.
References
1. Ledezma RA (2009) Gas distribution in industrial flotation machines: a proposed measurement

method[D]. McGill University
2. Colmetz CO et al (2003) Measurement of gas dispersion in flotation machine [J]. Metallic Ore
Dressing Abroad, (4)
3. Lelinsky D et al (2003) Analysis of pulp retention time distribution in a large scale flotation
machine [J]. Metallic Ore Dressing Abroad, (3)
4. Songrong Y, Wu Z (2000) Several issues in flotation circuit [J]. Nonferrous Mines 29(5)
5. Flotation machine manual [R]. Beijing general research institute of mining and metallurgy
References 83
6. Shen Z, Lu S, C Dong et al (2009) Study on the solid suspension in the tank of a large-scale
mechanical agitation flotation machine. Nonferrous Met (mineral processing section) (4)
7. Lima OA, Deglonb DA, Leal Filho LS (2009) A comparision of the critical impeller speed
for solids suspension in a bench-scale and a pilot-scale mechanical flotation cell. Miner Eng
22:1147–1153
8. Yang F (2004) Energy consumption analysis of mechanical agitation flotation machine.
Nonferrous Met (mineral processing section). (5)
9. Klimpel RR, Dhansen R, Fee BS (1986) Selection of flotation reagents for mineral flotation.
In: Mular AL, Anderson MA (eds) Design and installation of concentration and dewatering
circuit, pp 384–404
10. Harris CC (1976) In Fuerstenau MC (ed) Flotation machines, in Flotation A.M. Gaudin
Memorial Volume, vol 2, ALME, pp 753–815
Chapter 4
Research on Fluid Dynamics Test
Computational fluid dynamics simulation and experimental fluid dynamics testing

are two main means for the research of flotation machines [1–3]. The test data
of experimental fluid dynamics supports the improvement in computational fluid
dynamics simulation. The computational fluid dynamics simulation technology well
solves the problems of high experiment cost, long cycle and difficult comprehensive
acquisition of a large number of microscopic flow field information. The combination
of the two promotes the efficient development of flotation machines. This chapter
mainly introduces the current researches on experimental fluid mechanics of flotation
machines [4]. Over the past few decades, the means of experimental fluid mechanics
have developed rapidly, which helps researchers to better understand the essence of
flow and related laws and promote the emergence of more efficient equipment [5]. It
mainly introduces the experimental fluid mechanics methods used for experimental
flotation machines and industrial flotation machines. These methods can be not only
used for the research of flotation equipment, but also can be applied for other fluid
mechanics researches.
4.1 Flow State Test of Flotation Machines
The flow state is an important aspect in the research of the flow field of flotation
machines, and the key to the flow state research is the flow velocity measurement. The
flow velocity measurement is divided into contact and non-contact measurements.
A very rapid progress has been made in the non-contact measurement technolo-
gies, mainly including laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), particle dynamics analyzer
system (PDA), particle image velocimetry (PIV), etc. [6]. These methods have the
advantages of no interference to flow field, high measurement accuracy, fast dynamic
response, high resolution, etc. They realize real-time collection and analysis, display
of particle images, velocity vector maps, etc. They are the first choices for flow

86 4 Research on Fluid Dynamics Test of Flotation Machines
velocity measurement. The new generation of contact velocity measurement tech-

nology, represented by the electromagnetic current metre and the mechanical agita-
tion propeller current metre, has also developed rapidly in measurement precision,
accuracy and portability.
4.1.1 LDV Testing Technology
The laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) began to be widely applied in the 1960 s. LDV
is a non-contact measurement method. Different from a hot-wire anemometer which
disturbs the flow field to a certain extent by insertion of a sensitive element into the
flow field, LDV has a wide range of measurement and high spatial resolution. Since
the 1990 s, LDV has been widely applied in various branches of fluid mechanics with
the LDV integration, utilization of optical fibres, intelligence and the development
of modern digital signal processing technology.
LDV measurement is performed at a certain measuring point over a period of
time, so the measured velocity is a time-averaged quantitative value, and the whole
velocity field can be obtained by measuring every point in the agitation tanks [7, 8].
The principle of laser Doppler velocimetry is to measure the velocity of parti-
cles by the Doppler effect of scattered light from moving particles. TSI’s three-
dimensional LDV system of a five-beam single-lens backscattering mode has the
major components as follows (Fig. 4.1):
(1) A laser: INNOVA70C Series 2 W Hydrogen Ion Laser manufactured by
COHERENT.
(2) A multicolor beam splitter with six optical fibre couplers, which divides a
laser beam into three pairs of parallel emitted light, whose wavelengths are
514.5 nm (green), 488 nm (blue) and 476.5 nm (purple), respectively. In each
Fig. 4.1 Three-dimensional LDV test system (TSI company)

4.1 Flow State Test of Flotation Machines 87
pair of beams, there is one beam to which a 40 MHz frequency-shift signal is

added.
(3) A PDM 100 photoelectric receiver which receives, separates and converts scat-
tered light into an electrical signal and extracts a frequency-shift signal for
analysis and processing by software TSI’s Flowsizer.
(4) An FSA3500 signal processor which distinguishes signal pulse from noise
according to the signal-noise ratio and extracts velocity information from the
signal.
(5) A five-beam three-dimensional optical fibre probe. Five beams focus on a
measuring point in parallel through a convertible lens, and the scattered light is
received and transmitted into the multicolor beam splitter by the receiving
optical fibre so that an optical signal with three velocity components is
separated out.
(6) A three-dimensional moving coordinate frame on which an optical fibre probe
is arranged to allow movement in three directions, with the minimum moving
distance up to 0.001 mm.
The signal source of LDV measurement comes from scattering particles. The
rational selection of particles can improve the signal-noise ratio of Doppler signals.
With the three-dimensional moving coordinate frame, the laser can measure the fluid
flow at any point in the agitation tank.
4.1.2 PIV Testing Technology
(1) PIV principle
Particle image velocimetry, referred to as PIV technology, is an advanced full-field

measurement technology suitable for measuring typical transient flow fields such as
combustion flame fields, flow conditions near the moving surface of the horizontal
wing of a helicopter and flow fields in agitation tanks. The PIV technology enables
both measurements of a velocity field in a large enough area with coherent structures
and access to the flow field information of a flowing small-scale structure due to its
high enough spatial resolution.
With the development of technologies in the computer, optics, infographics and
other related fields, the PIV technology has achieved important results in the exper-
imental researches of turbulence, separation vortex, jet flow, etc. All the main turbu-
lence data measured, such as velocity field, turbulence intensity, wave number spec-
trum, Reynolds stress, root mean square velocity value, total shear stress and other
structures, are in good agreement with the results of hot-wire anemometer, LDV and
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). At present, TSI’s PIV technology has enabled
the measurement of 12,000 instantaneous velocity vectors in a flow field with the
area of 10 × 13 cm, and its accuracy is about 0.1 ~ 1% [9].
Fig. 4.2 Schematic diagram of PIV system
During velocity measurement by the PIV technology, tracer particles with good
following performance, good reflection and equivalent specific gravity to that of
fluids need to be uniformly dispersed in the flow field. A light sheet formed by
scattering the light beam generated by a laser through a lens is incident on the area
to be measured in the flow field, and the CCD camera is aimed at the area in the
direction of the vertical light sheet. Images of the particles during two pulse laser
exposures are recorded by the light scattering of tracer particles, two PIV negatives
(i.e. a pair of pictures of the same measurement area and different moments) are
formed, and the contents recorded on the negatives are the particle images in the
whole area to be measured [10–13]. Figure 4.2 is a schematic diagram of the PIV
system.
Since the whole area to be measured contains a large number of tracer particles,
it is difficult to distinguish the same particle from the two images, thus the required
displacement vector is unavailable. The images are divided into many small inter-
rogation areas by image processing technology, and the magnitude and direction of
particle displacement in the interrogation areas are obtained by auto-correlation or
cross-correlation analysis. The velocity vector of particles can be calculated since
the interpulse time has been set, as shown in Fig. 4.3. The velocity vector in a certain
interrogation area can be obtained by calculating the data of all the particles in the
interrogation area, and the whole velocity vector field can be obtained by counting
and calculating all the interrogation areas. In the actual measurement, many pairs of
exposure pictures can be taken in the same position so that the flow state inside the
whole flow field can be reflected much more comprehensively and accurately.
Unlike the point measurement of LDV, PIV is a planar measurement technology
which is advantageous to research the unsteady characteristics of flow, and the
Fig. 4.3 Basic test principle diagram of PIV
particle image velocimetry (PIV) is essentially the development of flow field visu-
alization technology. Flow visualization is an important component of experimental
fluid dynamics. The traditional flow field visualization technology can only be used
to qualitatively analyse the measured flow field, but quantitative results are diffi-
cult to obtain. The PIV technology is a measurement instrument developed by the
image processing technology on the basis of flow visualization. The whole struc-
ture of the flow field can be obtained by the PIV technology, especially the detailed
understanding of transient flow.
BGRIMM has made many meaningful exploration efforts in the measurement of
the flow field in flotation tanks by the PIV technology. Figure 4.4 is the PIV test
Fig. 4.4 PIV test system of flotation machine

Fig. 4.5 Whole flow field in the tank measured by PIV
system of flotation machines. Figure 4.5 is the whole flow field in the tank measured
by PIV. The laser velocimetry technology has the characteristics of non-contact, no
disturbance, fast response, high spatial resolution, wide measurement range, etc.,
which enables the PIV technology to have many advantages in measuring the flow
field of flotation equipment, so that the overall flow field structure in the tank can be
well measured. However, there are still many problems worth profound research on
the visibility of the flow field, the shielding of the scattered light from tracer particles
by bubbles, etc. in terms of the measurement of the flow field structure in the rotor
area, gas-liquid two-phase flow field and even multiphase flow field.
No matter it is LDV or PIV, all these non-contact optical measurement systems
obtain the velocity of the flow field by measuring the velocity of tracer particles
moving with the fluid rather than by direct measurement. How to select and add
appropriate tracer particles is a very important subject in laser velocimetry. Generally,
the tracer particles need to meet the following requirements:
(1) Good following performance: They can follow the fluid motion well, and the
relative motion between particles and fluid flow is as small as possible so as
to ensure that the movement speed and direction of the tracer particles can
represent the velocity and direction of the fluid. The following performance of
tracer particles to fluid mainly depends on the diameter and density of particles,
the viscosity and density of fluid and other parameters.
(2) Good light scattering performance: They have high scattering efficiency, which
is conducive to low-noise scattering light and convenient for signal processing,
with higher measurement accuracy. When the optics system is determined,
the scattering characteristics of the tracer particles are closely related to the
wavelength of incident light, the diameter of particles, the physical properties
of the particles (such as refractive index), etc.
(3) Good physical and chemical properties: The added scattering particles should
be non-toxic, non-irritating, non-corrosive or non-abrasive to flow pipelines,
and stable in chemical properties and so on.
(4) The tracer particles should be easily generated, clean and hygienic, without
pollution to the environment. For open experiments, the tracer particles should
be cheap, with a wide adjustable extent of concentration. There are many types
of materials for the tracer particles, such as glass micro-particles and melamine
particles coated with rhodamine dye.
Figures 4.6 and 4.7 shows the conditions photographed by PIV when the tracer
particles perform well and poorly, respectively. It can be seen that when the tracer
Fig. 4.6 PIV photograph when the tracer particles perform well
Fig. 4.7 PIV photograph when the tracer particles perform poorly
particles perform well, the particles in the whole flow field are uniformly dispersed,
and the brightness of the tracer particles is obviously higher than that of the back-
ground colour. In the principle of tracer particle selection, good light scattering and
following performance are the basic requirements for tracer particle selection. But
sometimes the two requirements contradict each other. The scattering property of
tracer particles usually increases with the increase of their sizes, and the larger the
sizes of tracer particles are, the worse their flow following performance is. Therefore,
the influences of the two requirements must be weighed in practical experiments.
Relatively speaking, LDV can be relatively convenient to ensure the concentration
of tracer particles because it is a point measurement method so that data acquisition
has a suitable sampling rate. But PIV is a planar measurement method by which
the velocity of each interrogation area is obtained by image processing calculation.
For related processing technologies, it would be best to ensure 3–8 tracer particles
per interrogation area to ensure the accuracy of measurement. PIV receives scattered
light in the 90° direction where the scattered intensity is relatively weak and fluctuates
greatly, so the particle size should be relatively small to ensure the scattering intensity
in the 90° direction.
(2) PIV measurement of the flow field of flotation machines
We obtain a velocity vector map of the whole flow field with a single liquid phase
of KYF-0.2 flotation machine by the PIV method, as shown in Fig. 4.8a. The fluid
has two kinds of flow, i.e. obviously oblique upward and oblique downward after
being deflected from the stator blade. The oblique upward flow forms a clockwise
upper circulating flow field under the action of sidewalls, top free surface, etc. The
oblique downward flow forms a counterclockwise lower circulating flow field which
is sucked into the rotor area at the bottom of the rotor. This intuitively shows the upper
and lower circulation flow field structure in the design theory of flotation machines.
Figure 4.8b is the flow field of the flotation machine predicted by CFD. CFD and
PIV have the same structure of the whole circulating flow field, which indicates that
their joint research on the flow of flotation machines is very effective. Figures 4.9
and 4.10 reflects the comparison of CFD predictions and PIV measurements of radial
and axial velocities on a vertical line with the longitudinal section r/R = 0.56. From
an overall point of view, the CFD predictions and PIV measurements fit well in the
variation trends of radial and axial velocities, velocity values, etc., which indicates
that the CFD predictions are more correct to reflect the internal flow field state of the
flotation machine. The vertical line where r/R = 0.56 is located is just at the stator
blade outlet. From the curves, it is seen that both the radial and axial flow velocities
in the tank body bottom area upward along the tank bottom are smaller, and the peak
velocity occurs outside the upper part of the stator blade about 220–240 mm away
from the tank bottom height, which is consistent with the actual condition.
The velocity vector map of the rotor bottom flow field of the experimental KYF-
0.2 flotation machine based on the PIV method is shown in Fig. 4.11. It can be seen
that the flow tends to be inclined upward and downward after the fluid is diverted from
the stator blades, and the flow velocity in the inclined upward direction is obviously
greater than the flow in the inclined downward direction. That is because the flow
inclined upward is mainly due to the lifting effect provided by the special rotor blade
design, while the flow inclined downward which is mainly powered by the suction
effect at the rotor bottom is weaker in intensity. The suction effect of the rotor is
remarkable at the rotor bottom. The closer the fluid is to the rotor, the higher the
upward velocity is and the upward flow is also obvious at the tank bottom below the
rotor. However, the velocity at the tank bottom far from the rotor is small, especially
at the edge of the tank body at the lower left corner of the vector map, which is less
than 0.2 m/s. According to the PIV test results, the actual fluid velocity in this area
is very small and easy to cause mineral deposition.
The velocity vector map between stator blades of the flotation machine based on
the PIV method is shown in Fig. 4.12. Figure 4.13 shows the flow field position of
the stator blades in the PIV test. As seen from the figure that the fluid thrown out
of the rotor enters the spaces between stator blades where the flow is smooth and
free of vortex, and the flow velocity in the inclined upward direction is high, which
indicates the remarkable effects of diversion and current stabilization of the stator
blades.
(a) PIV
(b) CFD
Fig. 4.8 Velocity vector map of the whole flow field by the PIV at impeller speed of 195 rpm in
KYF-0.2 flotation machine
4.2 Pulp Flow Test Technology 95
Fig. 4.9 Comparison between CFD predictions and PIV measurements of radial velocities on a
vertical line of r/R = 0.56 in the longitudinal section
4.2 Pulp Flow Test Technology
4.2.1 Residence Time Distribution Test
Generally, residence time distribution (RTD) means that if fluids flow in a chem-
ical reactor at a constant flow rate, these fluids may be regarded as a combination
consisting of many fluid elements, then the time spent by them in the reactor between
inlet and outlet is the residence time of the fluids [14–17]. For the flotation, when the
pulp flows through the flotation machine at a steady flow rate, the routes of all the
pulp elements flowing through the tank body are not exactly the same although the
overall residence time is predictable, thus the residence times in the tank body are
also different. The residence time distribution laws of the pulp in the flotation tank,
i.e. the residence time distributions of the pulp, are not exactly the same.
The residence time distribution tracer test is usually such a process that a few
tracers are fed at the equipment inlet by pulse (in a very short time), the concen-
tration changes of the tracers are monitored at the outlet. Thus, the residence time
distribution curve is drawn. There are many kinds of test methods, such as conduc-
tivity method, turbidity method, fluorescence method and radioactive tracer method.
The conductivity method is simple and practicable for the RTD test of aqueous phase
in a laboratory. It is difficult to apply in the industrial flotation process due to the
Fig. 4.10 Comparison between CFD predictions and PIV measurements of axial velocities on a
vertical line of r/R = 0.56 in the longitudinal section
Fig. 4.11 The velocity vector map of the rotor bottom flow field of KYF-0.2 flotation machine by
PIV
Fig. 4.12 The velocity

vector map between stator
blades of the flotation
machine by PIV
problems of complexity of the industrial system, high pulp conductivity, etc. The
fluorescent trace method which can avoid the above problems is widely applied in
the RTD tests of the industrial flotation process. Its main limitation is that it can only
evaluate the overall characteristics of pulp flow but cannot reveal the RTD of solid
phase or gas phase particles separately. The radioactive tracer technique can realize
the RTD of the solid phase, liquid phase and even gas phase in the flotation machine.
Its main disadvantages are the harmfulness of radioactivity and high requirement for
safety protection.
Fig. 4.13 The flow field between the stator blades by PIV
(1) Conductivity method
The core instrument of the conductivity tracer method is the conductivity metre,
which requires high precision and high sampling frequency. It can sample once in
1 s while realizing the on-line test. Conductivity metre parameters and pictures: The
tracers of the conductivity tracer method are relatively easy to acquire. All solvents
such as KCL and NaCl are permissible. Figure 4.14 and 4.15 is the test systems for
residence time distribution of flotation machines based on the conductivity method.
Clean water is circulated through a pump in the tank, the KCL solution is pulse-
injected at the inlet, with clean water or pulp (with very low conductivity) in the
tank, and the changes in conductivity are monitored at the outlet. Figure 4.16 and
4.17 gives the RTD curves of water for single-tank and continuous-tank 30L flotation
machines. After the pulse injection of the tracers, the peak concentration appears after
a short period, followed by fast attenuation. This type of curve is very similar to that
of the ideal agitated reactor.
(2) Fluorescent trace method
The test method of the fluorescent trace method is consistent with that of the conduc-
tivity tracer method, that is, the fluorescence tracer solution is injected at the inlet by
pulse, monitoring and sampling are conducted at the outlet, followed by a discrete test
Fig. 4.14 Test systems for residence time distribution of single flotation machine
of the fluorescence intensity, thus obtaining the RTD curve. The fluorescent tracing
instrument is the core instrument of this method, as shown in Figs. 4.18 and 4.19.
Table 4.1 gives the basic parameters of some commonly used fluorescent tracing
instruments. The fluorescein sodium powder is generally the choice for the fluores-
cent tracers. This reagent is red and soluble in water easily. The fluorescent trace
method allows tests to be carried out at the site of the industrial flotation machine to
obtain the RTD distribution of the pulp. Due to the high turbidity of the pulp from the
industrial flotation machine after sampling, discrete sampling is usually adopted to
test the fluorescence intensity by taking the supernatant of a clear solution. Because of
the long residence time of the industrial flotation machine, the precision of obtaining
the RTD curve by discrete sampling is reliable.
Fig. 4.15 Test systems for residence time distribution of united flotation machines
Fig. 4.16 RTD curves of water for single-tank
(3) Radioactive tracer method
The radioactive tracer method is a method of tracer testing with radioactive nuclides
as tracers. It has been widely applied in all scenarios in the industrial field due to
its advantages of non-intervention, etc. Its main disadvantages lie in the high safety
and environmental protection requirements, strict control of dosage of radioactive
substances, highly professional and technical natures of testers, etc. The radioactive
Fig. 4.17 RTD curves of water for united tanks
Fig. 4.18 FluoroQuik

fluorescent tracing
instrument
Fig. 4.19 AquaFluor

fluorescent tracing
instrument
Table 4.1 Basic parameters

Equipment name Company Main parameter
commonly used for
fluorescent tracing instrument FluoroQuik Ami science, USA Range: 0–15000 ppb
Precision: 1 ppb
Portable
AquaFluor Turner Designs,USA Range: 0–1000 ppb
Range of linearity
0–400 ppb
Precision: 0.4 ppb
Portable
tracer method is a crucial step in the experimental research for the selection of
radioactive tracers. Table 4.2 gives the radioactive tracers applied in industry.
Flotation is a gas–liquid–solid three-phase system. The RTD of each phase can
be separately obtained by the radioactive tracer method. Br-82 is often selected and
used as a radioactive tracer for the pulp liquid phase test. Figure 4.20 gives the
RTD curves of liquid phase and solid phase particles in the flotation machine. There
is a significant difference between the two kinds of particles, that is, the average
residence time of solid phase mineral particles is shorter than that of liquid phase
mineral particles. Na 24 is often used as a tracer of solid mineral particles and can
be used as a mark on mineral particles with different particle sizes so as to research
the RTD differences between mineral particles with different particle sizes, as shown
in Fig. 4.21. It can be concluded that the coarse mineral particles have the shortest
coarse mineral particles among the three kinds of size fractions, which explains the
reason why the separation of coarse minerals is more difficult from the perspective
of RTD. For the gas tracer method, some scholars use Kripton-85 and Freon-131 as
the gas tracers.
4.2.2 Circulation Volume and Flow Velocity Test
The pulp circulation capacity of rotors is an important performance indicator for

flotation machines [18, 19]. The key to acquire the circulating capacity of the flotation
machine is to measure the flow velocity of the fluid entering the rotor. The main
instruments for measuring the flow velocity of the flotation machine fluid include
the pitot tube velocimeter, vane current metre velocimeter, electromagnetic flowmeter
velocimeter, etc.
(1) Electromagnetic current metre
The electromagnetic flowmeter velocimeter is designed based on Faraday’s law

of electromagnetic induction. When moving along a plane where an alternating
magnetic field of a flow velocity sensor is perpendicular to the central axis of elec-
trodes, the conductive fluid cuts the line of magnetic force and generates the induced
potential which is collected by the signal electrode and is proportional to the flow
Table 4.2 Radioactive tracers for marking different substances

Isotope Chemical composition of the recommended marker
Gas Aqueous solution Solid inorganic matter Organic matter
3H Gas 3H O – Various organic
2
compounds
14 C CO2 – – Various organic
compounds
Na – Water soluble ions Na2 CO3 (Carboxy acrylic Naphthenate, salicylate
ball)
S H2 S – – Various organic
compounds
Cl – – – Various organic
compounds,
chlorobenzene
Ar Gas – – –
Se – Water soluble ions SeO2 –
Cr – – Adsorb on quartz surface –
Fe – – Metal
Co – – Metal Naphthenate
Ca – Water soluble ions CaO Naphthenate
Zn – – ZnO –
Ni – – – Stearates, oxalate
As AsH3 – – –
Ge – – – Various organic
compounds
Br CH3 Br Water soluble ions CaBr2 p-Dibromobenzene,
bromobenzene
Kr Gas – – –
Rb – – –
Ag – – Adsorb on solid surface –
Sb – – Metal Triphenyl stibine
I – Water soluble ions – Solution of kerosene with
iodine, iodobenzene
Xe – – – –
La – – La2 O3 (Polypropylene –
ball)
Ce – – Ce2 O3 –
Ta – – Ta2 O5 –
Au – – AuCl3 absorb on powder Amine salt, colloidal gold,
surface
Fig. 4.20 The RTD curves of liquid phase and solid phase in the flotation machine
Fig. 4.21 The RTD curves differences between mineral particles with different particle sizes
velocity; the converter calculates the flow velocity of the conductive fluid flowing
through the profile of the flow velocity sensor through the induced potential, and this
velocity signal is amplified by the flow indicator and converted into a digital quan-
tity signal proportional to the flow velocity signal, thus realizing the measurement
of the flow velocity. Table 4.3 lists the main technical parameters of the technical
parameters of the electromagnetic current metre. Figure 4.22 is the electromagnetic
current metre.
Figure 4.23 gives a schematic diagram of internal circulation volume measure-
ment of flotation machines. Test the flow velocities at different radii in the diversion
cylinder by moving the test bar, and calculate the volume flow rate of the pulp in
the diversion cylinder by means of integral average calculation. Figure 4.24 shows
the speeds along different positions from the axle centre to the edge of the diversion
cylinder 500 mm below the rotor of a flotation machine. It can be seen that there is
a peak velocity in a certain position off the axle centre. Figure 4.25 is the relation-
ship between different speeds and circulation volumes of a flotation machine. The
circulation volume increases gradually with the increase of rotating speed. The main
advantage of measurement of the internal flow velocity of the flotation machine by
Table 4.3 Technical parameters of electromagnetic current metre

Equipment name Company Main parameter Accessories
FH950 Portable Hach, USA 0-10 m/s Sensor, mainframe,
Electromagnetic Current ±2% 30 m long line
Metre Portable
MGG/KL-DCB(II) Henan HongDaer 0-10 m/s Sensor, mainframe,
Portable Electromagnetic Instrument Co., Ltd. ±1% 30 m long line
Current Metre Portable
LDX-2012 Portable Shandong Lidaxin 0-10 m/s Sensor, mainframe,
Electromagnetic Current Instrument Equipment ±1% 30 m long line
Metre Co., Ltd. Portable
FH950 MGG/KL-DCB(II)
Fig. 4.22 The electromagnetic current metre

Fig. 4.23 Schematic diagram of circulating volume measurement
Fig. 4.24 Velocity distribution in different location below the rotor
the electromagnetic current metre lies in that measurements can be performed in the
pulp environment of the flotation machine without being affected.
(2) Vane current metre
The mechanical propeller-type current metre is a kind of river and canal monitor
commonly used in the hydrological monitoring industry. The flow velocity sensor
is placed in the water flow, the pulp at the front end rotates under the action of
the water flow and the velocity of the water flow is determined by the speed of
propeller rotation, as shown in Fig. 4.26. The measuring range of the current metre
Fig. 4.25 The relationship between speeds and circulation volumes of a flotation machine
Fig. 4.26 Mechanical

paddle type current metre
is generally 0.1–4.0 m/s, and the propeller diameter is 60–80 mm. The current metre
is also used for the testing research of the internal velocity and rotor circulation
capacity of flotation machines, and the test schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 4.23.
This method is mainly used to measure the internal velocity of the flotation machine
under the condition of clean water. Since there are too many foreign substances, the
problem of propeller winding is easy to occur in the pulp environment, resulting in
distortion of measurement results.
Fig. 4.27 Slurry suspension capacity measurement by siphon method
4.2.3 Suspension Capacity Test
The circulation capacity test of the flotation machine can reveal the dispersed state
of internal mineral particles and evaluate the agitation and mixing capacities of the
equipment. For the suspension capacity test, the pulp at different depths in the tank is
generally obtained by means of sampling, thus analysing the concentration, size frac-
tion distribution, etc. There are many sampling ways and means, and those commonly
used include the siphon method, submersible pump suction method, specially made
sampling tools, etc. The siphon method is the simplest method, and the materials
are easy to obtain, as shown in Fig. 4.27. A hose is used to siphon the pulp in
different section positions using the principle of communicating vessels. At present,
various deep tank samplers are manufactured at many industrial sites to facilitate
the acquisition of pulp at different liquid levels, as shown in Fig. 4.28. Although the
siphon method is convenient, the sampling may be impossible due to the great flow
resistance of the pulp in the pipeline when the pulp in the superficial coat is drawn.
The above problem can be avoided by sampling with the sampler, but there are also
problems such as sampling speed, equipment tightness, etc.
Figures 4.29 and 4.30 gives the test results of the internal suspension capacity of the
flotation machine in a concentrator. On the whole, the concentrations at all sections
in the flotation machine are equal, the mineral particles are evenly distributed, and
the suspension effect is good.
The size fraction distribution can be obtained by screening the samples at all
depths with 100-mesh, 200-mesh and 400-mesh sieves, respectively. Figure 4.31
shows the size data of deep tank sampling in the first roughing tank of XCF-16.
Fig. 4.28 Sample collector for deep cell
Fig. 4.29 Suspension

capacity measuring points of
16m3 KYF-XCF flotation cell
The distribution rules of all the size fractions in different positions in the flotation
machine are identical. The mineral content with +100 mesh size fraction is the
lowest, and the mineral content with −400 mesh size fraction is the highest. As the
height from the overflow weir decreases, the mineral content with the size fraction of
+200 slightly decreases, the mineral content with the size fraction of −200 ~+400
gradually increases, and the distribution of the contents of −400 mesh minerals is
relatively uniform at different heights of the flotation machine.
Fig. 4.30 Slurry concentration changing with the distance to overflow weir
Fig. 4.31 The particle size of sample at different distance to overflow weir of XCF-16 flotation
cell
4.3 Bubbles and Particles Testing Technology
It is very important to research the bubble feature parameters. From the research on
theoretical modelling of the flotation column, it is not hard to see that getting the
local bubble feature parameters such as bubble size, distribution, velocity and phase
4.3 Bubbles and Particles Testing Technology 111
holdup is the basis of researching the local feature flow and phase interactions. In
recent years, the experimental fluid technical means have been developed rapidly,
and the testing methods and technologies of local bubble feature parameters have
also been well developed. Table 4.4 summarizes the characteristics of the testing
method of bubble feature parameters.
It should be noted that the optical method in the table has the advantage of non-
contact measurement in acquiring the bubble feature parameters, but its application in
three-phase opaque media and industrial opaque equipment is subjected to consider-
able restrictions. The application of advanced optical testing methods, such as particle
image velocimetry (PIV) and laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), is also limited by
the testing environment and fluid properties. Generally, only the tank wall can be
tested, or measurements can only be conducted at low gas holdup (generally 30%)
due to the intense reflection and scattering of the bubble surfaces to the light.
(1) Test principle of conducting probe method
A thin insulating wire, i.e. probe, is introduced into the test of the conducting probe
method. When the medium conducts electricity and a voltage is applied to the probe,
the electric current will be interrupted and drop to the zero point (i.e. the electric
current will decrease rapidly due to insulation with the probe in the gas phase) in
the process of bubbles impacting the probe. In other words, the test principle of
the conducting probe method is that the probe has different potential features in the
continuous fluid phase and the dispersed bubble phase.
The dynamic properties of local gases and fluids of the flotation column can be
well studied by the conducting probe method. Figure 4.32 is a schematic diagram
of acquisition of local bubble feature parameters by conducting probe method. The
local details of the conducting probe are shown in Fig. 4.33. The ordinary probe is
an insulating wire end with the diameter of 0–1.2 mm, one probe is arranged over
the other, and the two probes are 3–5 mm apart from each other. Only the lower
probe is enough for measuring the local gas holdup and bubble diameter, while both
the upper and lower probes are needed for measuring the bubble velocity parame-
ters. Figure 4.34 shows a bubble feature parameter tester developed by the Chinese
Academy of Sciences. The equipment converts the test signal into a rectangular wave
and amplifies it. The conducting probe method can be mainly applied in two aspects,
one is the evaluation of the bubble diameter and velocity, and the other is the evalu-
ation of the local gas holdup. For the evaluation of the bubble diameter and velocity,
when a bubble comes into contact with the lower probe, the control circuit of the
lower probe opens, and the measurement begins. When the bubble leaves the upper
probe, the upper probe circuit is interrupted, and the measurement stops. The velocity
of bubbles can be estimated from the known spacing between the two probes, plus
the obtained time for the bubble to pass through the space between the two probes.
The time for the bubble to pass through one probe can be used to estimate the bubble
diameter parameter. For the calculation of the local gas holdup, simply speaking,
the local gas holdup can be estimated by measuring the total time when the circuit
Table 4.4 Introduction of the testing method of bubble feature parameters

Method Measurement Advantage of Disadvantage of
parameter/Measurement method method
rule
Photography Image analysis Simple and easy, The tank wall and
non-contact liquid must be
transparent; it is
impossible to measure
the total volume of the
equipment, and it is
more difficult to
measure when the
bubbles vary in size
Tracer method Evaluation and analysis Simple and easy, No local feature is
of RTD non-contact available; the results are
difficult to handle
Vacuum method Local sampling and Local parameter To be calibrated, it is
electron microscope measurement difficult to execute
measurement when the value is great;
sampling will cause
flow turbulence
Degassing method Dynamic changes in the Non-contact; Evaluate the even
upper and lower applied to high air distribution of the tank
boundaries of the bubble current bodies; a priori
layer after sudden hypothesis is required
degassing for calculation
Chemical method Achieve the mass Non-contact Evaluate the average
absorption of gas value of the tank
components by changing bodies; the gas
the local pressure of the absorption kinetics and
gas bubble residence time
should be known
Pressure gauge Pressure gradient along Ditto Evaluate the section
method the spindle of the range value
flotation column
Radiation method Absorption and Ditto Calculate the average
scattering measurements value at the optical
of X-ray or neutron channel by radiation
radiation
Sound, visible light The measurement Non-contact The radiation energy
and ultraviolet method is just like its cannot be absorbed by
radiation absorption name the medium; not
measurements available for high value
measurement; only one
kind of parameter can
be assessed with other
parameters known
(continued)

rule
Point conductivity The resistance changes Local measurement, The dispersion and high
method abruptly during small detector size turbulence state of
vaporization and and convenient minute bubbles cannot
liquefaction transportation be measured; to be
calibrated and
demarcated in use; not
available for aspherical
bubbles and insulating
liquid (non-conductive)
Optical fibre method Ditto Ditto (except the latter
item); in addition, it
cannot be used in a
three-phase flow system
Pressure gauge/pitot Local measurement It cannot be used for
tube turbulence, and the test
instrument will cause
flow distortion
Determination of Speed of micro-vortex Local measurement, No pulsating
vortex wind force in which the velocity component can be
evaluation can be measured; to be
performed and can calibrated
be used in a
high-speed phase
Wind speed Thermal resistance Local measurement, Calibration is required,
measurement based measurement in which the and the measurement
on temperature Thermoelectric-EDP direction and pulse and recognition of the
difference of the velocity are results are complicated;
measured flow distortion, which is
sensitive to medium
temperature changes
and other interferences;
have the same
disadvantages as those
of the point conducting
probe method during
measurement
Measurement of Evaluate the reflection Local measurement, When coarse bubbles
laser Doppler wind frequency and light non-contact, exist, it cannot be used
force wave frequency through allowing evaluation for a large-diameter
the local non-uniform of the direction of column body (but only
optical density of instantaneous close to the column
bubbles or fluids velocity body wall), or opaque
liquid
(continued)

rule
Acoustic resonance Evaluation of the range Non-contact Evaluate the uniform
of acoustic wave distribution of the cross
absorption sections; sensitivity to
turbulence
Acoustic Evaluate the reflection The same as the The signal can be
measurement of frequency of ultrasonic wind speed obtained and processed
wind force waves through the local measurement
inhomogeneity of method based on
bubbles or fluids temperature
difference
Measurement of Simple and easy Measurement of
conductivity or average values between
capacitance electrodes
(electrical
impedance)
Electrochemical Electrochemical reaction Local measurement, Calibration is required
method generated by electric allowing evaluation during measurement.
current flowing through of the velocity The following
the electrodes vector phenomena often occur
in the liquid: Distortion,
entry of fluid into the
electrodes
Automatic Measure the phase The bubble size Calibration is required,
generation method transition in the solenoid distribution will not and the solid phase will
when the research area affect it affect the measurement
or the whole equipment results
serves as the core
remains open and the number of pulses generated by the collision between the bubble
and the probe.
Figure 4.35 shows the test points where the bubble diameters and velocity distri-
bution at different points in the flotation machine based on the conducting probe
method. Figure 4.36 gives the test results of bubble feature parameters at test point
2 and quantifies the condition of the bubbles in the flotation machine.
(2) Bubble feature parameter analyzer
The purpose of the bubble diameter test is to acquire the diameter sizes and their
distribution rule of the bubbles in the flotation machine. The principle of a general
bubble diameter tester is to measure and analyse the bubble diameters by photog-
raphy. In the traditional method, a scale is set at the view window, and the diameters
and sizes of the bubbles are manually analysed, as shown in Fig. 4.37. It is difficult to
quantify the roundness of the bubbles well by this method, and manual measurement
has the problems of heavy workload and low efficiency. With the development of
Fig. 4.32 Schematic diagram of bubble feature parameters measurement by conducting probe
Fig. 4.33 The conducting probe
machine vision technology and computer technology, the modern bubble diameter
analyzers are basically automated (Fig. 4.38). Figures 4.39 and 4.40 shows the size
of bubbles obtained from the tank, and the diameter parameters of bubbles can be
obtained by software analysis.
Fig. 4.34 The bubble feature parameter tester
Fig. 4.35 Measuring points of bubble feature parameter
Table 4.5 shows the bubble diameter parameters of a flotation machine.

The acquisition of bubble feature parameters by the conductivity method is the
analysis of bubble velocity, diameter and other parameters by identifying electric
signals, i.e. indirect measurement. The bubble feature parameter analyzer is an image
identification technology, which is more accurate in the identification of bubble
shapes, but the requirements for the computer algorithm are very high for the problem
of overlapping of a large number of bubbles.
4.4 PEPT Technology 117
(a) bubble velocity distribution at measuring (b) bubble diameter distribution at measuring
point 2 point 2
Fig. 4.36 Bubble feature parameter
Fig. 4.37 Bubble size measuring device
4.4 PEPT Technology
Positron Emission Particle Tracking (PEPT) is an advanced technology for deter-

mining the particle trajectories by testing the tracer radioactivity so as to research
the flotation process. Quite a few explorations have been made by this technology
in mineral separation equipment, such as flotation machines, spiral chutes, hydrocy-
clones, etc. In the flotation equipment, it has been used in the experimental researches
Fig. 4.38 Bubble diameter analyzer
Fig. 4.39 Bubbles in the

measurement
Fig. 4.40 Bubble for analysis
Table 4.5 Bubble diameter

Bubble test result 1 Bubble test result 2
parameters of a flotation
machine D10 D32 D10 D32
0.77 2.2 0.83 2.47
of the movement trajectories of particles in the pulp phase and the movement trajec-
tories of particles in the froth area for a profound understanding of the processes
of flotation mineralization and desorption, and exploratory studies in the optimal
design of froth tanks and the performance improvement of flotation machines have
been conducted.
The PEPT technology equipment is complex and expensive. There are not many
universities and research institutes equipped with the equipment, including The
University of Cape Town, McGill University, etc. Prof. J.J. Cilliers from Imperial
College London has done a great deal of work in the application of PEPT to flotation
machines. Figure 4.41 shows the flotation machine test system developed by Prof.
J.J. Cilliers with the PEPT equipment of The University of Cape Town. Using the
radioactive tracer technique, PEPT marks the minerals with radioactive substances
so that they become the tracers, such as 18F and 68 Ga. The emitted positron collides
with the electron, with a pair of γ rays emitted in the annihilation process (as shown
Fig. 4.41 PEPT equipment developed by the University of Cape Town
on the left of Fig. 4.42). Many detection units (right figure) are arranged in the PEPT
equipment, and a pair of colinear γ rays detected by the detection units can locate
the position of the tracer. Figure 4.43 shows the test equipment used by Prof. J. J.
Cilliers, and Fig. 4.44 shows the test result data. Figure 4.45 shows the obtained
Fig. 4.42 Technical principle of PEPT

Fig. 4.43 The test equipment of Prof. J.J. Cilliers
Fig. 4.44 PEPT measuring data obtained by Prof. J .J. Cilliers

(a) hydrophobic particles (b) hydrophilic particles
Fig. 4.45 The obtained flow state of hydrophobic and hydrophilic particles (superficial air flow
rate Jg is 1.31 cm/s, the height of slurry-froth layer interface is 80 mm, the height of overflow weir
is 120 mm)
flow of hydrophobic and hydrophilic particles. It can be seen intuitively that the
hydrophobic particles can flow out of the overflow weir so as to be recovered.
4.5 Spindle Force Test
The spindle power consumption is a very important performance indicator for flota-
tion machines. In projects, the power consumption is generally calculated through
current and voltage, or the power consumption of the flotation machine is directly read
by a power metre, but this test method is not accurate enough. The spindle torque
of the flotation machine can be acquired through a strain gauge, then the power
consumption is calculated, and the axial force, bending moment and other spindle
force conditions of the flotation machine can also be acquired, as shown in Fig. 4.46.
According to the stress–strain test method, the strain gauge is attached to the spindle
by the Wheatstone Bridge principle, and the data is transmitted by means of wireless
transmission so as to solve the problem of spindle rotation. Different bridge circuit
connections are to be designed for different force conditions. Figure 4.47 shows a
strain gauge bridge circuit connection method for testing the spindle torque when
testing the presence of the bending moment action. Figure 4.48 shows the strain
gauge bridge circuit connection of the bending moment.
4.5 Spindle Force Test 123
Fig. 4.46 Torque telemetry system developed by Binsfeld company
Fig. 4.47 Bridge connection of shaft torque measuring

Fig. 4.48 Bridge connection of bending moment measuring
Figures 4.49 and 4.50 shows the strain gauge test conditions of a flotation machine.
Table 4.6 shows the results of the spindle force analysis of a flotation machine. It can
be seen that the forces acting on the flotation machine are relatively complicated and
subjected to the combined action of torque, bending moment, etc. Relevant data is
of great significance to the spindle design of flotation machines, the model selection
of reducers, etc.
Remarks: The radial force 1 is staggered with the radial force in the 90° direction.
Advances in experimental fluid dynamics provide new tools and means for the
R&D of flotation machines. In recent years, PIV, PEPT and other technologies are
developed so that people can have a deeper understanding of the flotation process. The
development of advanced sensor technology promotes the measurement of the three-
phase dynamic complex system of flotation machines and quantifies the key parame-
ters of flotation machines. The comprehensive utilization of the fluid dynamics simu-
lation of flotation machines and the advanced experimental fluid dynamics method
has become one of the most important technical means for the R&D of flotation
machines.
4.5 Spindle Force Test 125
Fig. 4.49 Force measuring of flotation machine shaft
Fig. 4.50 Strain gauge patch
Table 4.6 Results of the spindle force analysis of a flotation machine

Air volume/cm/s Speed/rpm Strain power/kw Radial force 1/N Radial force 2/N
0 86.2 7 3,183 2,251
0 86.2 356.5 6,661 6,863
1.88 86.2 210 3,700 4,575
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Chapter 5
CFD Simulation Research on Fluid
Dynamics of Flotation Machines
5.1 Summary of CFD Simulation Research of Flotation

Machines
5.1.1 Significance of CFD Simulation of Flotation

Equipment
With the rapid progress of computer science and technology, the computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulation technology, which has gradually emerged and developed
since 1960s, makes it possible to research the flotation equipment, a kind of complex
three-phase mixing equipment, by the computational fluid dynamics method, and
provides a new approach and platform for the research and development of flotation
equipment [1–4].
The flotation equipment is essentially a kind of fluid machinery. Researchers
make great efforts to form a flow field state in the tank that meets the requirements of
mineral separation through specific rotor–stator and tank body design. However, most
kinds of the flotation equipment are currently designed on the basis of engineering
experiences and empirical formulas, while it is hard to clearly explain the flow field
state in the tank, which we are most concerned about. With the emergence and
development of computational fluid dynamics, this key problem is just solved. The
research on the flotation equipment using the computational fluid dynamics allows
visual display of the flow field pattern in the flotation tank, reveals relatively abstract
concepts such as upper and lower circulations of the rotor, zoning of the flow field
in the tank, etc. in theory in a more clear manner, quantifies the traditional design
methods such as circulation volume design and the empirical design methods such
as rotor off-bottom height, and forms a set of design and optimization methods for
flotation equipment, which are not entirely dependent on empirical design [5, 6]. On
the other hand, the computational fluid dynamics simulation is a more efficient and
cheaper design method and concept than the design method based on small laboratory
exploratory tests, large equipment industrial tests and the technology of flow field

128 5 CFD Simulation Research on Fluid Dynamics of Flotation Machines
display and measurement. Taking BGRIMM Technology Group as an example, its

direct cost for industrial tests is up to over 20 million yuan in order to develop the
largest individual 320 m3 flotation equipment in the world [7, 8].
Throughout the R&D focuses of well-known flotation equipment suppliers and
research institutes at home and abroad on the flotation equipment in recent years, it has
become an inevitable choice for the development of flotation equipment to further
interpret the principle of the flotation equipment by the CFD simulation of fluid
dynamics, optimize the equipment structure and improve the equipment performance
in consideration of the deficiencies of traditional methods for the flotation equipment
in the fields of theoretical research and equipment optimization.
5.1.2 Research Objective of CFD Simulation of Flotation

Machines
The research and optimization of the flotation equipment cannot be separated from the
computational fluid dynamics, so it is necessary to clarify the role of fluid dynamics
simulation technology in the research work of the flotation equipment. Judging from
the current research status, the fluid dynamics simulation analysis has advantages in
the following aspects.
(1) Interpretation of the internal flow field of flotation equipment
The key to realize the process of mineral enrichment by the flotation equipment lies
in the formation of stable separation areas in the tanks, namely, the mixing area,
transport area, separation area and froth area as we often say. The existing flotation
theory clearly describes the function of each area and the flow field characteristics,
and the flotation equipment structure is designed to generate a specific flow field
structure. However, it’s hard to deny that the flow field structure of each area theo-
retically described is too absolute, and the real flow field state in the tank remains
unknown, especially the microscopic details of the flow field. Taking the mixing area
as an example, the flotation theory requires that stable upper and lower circulations
shall be formed in the area, the upper circulation should not be too large to affect the
transport area, and the lower circulation should not be too small in case of deposition
in the tank. But whether the real equipment only forms two entirely different circula-
tions (i.e. upper and lower circulations), and whether big and small turbulence eddies
will be formed therein. In other words, which rotor structure design can better form
the upper and lower circulations that meet the flotation theory requirements. This
series of problems are neglected to some extent in the original flotation equipment
design theory, and even cannot be interpreted clearly.
The advantage of the computational fluid dynamics simulation technology is that
it can visually reflect the flow field pattern of the research target, especially the
microscopic state in the flow field. The simulation analysis of the whole flow field of
the flotation equipment can clarify the detailed flow field pattern of each separation
5.1 Summary of CFD Simulation Research of Flotation Machines 129
area, give explanatory notes on the requirements of the flotation theory for the flow
field in the tank, scientifically and reasonably explain the problems and phenomena
occurring in the production practices, find the basis for the optimization design
and performance improvement of the equipment and define the direction for the
development of flotation equipment.
(2) Interpretation of the traditional design method of flotation equipment
After decades of development of flotation equipment, especially in the process of

upsizing of flotation equipment, a set of effective design methods and experiences
have been formed, and the flotation equipment designed on this basis has been fully
verified in the mineral separation practice. Admittedly, the original design method
of flotation equipment has passed the test of practice and achieved great commercial
success. However, the deficiencies of the design method of flotation equipment based
on empirical formulas and engineering experiences are also obvious.
The structural design method based on empirical formulas is essentially a kind of
engineering simplification which cannot visually interpret the specific influence of
design details on the flotation equipment. Taking the rotor design as an example, the
outer edge of the rotor is often designed as an “inverted cone” in order to form stable
upper and lower circulations after the rotor rotates. In this way, different velocity fields
can be formed along the edge of the rotor, the fluid in the low-velocity zone moves to
the high velocity zone, thus forming a circulating flow. The traditional design method
theoretically analyses the causes of formation of the circulating flow and summa-
rizes the empirical design formulas on this basis to guide the engineering design.
However, we cannot visually display or reveal the specific details of the circulating
flow, such as size and intensity of the circulating flow. The design method based
on engineering experiences is a valuable asset. It is sometimes difficult to clearly
explain why is it designed like this, but the actual effect fully verifies the correctness
of the design. Taking the rotor off-bottom height as an example, an appropriate rotor
off-bottom height often needs to be determined to achieve the optimal separation
effect in view of different mineral properties and separation requirements. However,
this key parameter is often determined by the designer’s personal experiences. The
problems existing in such design method which lacks accurate computation can be
seen from this. While for new designers, this is an insurmountable challenge which
is adverse to inheritance and development.
The weakness of the traditional design method which lacks visual analysis and
phenomenon disclosure in design is just the advantage of the simulation research
on computational fluid dynamics. The computational fluid dynamics simulation can
interpret the intention and rationality of the traditional design methods by simu-
lating different design parameters to form specific flow field states. For example,
the circulating flow field patterned by the “inverted cone” blade design is visually
displayed by simulating the flow field patterned by rotor rotation, which also shows
the scientific nature of the traditional design method. The rationality of the empirical
design is interpreted by comparing the forms and sizes of the lower flow fields of the
rotor formed by different rotor off-bottom heights. The computational fluid dynamics
simulation provides the possibility for quantifying the traditional design method and
theory by interpreting the scientific nature and rationality of the traditional design
method of flotation equipment.
(3) Quantification of the key structure design method of flotation equipment
The structure design of flotation equipment mainly includes the three aspects of rotor
design, stator design and tank body design, wherein the design of the rotor–stator
system is the most critical and the core of the formation of specific flow field patterns
in the tank. The rotor design has formed a design method based on the parameters such
as circulation volume, diameter, speed and power. Specific rotor forms and specific
rotor structure parameters are designed by empirical formulas to meet the process
requirements. It is difficult for the method to reveal the detailed features of the flow
field generated by rotor rotation, so it is impossible to visually show the influence
of subtle changes in the rotor structure parameters on the overall performance of
the flotation equipment. Similarly, the stator structure parameters designed on the
basis of the empirical stator design method should achieve the current stabilization
and diversion effects but cannot display the actual effects of current stabilization
and diversion, so it is difficult to clarify the influence of subtle changes in the stator
structure parameters. Sloping bottoms and other feature structures are designed in
the tank to prevent dead zones. Froth push plates and froth push cones are designed
to accelerate froth overflow. But the determination of the specific parameters of these
structures often lacks scientific argumentation.
The CFD simulation technology can refine the details of the flow field in the
flotation tank, and the influence of the changes in key structural parameters on the
flow field in the flotation tank can be characterized through the changes in flow field
details or changes in the flow field feature parameters, that is to say, the advantages
and disadvantages of the changes in the structural parameters can be evaluated. The
CFD simulation technology can reveal the influence of changes in the design param-
eters through the changes in the flow field feature parameters, thus summarizing
the influence of the changes in the structural parameters on the performance of the
flotation equipment. Then, it supplements and improves the empirical formulas and
achieves the purpose of quantifying the key structural design method of the flotation
equipment.
(4) Quantification of the empirical design method for flotation equipment
Flotation is a very complicated physicochemical phenomenon, and the flotation prin-

ciple has not been fully clarified from a certain point of view. Similarly, no appropriate
design method has been found for many key parameters in the process of flotation
equipment design, and we can only rely on the experiences summarized from long-
term production practices. The design of the rotor off-bottom height as mentioned
before is mainly determined by depending on the designer’s experiences. Although
the traditional design methods failed to summarize the calculation method of some
key parameters such as rotor off-bottom height of the flotation equipment, the flota-
tion theory explains the effect to be achieved by these design parameters to meet
the requirements of mineral flotation. In other words, we can summarize the design
rules of these design parameters from the flow field pattern and give approximate
calculation methods in engineering to those design parameters which can only be
determined by experience in the past, that is, quantify the design method of flotation
equipment based on engineering experiences as long as we can reveal the flow field
pattern generated by the specific design parameters.
(5) Structural optimization of flotation equipment
The R&D process of the flotation equipment is usually subjected to the small proto-
type testing in the laboratory, and the better and optimized structural design will be
determined by comparison by changing the key structural parameters of the small
prototype. A large industrial prototype is designed based on the structural form of
the small prototype testing according to the scale-up theory and engineering practice
experiences. The actual operational effect of the large industrial prototype is verified
through industrial tests, and the design is finalized. It’s not hard to see that it’s hard for
the performance of the industrial flotation equipment finalized by the above method
to guarantee that the property is optimality. Based on cost factors, comparative tests
on the structural design of the industrial prototype are almost impossible, especially
in the R&D process of the large flotation equipment. Even the comparative testing
of small test prototypes is very complicated and time-consuming. That’s why the
key structural forms and design parameters of the flotation equipment cannot be
optimized and perfected for a long time once finalized.
The application of the CFD simulation technology solves the problems in the
traditional design, research and development well in both time and cost. More impor-
tantly, it allows direct optimization research on the large industrial prototypes. By
establishing different flotation equipment simulation models, or different key struc-
ture forms and parameters, the CFD simulation simulates the flow field pattern in
the flotation tank so as to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the structural
design and specific parameter design, thus realizing the structural optimization of
the flotation equipment in a more scientific manner.
(6) Simulation and optimization of flotation equipment process parameters
Flotation is a continuous process, which involves process-related parameters such

as feeding quantity, residence time and pulp short circuit, and these parameters will
have an important impact on the performance of the flotation equipment. The current
design method of flotation equipment mainly considers the structure design of indi-
vidual equipment, with imperfect consideration about the process parameters, the
design of process-related parameters gives priority to the engineering experience or
influence coefficient, and many aspects have not been clearly interpreted yet.
The CFD simulation can truly simulate the influences of feeding quantity, pulp
residence time, pulp short circuit and other process parameters on the flotation equip-
ment by simulating the dynamic flow process of the flotation equipment and optimize
the flotation equipment under dynamic conditions in many ways such as equipment
structure design and operating parameters design.
(7) Research on the adaptability of flotation equipment application in new fields
The flotation equipment has been widely applied in the field of mineral separation,
but it does not mean that the flotation equipment can only be applied in the field
of mineral separation. It also has its application space and application prospect in
other fields such as sewage treatment, paper deinking and oil–water separation. The
application of the flotation equipment in new technical fields inevitably requires the
research on the adaptability of the flotation equipment itself in the hope of producing
satisfactory application effects in the new fields. Therefore, it is valuable to optimize
the equipment design by the computational fluid dynamics simulation technology to
meet its application in new fields.
5.1.3 Problems Existing in CFD Simulation of Flotation

Machines
Over the past few decades, all the research institutes and suppliers of flotation equip-
ment all over the world have put the stress of the R&D of equipment on the upsizing
of equipment, developed and put large flotation equipment with the scale of 300 m3
into service within a short time. The R&D and optimization of the flotation equipment
will certainly focus on the improvement of equipment performance and efficient and
stable work in the future. For this reason, the computational fluid dynamics has been
favoured by a vast number of researchers in order to solve or break through the bottle-
neck existing in the traditional design methods of flotation equipment. Well-known
research institutes and suppliers have carried out research work for nearly 20 years
in CFD numerical simulation of the flotation equipment, many research outcomes
have been integrated into equipment R&D, but there are still many problems that
need to be addressed as a matter of urgency.
(1) Reliability of simulation results
The flotation process is a very complex gas–liquid-solid three-phase system. Whether

it is two-phase flow or three-phase flow, the reliability of the results has been contro-
versial. It is generally believed that the convergence residual of numerical simulation
completely satisfies the requirements of engineering application when it is 1e−5 . The
simulated residual of the current flotation equipment can only reach the level of 1e−3 ,
whether it is two-phase flow or three-phase flow, so how to improve the convergence
of numerical simulation and make the numerical simulation results further recognized
by the engineering community is very important.
(2) Adaptability of multiple reference frame (MRF)
It is a more common practice to select the steady-state multiple reference frame

(MRF) method in order to simplify the simulation difficulty and calculation time
of flotation equipment. The MRF has been well applied and verified in equipment
with a long distance between the rotor and stator of the agitation mechanism, but its
applicability still needs to be verified in the case of small spacing between the rotor
and stator of the flotation equipment. In addition, the role of the rotor and stator is
essentially a transient process, and the simplification into a steady-state process is also
open to question. Therefore, it deserves further attention to explore the application
of the dynamic grid and sliding grid in the CFD simulation of flotation equipment.
(3) Simplification and gridding of models
The first step of numerical simulation is the issue of model simplification. The struc-
ture of the flotation equipment is relatively complex, and it is very important to
simplify the equipment structure scientifically and reasonably without affecting the
simulation results. The multiphase flow analysis work needs to be performed on the
flotation equipment. Traditionally, the hexahedral grid is considered to have great
advantages in the field of multiphase flow, while it is very difficult to realize the grid-
ding of a hexahedron in a complex structure. Therefore, grid division in a more skillful
manner will greatly reduce the difficulty of subsequent simulation and improve the
reliability of simulation results through reasonable model simplification.
(4) Selection of computational fluid dynamics models and parameters thereof
The computational fluid dynamics describes the flow phenomenon through various
mathematical models, each of which has certain applicability and limitations. There-
fore, it is essential for simulation to select an appropriate mathematical model and
related parameters to describe the flow field in the flotation tank. More importantly,
the flotation equipment has been serialized, and the efficiency of numerical simula-
tion will be greatly improved if a set of model parameters of a type or a series of
equipment can be found.
(5) Integration of the CFD simulation method into the fields of equipment design
and optimization
The first task of CFD simulation of flotation equipment is to clarify the details of
the flow field in the tank, interpret the flotation process in the equipment from the
perspective of flow field distribution, and evaluate the equipment performance. The
application of CFD numerical simulation results to the equipment development and
optimization process will be the ultimate aim of numerical research. Therefore, it is
a new challenge to combine the traditional design means with the CFD numerical
simulation method for technological innovation of the equipment.
5.1.4 Prospect on CFD Simulation of Flotation Machines
Comparing with the traditional design means, the research and optimization of the
flotation equipment by the CFD simulation method are still in the starting stage,
especially for the domestic research institutes. In view of the current situation of the
flotation equipment in the CFD numerical simulation research, researches need to
be further carried out in the following aspects.
(1) Development towards a three-phase system
The flotation process is a three-phase complex system, while the CFD numerical
simulation begins with a single-phase system and gradually goes deep into the gas–
liquid two-phase flow. Some scholars have explored the flow field state under the
three-phase system. The simulation research on the multiphase system is closer to
the real operative state of the flotation equipment, so further development of the
CFD numerical simulation work under the multiphase system is one of the important
directions of the CFD simulation of flotation equipment.
(2) Simulation of dynamic parameters and performance of equipment
The influences of dynamic performance or parameters such as pulp inflow and

outflow, short circuit phenomenon and residence time on the equipment are very
important but difficult to measure and visually embodied. The original design method
is designed mainly based on experience parameters and engineering experiences, so
the simulation of the dynamic parameters and performance of equipment by the CFD
technology is one of the important directions of equipment R&D and optimization.
(3) Simulation of various types of flotation equipment
The flotation equipment has achieved its serialized development. Taking BGRIMM
as an example, it includes 11 types, such as KYF, XCF, GF, CLF and BF, and the
same type is further divided into different models by volume. So to speak, the flota-
tion equipment has developed into a big family. Therefore, it will help to improve
the performance of the flotation equipment as a whole by carrying out the simulation
research on different types of flotation equipment, researching the flow field condi-
tion of the same type of equipment with different specifications and optimizing the
equipment structure in a targeted way.
(4) Combination of the CFD simulation method with the latest testing technology
The CFD simulation has many advantages such as low cost and high efficiency, but the
reliability of simulation results is still controversial in the engineering community, so
it is very important to verify the correctness of CFD simulation results. But sometimes
relevant data is difficult to detect by the traditional testing means. Therefore, the
research on the flow field state of the equipment by the latest testing means, and
technologies such as PIV and LDV and the combination of both will be one of the
new directions of flotation equipment studies.
5.2 CFD Simulation Research of Flotation Machines 135
5.2 CFD Simulation Research of Flotation Machines
The computational fluid dynamics simulation method of flotation machines has

become one of the main means for flotation equipment studies. It has obvious advan-
tages in the R&D of large flotation machines and optimization of details in the
flotation machines. All the main research institutes of flotation equipment in the
world have applied the CFD simulation method in the research process of flotation
machines, which enables people to have a deeper understanding of the internal flow
of flotation machines, the collision, adhesion and desorption of minerals and bubbles
and other processes.
5.2.1 CFD Mathematical Model of Flotation Machines
5.2.1.1 Basic Theory of the Multiphase Flow in Flotation Machines
With the continuous development of computational fluid dynamics, the flow field
system has been gradually expanded from the initial single-phase system to the flow
field analysis and calculation under the multiphase system. The flotation process is a
very complex physical–chemical change. In essence, it is a kind of gas–liquid–solid
three-phase mixed flow field patterned by the flotation equipment. Therefore, the
development and breakthrough of the computational fluid dynamics under the multi-
phase system bring opportunities to the CFD numerical simulation of the multiphase
flow in the flotation equipment. The CFD is becoming more and more mature in the
field of two-phase flow and has been recognized by the engineering to a considerable
extent, which lays a good foundation for the simulation of the two-phase flow in
flotation equipment. The CFD has made many achievements in the field of three-
phase flow and has also been recognized by technicians to a certain extent. But it
still needs further development and perfection in the reliability, stability and other
aspects of the calculation results. Therefore, the three-phase flow simulation of the
flotation equipment is still in an exploration stage in consideration of the existing
theoretical level and technical level of computational fluid dynamics.
(1) Euler Method and Lagrange Method [9]
The research on the two-phase flow in flotation equipment focuses on the gas–liquid
two-phase system, so this book mainly introduces the related theoretical basis of
computational fluid dynamics in the two-phase flow. At present, there are mainly
two methods for processing the gas–liquid two-phase flow in the computational fluid
dynamics: The Euler–Lagrange method and the Euler–Euler method.
In the Euler–Lagrange method, the fluid is regarded as a continuous medium,
bubbles as regarded as discrete systems, the trajectories of the bubbles are obtained
through the orbit model under the Lagrange coordinate system, and then the law of
bubble motion is studied. Such model is also called the discrete orbit model. This
method assumes that the fluid phase affects the bubble motion, but in turn the bubbles
do not affect the movement of the liquid phase. The treatment of the bubble phase
by the Lagrange method can give more detailed information on the bubble motion,
but since it is difficult to completely consider all kinds of turbulent transport of the
bubbles, it is only suitable for the motion of sparse bubbles in turbulent motion.
The calculation cost is very heavy, which is not suitable for the analog computation
of an industrial reactor. At present, all the Euler–Lagrange methods reported in the
literatures use the hypothesis of a single spherical bubble, and it is very difficult to
characterize the force acting on the bubbles when there is a certain distribution of
bubble sizes and deformation occurs.
The Euler–Euler method treats both the gas phase and the fluid phase as quasi-
continuous media and considers the bubble phase as a pseudo-fluid interpenetrated
with the fluid, which is described in the Euler coordinate system by the conservation
equations for mass, momentum and energy similar to those of the continuous fluid.
The coupling between the bubble phase and the fluid phase is obtained through the
interphase transfer term in two conservation equations. Such model is also called
the two-fluid model. Such models have experienced all the stages of the no-slip
model, small-slip two-fluid model and two-fluid model with slip-diffusion, as well
as the processes such as particle dynamics two-fluid model based on inter-particle
collision developed in recent years. The governing equations of the particle phase, gas
phase and fluid phase in the two-fluid model have the same form and relatively low
requirements for the computing power consumption, and the method is currently the
most promising method for making a breakthrough in the simulation of the industrial
reactor. The Euler–Euler method can simulate both single bubble size flow and bubble
flow with size changes. For example, the simplified MUSIG model based on PBM
(Population Balance Model) is a model for calculating the size changes in the bubble
diameters under the Euler–Euler method. It allows analog computation of the bubbles
according to the bubble grouping by defining the maximum and minimum diameters
of the bubbles to obtain the size distribution of the bubbles, the fraction of each
group of bubbles, etc. This method which improves the analog computation of the
gas phase to a certain extent as compared with the method of hypothesis of a single
bubble is currently an ideal method for calculating the size distribution of bubbles.
The fluid flow in the flotation tank is an intense turbulent motion, so there is the
question about how to describe the turbulence modelling of phases under the two-
phase system. For this problem, there are mainly three kinds of models: Mixture
Turbulent Model, Turbulence Model for Each Phase and Dispersed Turbulence
Model. The dispersed turbulence model is suitable for the case where the concentra-
tion of the second phase is thinner, the inter-particle collision at this time is negligible,
and it is the influence of the principal phase turbulence that dominates the random
motion of the second phase, so the fluctuating quantity of the second phase can be
given according to the average features of the principal phase, the relaxation time of
particles and the time of interaction between particles and turbulent eddies. There-
fore, the current CFD numerical simulation of flotation machines mainly uses the
dispersed turbulence model form.
(2) Basic Equations Based on Euler Method [10]
For the time being, the Euler method is most widely applied in the simulation of
flotation machines, etc., so this section will briefly introduce the basic knowledge
of models and equations commonly used by the Euler method in the simulation of
flotation machines. In a practical context, there is a transfer of mass, momentum and
energy between gas and liquid. The Euler gas–liquid two-fluid model can establish
the conservation equations of mass, momentum and energy of each phase separately
and make equations coupled by the action (transfer) of the phase interface. But since
there are many unknown aspects with regard to the interphase interaction mechanism
and most of the split-phase turbulence dispersion models have more experiential
elements and poor universality, concrete problems must be analysed on a case-by-
case basis. The following assumptions are made in this chapter in order to simplify
the problem [11]:
(1) Both the continuous phase (liquid phase) and the dispersed phase (gas phase)
are incompressible Newtonian fluids;
(2) The whole simulation process is isothermal flow without heat transfer;
(3) Two-phase fluids follow their respective governing equations;
(4) Both fluids are regarded as continuous media and interpenetrated with each
other, with their respective velocities and volume fractions in the same spatial
location.
According to the above-assumed conditions, the fluid governing equation is
The mass-conservation equation is
∂(rα ρα )
+ ∇ · (rα ρα Uα ) = S M Sα (5.1)
∂t
The momentum-conservation equation is
∂(rα ρα Uα )
+ ∇ · [rα (ρα Uα ⊗ Uα )] = −rα ∇ pα + ∇ · rα μα ∇Uα + (∇Uα )T
∂t
2
+ +
+ αβ Uβ − βα Uα + S Mα + Mα rα ρα g
β=1
(5.2)
The subscript here, α, β, represents different fluid phases, i.e. gas phase and liquid
phase, respectively. r denotes the phase volume fraction, ρ denotes the density, t
denotes the time and U denotes the mean velocity vector. In the mass-conservation
equation, S M Sα denotes the mass source term. The momentum-conservation equation
S Mα denotes the momentum source term and other momentum source terms generated
by the applied volume force, Mα denotes the interphase interface force acting on the
+ +
phase α, αβ Uβ − βα Uα denotes the interphase momentum transfer generated by
mass transfer. By applying the theory of eddy viscosity hypothesis, the Reynolds
stress can be linearly correlated to the mean velocity gradient, which is similar to
the relationship between stress and tension tensor in Newtonian
laminar flow,
so the
equivalent turbulent stress tensor can be written as rα μα ∇Uα + (∇Uα )T .
In the momentum-conservation formula, μα is the turbulent viscosity, which can
be written as the sum of laminar viscosity and turbulent viscosity:
μα = μ L + μT (5.3)
The turbulent viscosity in each phase is calculated using the most commonly used
standard k −ε model. The turbulent viscosity is calculated according to the following
formula:
k2
μT = C μ ρ (5.4)
ε
Here, Cμ is a constant with the value of 0.09.
In the source term of the momentum-conservation equation, S Mα the applied
volume force (denoted by Bα ) can be denoted by the sum of Coriolis force and
centrifugal force:
Bα = SCor + Sc f g (5.5)
SCor = −2ρω × U (5.6)

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= (5.7)
2a
where r is the position vector, and U is the related velocity vector.
The interphase interface term can be written in the form of the sum of several
forces:
Mα = Fα + Aα + L α + Tα (5.8)
where Fα denotes the drag force, Aα denotes the virtual mass force, L α denotes the
lift force and Tα denotes the turbulence dispersion force.
Under steady-state conditions, the balance of drag force and buoyancy force results
in a slip velocity obtained specific to the bubbles relative to the liquid phase. The slip
velocity has an important influence on the gas holdup obtained. When the bubbles
pass through the flotation tank under the influence of liquid phase circulation, the slip
velocity of the bubbles essentially determines the gas ascending rate and the ratio of
recirculation. Therefore, the drag force is often correlated with the slip velocity. The
drag force can be expressed as
3 CD
F2 = −F1 = − r2 ρ1 |U2 − U1 |(U2 − U1 ) (5.9)
4 d
C D denotes the drag coefficient. Different scholars give different expressions of

the drag coefficient, and the Grace model is used here to calculate the drag coefficient.
4 gd ρ
CD = (5.10)
3 UT2 ρc
μc
UT = M −0.149 (J − 0.857) (5.11)
ρc d p
μ4c g ρ
M= (5.12)
ρ2σ 3

0.94H 0.751 2 < H ≤ 59.3
J= (5.13)
3.42H 0.441 H > 59.3

4 −0.149 μc −0.14
H = EoM (5.14)
3 μref
g ρd 2p
EO = (5.15)
σ
where UT denotes the endpoint velocity, M denotes the Morton number, μef =
0.0009 kgm−2 s−1 , denotes the molecular viscosity of water at certain temperatures
and pressures, EO, the Eotvos number, denotes the ratio of gravity to surface tension,
ρ in the formula ρ denotes the interphase density difference σ and σ denotes the
surface tension coefficient.
When the bubbles are accelerated relative to the continuous phase fluid, not only
the bubbles are accelerated, the fluid flow field around the bubbles will also change
with them. The force driving the bubbles to move increases the kinetic energy of both
the bubbles and the fluid. It is also used to overcome the energy dissipation of liquid
circumfluence around the bubbles. This force is greater than the force accelerating
the bubbles, and the effect is equivalent to the mass addition of the bubbles. The
added force is called the virtual mass force (or apparent mass force, additional mass
force), and the virtual mass force and lift force are, respectively, expressed as

DU2 DU1
A2 = −A1 = r2 ρ1 CA − (5.16)
Dt Dt
L 2 = −L 1 = r2 ρ1 CL (U2 − U1 ) × (∇ × U1 ) (5.17)
here, CA denotes the additional mass force coefficient, CL denotes the lift coefficient.
The turbulence dispersion force is given by the following formula:
T2 = −T1 = −Ctd ρ1 k1 ∇ρ2 (5.18)

The turbulence dispersion force coefficient Ctd here has the value of 0.1, because
Ctd is a quantity that varies depending on the particle content and turbulence degree
in turbulence, and the values of different turbulent dissipation coefficients are also
applied in different literatures. The jury is still out as to how effective is the
application, so it is only set to a constant and assigned the value of 0.1.
In a word, with the rapid development of computational fluid dynamics in theory
and numerical algorithms, the conditions for a scientific and systematic research on
the details of the flow field of the flotation equipment are available, and researchers
at home and abroad have also carried out a lot of fruitful work in the computational
fluid dynamics simulation of the flotation equipment. All the well-known equipment
suppliers and research institutes such as OUTOTEC, CSIRO (Commonwealth Scien-
tific and Industrial Research Organization) and BGRIMM (Beijing General Research
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy) have applied the CFD simulation technology to
the fields of equipment development and optimization [12–16].
5.2.1.2 CFD Simulation Pre-processing of Flotation Machines
The R&D of the flotation equipment assisted by the computational fluid dynamics
simulation has become a consensus in the industry. Overseas research institutes and
suppliers have carried out hard exploration for more than 20 years. OUTOTEC,
FLSmidth and BGRIMM have begun to comprehensively popularize the research
and design of flotation machines based on CFD design. The numerical simulation
method is generally divided into three stages: pre-processing, numerical solution
and post-processing, wherein the pre-processing process is the part with the highest
manual controllability. Scientific and reasonable pre-processing settings have a deci-
sive influence on the numerical simulation results to a certain extent. In a broad
sense, pre-processing includes several parts, such as simplification of physical struc-
tures, gridding of physical models and boundary conditions. The gridding of physical
models is the most time-consuming and most difficult part. Especially for the grid-
ding of complex physical models, the high quality grid generation can often obtain
better simulation results, while poor quality grid generation may lead to convergence
failure in the calculation.
(1) Grid generation technology.
1. Tetrahedral grid technology. The tetrahedral grid technology is highly
adapted to complex physical structures, and any physical structure can
basically be mesh by the tetrahedral grid. Moreover, the mainstream
commercial grid generation software provides the function of automatic
tetrahedral grid generation so that the time for grid generation is greatly
saved.
2. Hexahedral grid technology. The hexahedral grid is very regular and has
many advantages in the required time, resource, etc. for calculation. In
some fields, the hexahedral grid is the only choice because calculation is
impossible due to the poor quality of the tetrahedral grid. More impor-
tantly, the simulation results based on the hexahedral grid technology
are preferred by academic circles. However, the hexahedral grid is very
difficult to generate, the user’s personal experiences and skills are very
important, and some complex structures cannot generate the hexahedral
grid.
3. Hybrid grid technology. The hybrid grid technology refers to the use of
a hexahedral grid in an area where the hexahedral grid can be generated,
while the tetrahedral grid is used in areas where the hexahedral grid is
difficult to generate, or even in areas where the hexahedral grid cannot
be generated in order to obtain as high computational efficiency and low
computational resources as possible.
The special rotor–stator structure of the flotation equipment makes grid generation
very difficult. Most researchers use the hybrid grid for processing. Adaptive tetrahe-
dral grid separation is adopted in the rotor–stator area due to its complex structure,
while the hexahedral grid is adopted in the tank body area. The combination of the
hybrid grid with the split grid is applied so that the problem of grid generation in the
flotation equipment is solved to a certain extent, and the requirement of numerical
simulation for the grid quality is basically met. Figure 5.1 shows the BGRIMM’s
KYF-320 m3 flotation machine grid condition generated by the tetrahedral and hexa-
hedral grid methods. Figure 5.2 shows the conditions of tetrahedral and hexahedral
grid separation, respectively, performed on the BGRIMM’s KYF-0.2 m3 flotation
machine.
There are always disputes on the advantages and disadvantages of tetrahedral and
hexahedral grid separation. It is generally recognized that the calculations obtained
by the hexahedral grid are the best relative to those obtained by the tetrahedral grid
Fig. 5.1 The BGRIMM’s KYF-320 m3 flotation machine grid condition

Fig. 5.2 The comparsion between tetrahedral and hexahedral grid separation in flotation cell
or hybrid grid in the simulation of three-dimensional incompressible flow. However,

the tetrahedral grid becomes the best choice in view of the fact that it is too difficult
for many complex structures to generate the hexahedral grid. Many scholars have
carried out comparative studies. Scientific and reasonable settings of tetrahedral
grid parameters, grid smoothing, etc. enable the tetrahedral grid to meet the same
computational accuracy as that of the hexahedral grid. Juha TIITINEN carried out a
comparative research on the OUTOTEC industrial OK flotation machine [17], and
the results prove that the predicted velocity values of the structured and unstructured
grids in the same position of the same section of the flotation machine are basically
the same. But it has to be pointed out that the conclusion of comparative results
was obtained when the flotation equipment was simulated under the single-phase
system. Studies showed that the tetrahedral grid is prone to generate the problem of
numerical dissipation in multiphase flow analysis.
For the flotation equipment, the tetrahedral grid and hexahedral grid have their
own advantages and disadvantages, which can be simply summarized as follows:
1. Time cost
The rotor and stator in the flotation tank belong to comparatively complex geometric
structures. Generally speaking, it is extremely time-consuming to build a structured
or hybrid grid for such a problem. Therefore, for the problem of complex geometry,
the short time for setting a grid is the main reason for using the unstructured grid
(triangular or tetrahedral element). However, if the geometry is relatively simple,
there may be no significant savings in the setting time no matter which grid is used.
2. Computation cost
In some cases, it is comparatively economic to use the quadrilateral/hexahedral

elements because the quadrilateral/hexahedral elements allow a greater aspect ratio
than that of triangular/tetrahedral elements. A great aspect ratio in the triangular
and tetrahedral elements always affects the skewness of the elements, thus affecting
the accuracy and convergence of the calculations. As a result, if the geometry of
the simulation equipment is relatively simple and the flow therein agrees well with
the geometry, for example, a long and thin pipeline, a high aspect ratio grid with
quadrilateral/hexahedral elements may be utilized. This grid may have much fewer
elements than triangular and tetrahedral elements, with lower computational costs.
(2) Boundary conditions
For numerical simulation workers, the importance and significance of researching

boundary conditions correctly are beyond all doubts. The boundary conditions, which
is essentially a correct understanding and interpretation of physical phenomena, is
the scientific and reasonable simplification of introducing physical phenomena from
the real world into the simulated virtual environment. The flotation equipment, more
precisely the requirement of the flotation process, makes the setting of boundary
conditions quite difficult. It often results in difficult convergence of the boundary
constrain computation that is the closest to the reality, while the appropriately simpli-
fied boundary conditions are in certain conflicts with the reality although they are
more likely to converge. In view of the key role of scientific and reasonable boundary
conditions for the numerical simulation, it is also a very important work to research
and analyse the reasonable simplification of the boundary conditions and its influence
on the calculation results.
It is a three-phase system in the flotation tank, the air inlet is at the air intake
pipe, the outlet is at the free froth surface and the rotor rotation drives the fluid to
move, forming a specific flow field. For the outlet boundary conditions of the flotation
equipment, the boundary condition of gas overflow only without liquid overflow is
very severe in the case of simulation in the gas–liquid two-phase system. Under the
three-phase system, how to define the problem of overflow at the froth surface is
more difficult. For the inlet boundary of the flotation equipment, especially for the
self areated flotation equipment, there is a shortage of relevant researches on how
to embody the automatic suction of the flotation equipment. For the special rotor–
stator structure of the flotation equipment with a tiny clearance between the rotor
and stator, the problem of applicability of the multiple reference frame (MRF) is
also worth discussing. In particular, the problem of how to define the dynamic and
static interface of the air distributor flow circulation hole for the flotation equipment
with the air distributor structure, the problem of how to define the interface where
the air enters the three-dimensional domain of revolution for the automatic suction
flotation equipment and so on bring many challenges to the setting and reasonable
simplification of the boundary conditions.
FLUENT and CFX are the most widely used software in the field of commercial
CFD software, they are similar in function, and each has its advantages, disadvantages
and unique features. At present, the CFX software is used much more frequently in
the field of CFD simulation of flotation equipment, so the settings of the boundary
conditions in the simulation of flotation equipment are described in this section based
on CFX.
➀ Inlet boundary condition:
For the air forced flotation equipment, the inlet boundary condition is generally set
to the velocity inlet, and the whole process of air intake at the inlet is considered as
the full extension of gas turbulence by default. For the automatic suction flotation
equipment, the inlet boundary condition is generally set to the Static Pressure inlet,
and the pressure value is set to the atmospheric pressure.
➁ Outlet boundary condition:
Generally, the pressure outlet, Degassing Condition outlet and Opening Condition
outlet are selected depending on the actual situation of the flotation equipment and
the simulated phase system. The Degassing Condition outlet only allows gas phase
outflow and does not allow liquid phase outflow. Notwithstanding strict constraints
and relatively difficult convergence of the calculations, it is more realistic. The
Opening Condition outlet which allows free access of both gas and liquid is a kind
of less restrictive boundary condition which allows relatively easy convergence in
simulation but is still different from the reality to a certain extent.
➂ Boundary condition for gas phase entry into the liquid phase domain of
revolution:
In the simulation of the flotation equipment with the air distributor, the gas phase
needs to enter the rotating liquid phase area through the circulation hole of the
air distributor, thus forming the gas–liquid two-phase flow or three-phase flow. An
appropriate outlet boundary condition must be selected in order to make the numer-
ical simulation practically close to this process. Commonly used conditions include:
Average Pressure Condition and Opening Condition. The Average Pressure Condi-
tion is a common pressure outlet, with standard atmospheric pressure at the outlet.
The Opening Condition is an interface allowing free access of both gas and liquid in
both directions.
In the self-aerated flotation equipment, the process of suction of the gas phase
into the liquid phase also needs to be simulated through reasonable strategy for the
gas phase. Generally, the General Interface boundary condition is used to simulate
the process of entry of the gas phase into the liquid phase.
➃ Boundary condition of the wall surface:
The wall surface condition is one of the most common boundary conditions in numer-
ical simulation. Generally, the No Slip boundary condition is used for liquid phase
fluids. At this time, the liquid phase velocity at the wall surface will be the same
as the wall surface velocity. When the wall surface is stationary, the liquid phase
velocity is zero. Since the multiphase flow is often encountered in the simulation of
the flotation equipment, the Free Slip boundary condition is generally selected for
the gas phase component therein. At this time, the shear stress at the wall surface is
zero (τ = 0), and the gas phase fluid close to the wall surface has no obvious friction
effect [9]. Additionally, in the case of multiphase flow, if a fluid uses a free sliding
boundary, other boundary settings can significantly affect the fluid state [10].
➄ iInterface
The Multiple reference frame (MRF) method is generally used in order to simulate
the rotor–stator system of the flotation equipment. CFD software provides three
kinds of different multiple reference frame algorithms to deal with the problem in
the rotor and stator. The solidified rotor model is suitable for solving the problem
in the compact machinery with very small calculated spacing between the rotor
and stator. It is widely used in agitation machinery and conforms to the simulation
requirements of the flotation equipment. The frozen rotor belongs to the Cauchy-
steady state algorithm, with relatively fixed positions between the rotor and stator.
All the rotating areas are set to rotation, that is, the transient effect is ignored [11].
After the flow field area is divided into an rotor rotating area and a static area
of the tank body and stator, a rotor–stator interface exists between the two areas.
To solve the flow field information transfer on the interface, CFD software provides
the feature of Generalized Grid Interface (GGI), which allows bonding of different
types of grid blocks, and greatly reduces the difficulty of grid generation for complex
models. This algorithm can guarantee strict conservation on the interface for all flow
equations. The interface is processed as a fully implicit scheme, which will not
affect the convergence of the solutions. When passing through the interface, the fluid
is automatically enlarged or reduced to fit in with the difference in grid sizes. The
multiple reference frame method is based on the Generalized Grid Interface (GGI)
algorithm. At present, the frozen rotor model is generally selected in the simulation of
the flotation equipment in order to solve the rotor/stator problem in the rotor–stator.
5.2.2 CFD Simulation Research of Flotation Machines

Under the Single-Phase Condition
The flotation equipment is a complex three-phase system. At present, the simula-

tion research of the three-phase flow field is not very mature in both theory and
technology. The computational fluid simulation research of the flotation equipment
begins with the simulation research under the single-phase system, and gradually
goes deep into the simulation of the gas–liquid two-phase system. Many researchers
have also explored the flow field condition under the three-phase system, which lays
a foundation for the design and optimization of the flotation equipment.
5.2.2.1 Influence of the Turbulence Model on the Flow Field

of Flotation Machine
The flotation equipment produces an intense turbulent flow in the tank due to the
effect of rotor rotation, and the high nonlinearity of turbulent motion brings many
challenges to the development of computational fluid dynamics. Therefore, one of the
major achievements of computational fluid dynamics in recent decades is that many
turbulence models for different turbulent flows are proposed. The CFD simulation
research of the flotation equipment was started a little later than other equipment,
and the industry has not put forward a special turbulence model for the flotation
equipment yet. Therefore, it is a basic research work to explore the applicability of
currently general turbulence models such as standard k − ε model to the flotation
equipment. In this regard, domestic and foreign researchers have carried out many
active explorations.
In the simulation research of the flotation equipment, the standard k − ε model is
mainly used as the turbulence model, but there are fewer relevant studies in contrast
to the adaptability of, for example, RNG k − ε model, K-W model, RSM model, etc.
in the simulation of flotation equipment. The influences of the turbulence models on
the flow field of flotation equipment under the single-phase system are described in
this section based on the studies conducted by Jiliang Xia, Antti Rinne et al. [12] of
OUTOTEC.
Figures 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 reflect the influences of the standard k−ε model, realizable
k − ε model and RSM model on the predicted turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation
rate and vortex intensity. The flow patterns predicted by the three kinds of turbulence
models are very similar, but the local properties of the flow fields, especially the
predictions of turbulent kinetic energy k, dissipation rate ε, etc., are different. The
turbulent kinetic energy predicted by the standard k − ε model and that predicted
by the realizable k − ε model are higher than that predicted by the RSM model,
and a jet flow is formed in the rotor–stator area. Similarly, the maximum dissipa-
tion rate predicted by the RSM model is also lower than the corresponding values
predicted by the standard k − ε model and realizable k − ε model. For the prediction
comparison of the vortex intensity, all the three models predict a vortex generated
on the leeward side of each rotor blade, and the RSM model predicts a larger range
Fig. 5.3 The influences of the turbulence models

Fig. 5.4 The influences of the turbulence models on turbulence dissipation
Fig. 5.5 The influences of the turbulence models on vortex
of vortex circulation area. Table 5.1 gives the predictions of the power consumption
of flotation equipment by the three models, and the RSM model predicts relatively
higher power consumption of the equipment. Compared with the other two models,
the RSM model predicts more accurately in comparison with the actual measure-
ments. Therefore, we can believe that the values predicted by the RSM model are
more accurate, while viscosity models such as standard k − ε model and realizable
k − ε model are more suitable in the simulation for the purposes of engineering
design and optimization.
Table 5.1 Prediction of

P/P1 Np/Np1
equipment power
consumption by three k−ε 1.02 1.02
turbulence models Realizable k − ε 1.0 1.0
RSM 1.12 1.12
Note: P Power; Np Power number
5.2.2.2 Circulation Capacity
The rotor circulation volume is a key parameter in the design of flotation machines,
and the accurate determination of the rotor circulation volume is of great signifi-
cance for evaluating the performance of flotation machines, determining the flotation
time much more reasonably and even improving the separation index. But no reli-
able access to the circulation volume of the equipment is available now. FLSmdith
performed a testing research on the rotor circulation volume of the WEMCO flotation
machine and measured the circulation volume by arranging the sensors at multiple
points at the bottom of the rotor. But this method is based on the design of the diver-
sion cylinder of the WEMCO flotation machine, and the accurate rotor circulation
volume can be calculated only by acquiring the velocity field at the section of the
diversion cylinder. Therefore, this method is difficult to apply in flotation machines
without the draft tube, and its test difficulty and cost are higher.
Select the section at the stator disk as the tested section and predict the axial
velocity field in the section by the CFD method so as to calculate the rotor circu-
lation volume, as shown in Fig. 5.6. This method can be adapted to most flotation
machines, and the errors in the characterization of the planar velocity field by multi-
point measurement are also avoided by predicting the velocity of the whole section.
Figure 5.7 Shows the relationship between the circulation volumes of backward
inclined, forward inclined and radial rotors and their speeds. As the rotor speed
increases, the circulation volumes of all the groups of rotors increase. At the same
Fig. 5.6 The test section of the rotor circulation volume

Fig. 5.7 The comparsion of

the three rotors
speed, the circulation volumes of the backward inclined rotor and radial rotor are
equal, both of which are 7% greater than that of the forward inclined rotor.
Table 5.2 gives the circulation volumes of KYF series flotation machines with
bottom and central rotors under the clean water condition. The topic defines that the
circulating density QF is the ratio of equipment circulation volume to equipment
volume. It can be seen that the experimental flotation equipment has a high circu-
lating density, while the industrial flotation machine has a relatively small circulating
capacity. The circulating density tends to decrease with the increase of the equipment
volume. For the large-scale flotation machines, the circulating density is less than 1.
Table 5.2 Flotation machine with bottom and middle positioned rotors (Clean water condition)
Equipment N V Q QF
Speed/rpm Volume/m3 Circulation Circulation
volume/m3 min−1 volume/volume
Bottom KYF-160 105 200 207 1.04
positioned KYF-320 107 320 264 0.83
rotor
KYP-560 93 560 359.5 0.64
KYP-680 90 680 539 0.79
Middle KYP-70 140 70 135 1.93
positioned KYP160 105 200 265 1.04
rotor
KYP-320 107 320 314 0.98
Remarks KYP-160 is the equipment with the special design of the spindle of a 200 m3 flotation
machine
5.2.2.3 RTD Simulation of Flotation Machines
It is very difficult to detect and evaluate the pulp short circuit according to the
traditional test method. It is basically impossible to conduct relevant experimental
researches on large industrial flotation equipment, and it is difficult to reflect the
residence time distribution of the pulp efficiently and visually. The advantage of the
CFD numerical simulation technology in cost and time is an excellent choice for
characterizing and evaluating the pulp short circuit of the flotation equipment and is
of great significance for the equipment design and performance optimization. The
research on the pulp residence time of the flotation equipment by the CFD numerical
simulation technology is of great significance to the research on the flow properties
of flotation machines.
(1) Residence time distribution curve
The residence time distribution curve is studied by tracer testing. The process of
gradual dispersion of tracers from the inlet in the tank body can represent the process
of aqueous phase movement. Therefore, the movement of the tracers can be discussed
by predicting the flow field of the aqueous phase in the tank body from the side and
making a judgment on the areas where any dead zone and short circuit exist in the
spatial area.
When the rotor speed of the flotation machine is 200 r/min, it can be seen from
Fig. 5.8 that the flow of the tracers in the flotation tank can be divided into the
following processes: The tracers are injected into the rotor area from the inlet, thrown
out from a portion above the rotor due to rotor agitation, and split into the upper and
lower circulations. Since the outlet is in the lower circulation area, a small part of the
tracers will directly flow out of the outlet in the process of lower circulation. The parts
not flowing out return to the rotor area to continue with the next process of agitation
and throw-out. In comparison with the upper circulation, the lower circulation is faster
in circulation and shorter in the residence time of tracers. The upper circulation is
lower in speed and longer in the residence time in some areas (e.g. above the rotor,
near the barrel wall at the top). The tracer concentration in the whole tank body
decreases slowly over time.
The residence time distribution model is introduced to research the short circuit
and dead zone in flotation machines. As shown in Fig. 5.9, the injected tracers are
regarded as two parts, one part directly flows out of the outlet without being well
mixed, i.e. being short-circuited. It accounts for f of the total. The other part is
supplied into the mixing area and fully mixed with water before flowing out. The
proportion of this part is (1 − f ). But the mixing area contains a complete mixing
area and a part of the dead zone. It is difficult for the tracers to enter the dead zone, or
the residence time is extremely long after their entry. The ratio of the mixing area is
w, and that of the dead zone is (1 − w). According to the above model, the complete
mixing flow model of the short circuit and dead zone obtained after correction is
Fig. 5.8 The tracers distribution at the centre section at 1 s, 2 s, 4 s, 6 s, 8 s, 10 s, 20 s, 40 s

Fig. 5.9 The residence time distribution model

1 (1 − f )2 1 (1 − f )
E(t) = exp t (5.19)
t ω t w
According to E(t) = CC0i(t)

ti
under this condition, the tracer concentration Ci = 1
at the time of entry, with the injection time ti = 1 s. The data of tracer concentration
at the outlet is processed, and the obtained residence time distribution curve is shown
in Fig. 5.10. The whole residence time distribution is close to exponential distribu-
tion. The tracers with the residence time of less than 200 s account for more than
half of the total quantity, followed by the phenomenon of long smearing, with the
mean residence time of 178 s. This residence time distribution approaches the ideal
complete mixing flow time distribution, but there are some deviations, which may be
due to the complex flow properties and the existence of short circuit and dead zone.
According to the above model, the short circuit ratio is about 7.7%, the dead zone
ratio is about 2.1% and the mean residence time is about 178 s.
E(t) = 0.0048 exp(−0.0052t) (5.20)
Fig. 5.10 The residence time distribution (200 rpm)

Table 5.3 Residence time distribution, short circuit ratio and dead zone ratio at different rotor
speeds
Rotor speed Expected mean Mean residence Short circuit ratio Dead zone ratio
(rpm) residence time (s) time (s) (%) (%)
200 200 178 7.7 2.1
250 170 10.7 6.3
300 174 9.2 3.2
Fig. 5.11 The residence time distribution of different speeds
(2) The influence of rotor speed on residence time
The speed plays a vital role in the whole flotation process. Table 5.3 and Fig. 5.11 give
the residence time distribution, short circuit ratio and dead zone ratio at different rotor
speeds. In the process of speed increase from 200 to 300 rpm, the mean residence
time of the liquid phase was not increased significantly, and all remained around
170 s. The mean residence time even decreased from 200 to 250 rpm. That’s the case
when it corresponds to the short circuit ratio and the dead zone ratio, the differences
between the three are not obvious, the short circuit ratio is about 8%, and the dead
zone ratio does not change much either. The short circuit ratio and dead zone ratio
of the liquid phase are also slightly increased from 200 to 250 rpm, and then slightly
decreased when it reaches 300 rpm.
(3) The influences of pulp flow rate on residence time distribution
The flow rate at the inlet and outlet also influences the residence time of the liquid
phase. The flow rate at the inlet and outlet is reduced from 1 to 0.5 m3 /s and the
residence time distribution at the speed of 200 rpm is shown in Fig. 5.12. Similar
to the distribution curve of the original flow rate, no significant changes have taken
place. The calculated short circuit ratio is about 14.2%, the dead zone ratio is about
8% and the mean residence time is about 343 s.
Fig. 5.12 The residence time distribution of inlet 0.386 m/s
Table 5.4 Residence time distribution, short circuit ratio and dead zone ratio at different flow
speeds
Flow rate Speed Expected Mean Dimensionless Short circuit Dead zone
(m/s) (rpm) mean residence mean residence area (%) (%)
residence time (s) time
time (s)
0.77 200 200 178 0.89 7.7 2.1
0.38 200 400 343 0.85 14.2 8
E(t) = 0.0023 exp(−0.0027t) (5.21)
The dimensionless mean residence time is the ratio of the mean residence time
to the expected mean residence time. By comparing Table 5.4 “Residence Time
Distribution” of both of them, it can be seen that the dimensionless mean residence
time decreased from 0.89 to 0.85 after the flow rate at the inlet and outlet was reduced
and both the short circuit ratio and dead zone ratio were increased to some extent.

the Two-Phase System
The simulation of the gas–liquid two-phase flow field is closer to the real state of the
flotation equipment and is more valuable for guiding the R&D and design work. But
the CFD simulation of the gas–liquid two-phase system faces many new challenges,
for example, how to correctly simulate the process of gas phase entry into the liquid
phase, are the gas phase understood as a continuous fluid or a discrete fluid, is the
gas studied by the Euler method or the Lagrange method and so on. Therefore,
in the simulation research of the gas–liquid two-phase flow, not only the flotation
equipment model is simplified, the theoretical basis of computational fluid dynamics
for gas–liquid two-phase flow simulation is yet to be developed.
Fig. 5.13 The air holdup distribution at the centre section (195 rpm, 0.1 m3 /m2 min−1 )
(1) Gas–liquid two-phase dispersion feature of flotation machines
Figure 5.13 shows the distribution characteristics of gas holdup in the longitudinal
section of KYF-0.2 flotation machine. The air enters the rotor and stator areas from
the air distributor, and then dispersed by rotor agitation. Since the bubbles have
an upward escape velocity, the gas holdup distribution is an inclined upward and
gradually diffusing trend. In the main area of the tank body of the flotation machine,
a higher gas holdup area is shown at the stator blade outlet, which coincides with
the result of relatively great gas holdup in the area tested by the bubble feature
parameter measuring instrument. From the distribution of gas holdup in the section,
the distribution of gas holdup in the upper area of the tank body is uniform, and the
gas diffusion effect is quite good. But the gas holdup is very low in the bottom area
of the tank body.
Figure 5.14 shows the gas holdup distribution characteristics in a section of the
flotation machine 30 mm away from the rotor disk. A high gas holdup area appeared
on the back side of the rotor blade of the flotation machine, that is, the phenomenon
of bubbles accumulation at the rotor blade occurs. That is because a negative pressure
zone is formed due to the high velocity of the back side of the rotor blade, where the
air phase is easily accumulated.
(2) Gas–liquid two-phase CFD correction
The problem of simulation distortion at a high air volume will be encountered in

the CFD research on the two-phase flow in the flotation machine. The movement
Fig. 5.14 The air holdup distribution at the centre section (315 rpm, 0.5 m3 /m2 min−1 )
of bubbles in the flotation machine is mainly subjected to buoyant force, gravity

force, drag force, lift force, virtual mass force, etc. in which the drag force and lift
force having a great influence on the dispersion of bubbles should be emphasized.
Generally speaking, the residence time of gas in the pulp can be extended with the
increase of the drag coefficient Cd. The following formula is the empirical formula
of the drag coefficient.

4gdg ρg − ρl
Cd = (5.19)
3ρl UT2
where g—Gravity acceleration, m/s2 ; ρ g denotes the bubble density, kg/m3 ; ρ 1

denotes the bubble density, kg/m3 ; d g denotes the bubble diameter, mm; U T denotes
the turbulent fluctuation velocity, m/s;
The simulation of gas–liquid two-phase characteristics may be seriously distorted
as a result of the improper selection of the drag model, as shown in Fig. 5.15 and
Fig. 5.16.
The effect of gas–liquid dispersion in the flotation machine can be improved by
analysing the influence of drag coefficient Cd. Figure 5.17 shows the influences of
different drag coefficients Cd on the dispersion characteristics of gas–liquid two-
phase at the aeration rate of 0.6 m3 /m2 ·min−1 . It can be seen that the residence time
Fig. 5.15 The air accumulation in the rotor
Fig. 5.16 The bubbles flood

Cd=0.44 Cd=1
Cd=2 Cd=5
Fig. 5.17 The influence of differecnt drag coeifficent Cd. Figure 5.18 gives the bubble dispersion
in the flotation machine under different aeration rate conditions. It can be seen that the gas holdup
in the tank is high under a large gas superficial velocity, but the overall distributions are uniform,
which better solves the problem of simulation distortion under a large gas volume
of the bubbles in the tank increases with the increase of the drag coefficient, which
is manifested by the more advantageous dispersion.
Figure 5.18 gives the bubble dispersion in the flotation machine under different
aeration rate conditions. Figure 5.19 is the liquid phase velocity cloud picture of the
0.1 m3/ m2 min 0.5 m3/ m2 min 1.1 m3/ m2 min
Fig. 5.18 The air dispersion of different air superficial velocity

Fig. 5.19 The water velocity

in the KYF-320 flotation cell
320 m3 flotation equipment, and Fig. 5.20 is the liquid phase velocity vector map
of the rotor and stator areas. As the main body of fluid motion in the tank of the
flotation machine, the high liquid phase velocity in the mixing area is favourable for
the mixing of pulp and bubbles, while the low liquid phase velocity in the transport
area enables the mineralized bubbles to ascend steadily without falling off due to
excessive disturbance. After leaving the stator blade, the liquid phase becomes a radial
jet and develops to the tank wall. It is split into two strands near the wall surface
of the tank body of the flotation machine, one moves upward, and the other moves
downward. The downward flow forms the lower circulation in the mixing area. The
lower circulation is small, and the appropriate flow rate can prevent mineral sediment
in the tank, allowing re-participation in the pulp circulation. The upward jet forms
the upper circulation in the mixing area. The upper circulation is large, and the flow
velocity is slow. It provides reasonable motive power for the bubbles to transport
Fig. 5.20 The vector

diagram of rotor and stator
region
the mineral particles without affecting the adhesion between air bubbles and mineral
particles.
It is difficult, and even impossible, to acquire the relative flow states of the gas in
the flotation tank accurately by the traditional measurement technology. Figure 5.21
is the gas phase velocity cloud picture in the flotation tank. A higher gas superficial
velocity in the rotor and stator areas is favourable for the full mixing of the pulp and
bubbles and increases the probability of collision and adhesion between the mineral
particles and bubbles. The smaller velocity at the upper part of the tank body ensures
the stability of the ascending area and the froth layer, which is favourable for the
flotation process. Gas holdup is an important criterion for evaluating the performance
of the flotation equipment. Figure 5.22 is the predicted air holdup in the tank. The
air distribution in the flotation tank is mainly concentrated in the rotor and stator
areas where the air holdup decreases gradually with the increase of the height. The
predicted result of the gas holdup can coincide with the actual flotation equipment
well.
Fig. 5.21 The air superficial

velocity in the KYF-320
flotation cell
Fig. 5.22 The air holdup in

the KYF-320 flotation cell
At present, the Euler two-fluid flow model is generally used in the gas–liquid
two-phase flow. The gas phase is generally considered as a discrete phase under the
low concentration condition, and the collision between particles is neglected. It is
considered that the gas phase flow is affected by the main phase turbulence. The
gas and liquid phases follow their governing equations, respectively. The commonly
used turbulence models such as standard k − ε turbulence model and its corrected
model, etc. are generally selected for the liquid phase, while the Dispersed Phase
Zero Equation model is mainly used for the gas phase. Generally speaking, the
simulation research on the gas–liquid two-phase flow of the flotation equipment
gradually becomes mature. Many research findings have been recognized by the
engineering and applied to the equipment development and optimization.

the Two-Phase System
In the early application of the flotation equipment, the CFD method is dominated by
the single-phase pure water condition, the key parameters such as flow pattern and
velocity of the liquid phase in the equipment are accessible without considering the
gas and solid phases. Moreover, the accuracy and reliability can be guaranteed when
supplemented by PIV, LDV and other advanced experimental fluid dynamics testing
instruments. Although there are a lot of simplifications in single-phase simulation, it
is still one of the main means in the optimization research of the flotation equipment.
To make up for the deficiencies of the single-phase CFD research on the flotation
equipment, engineers and technicians have carried out research work on the gas–
liquid two-phase system. Air is essential for the froth flotation. The research on the
gas–liquid two-phase flow in the flotation equipment can optimize the gas phase
distribution in the equipment and make the equipment have a good air dispersion
state. Some research institutes such as CSIRO and the CAST Group have carried
out in-depth and systematic researches on the two-phase flow. As a result, TankCell,
SuperCell and other series of flotation machines have been well optimized [18, 19].
Currently, the CFD simulation research of flotation machines with gas–liquid–
solid three-phase systems is a relatively frontier field, and relevant scholars have
carried out meaningful explorations. The difficulty existing in the research of the
three-phase system lies not only in the complex interaction among three phases and
the higher difficulty in the convergence of CFD numerical simulation itself, but also
in the great limitations and imperfections in the basic mathematical model of the
three-phase system. At present, neither the traditional design method nor the testing
instrument can accurately describe the real three-phase flow state in the tank of the
flotation equipment. Therefore, the research on the three-phase flow of the flotation
machine by the CFD simulation method is still a relatively effective means.
(1) Solid phase flow characteristics of KYF flotation machine
The solid phase flow and distribution characteristics under the three-phase system of
the flotation machine are explored with BGRIMM’s large-scale air forced mechanical
agitation flotation machine KYF-160 as the object of research. The Euler two-fluid
control model is used in the CFD simulation research to avoid the limitation of the
Lagrange method that the phase holdup shall generally not be higher than 12%.
Air and ore particles are regarded as discrete phases, and water is regarded as the
continuous fluid phase. The drag force (Grace drag model), surface tension and
turbulence dispersion force (using the Lopez de Bertodano model) are considered
between the continuous main phase, i.e. the water, and the discrete fluid phase, i.e.
the air. The drag model Schiller Naumann is considered between the continuous
main phase, i.e. the water, and the discrete solid phase, i.e. the ore particles, and Sato
Enhanced Eddy Viscosity is selected for the turbulence transmission model. In terms
of the turbulence models, the standard K-E model with good universality is selected
for liquid phase water, and the zero equation model with good stability is selected
for air and ore particles.
Apatite is chosen as the object of research, its density is 3200 kg/m3 , molecular
weight is 300 kg/kmol, pulp viscosity is taken as 3cp and pulp volume concentration
is 12% (with the mass concentration of 30%). In actual industrial production, the
grinding size of apatite varies greatly depending on the production conditions. For
example, the grinding fineness of a phosphorus concentrator in Yunnan reaches -200
meshes, accounting for more than 90%. The particle sizes of phosphorus ores are
firstly set to a single particle size 0.074 mm (200 meshes) in consideration of the
problems brought to the computational convergence by the CFD method after solid
phase addition.
Figures 5.23 and 5.24 is velocity vector maps of the liquid phase water and solid
phase ore particles in the KYF-160 flotation machine, respectively. The velocity
vector maps of liquid and solid phases are very similar, which indicates that the ore
particles can be agitated and mixed well with the main fluid, i.e. water, in the flotation
machine. The rotor has the obvious effects of agitation and discharge, forming a very
significant lower circulation flow in the lower area of the tank body. A vortex centre
of upper circulation appears near the tank body wall surface slightly higher than the
rotor, but the overall velocity of the upper circulation is not high. Therefore, it can be
considered that an agitation and mixing area of the flotation machine is formed in the
periphery of the rotor. In the upper-middle part of the tank body, the upward flow is
not intense, the flow is smooth without obvious vortex features, which indicates that
the KYF-160 flotation machine provides a relatively stable transport area where the
ore particles can be lifted to the upper area of the tank body. In the upper area of the
tank body, there is a stable flow field area, i.e. separation area, which is dominated
by horizontal flow. The existence of this area is very critical because it provides a
fluid dynamics environment that can satisfy the separation of target minerals from
gangue minerals.
Figure 5.25 is the solid holdup (volume holdup, the same below) distribution in
the KYF-160 flotation machine. A cone-shaped high solid holdup area appears below
Fig. 5.23 The water velocity in the KYF-160 flotation cell
Fig. 5.24 The solid velocity in the KYF-160 flotation cell

Fig. 5.25 The solid holdup distribution in the KYF-160 flotation cell (single particle diameter
0.074 mm)
the rotor, which coincides with the high solid holdup at the lower part of the rotor
in the engineering practice. The existence of the cone-shaped high solid holdup area
explains the reason for the occurrence of a cone-shaped ore particle accumulation
area at the bottom in the production practice. Therefore, a diversion cone is often
designed at the bottom of the rotor in flotation machines, especially in large flotation
machines. On the one hand, the diversion cone can increase the pulp flow velocity
at the bottom and avoid the formation of the dead zone below the rotor. No serious
high solid holdup area appears on the bottom wall surface of the tank body, which
indicates that the design of the cone bottom of the tank body is reasonable and no dead
zone will appear in the production. In the lower area of the tank body, the distribution
characteristics of the solid holdup are very similar to those of the lower circulating
flow field structure where the solid holdup in the vortex centre is low, but the solid
holdup is increased obviously in the circulation area in the periphery of the vortex
centre. This shows that the ore particles follow the fluid for circulation flow well.
The gas holdup distribution in the upper-middle part of the tank body is uniform,
with a slightly decreasing trend, which indicates that the flow in the upper-middle
part does not change dramatically, most of the solid phases in the tank body area
are distributed uniformly, accounting for about 11%, with good agitation and fixing
effects (theoretically, the proportion for full and uniform mixing in the tank body is
12%). In the top area near the liquid level, the solid holdup is lower, about 8%. The
solid holdup distribution gradually decreases from bottom to top in the whole tank
body, which coincides with the actual situation that medium and fine particles are
easy to float up and coarse particle ore deposits are easy to occur at the bottom of the
tank body in the actual production. Therefore, we should start from many aspects
such as optimal design of key structures of flotation machines and adjustment of
operating parameters in order to improve the ore recovery ratio of coarse particles.
(2) Influences of the ore size on solid phase holdup
The feed size of ores is very critical for the separation effect of flotation opera-
tion. Generally, the flotation machines can only separate medium and fine sized ore
particles, and coarser particles are difficult to recover because they are difficult to
adhere to the bubbles and easy to fall off after adhesion and so on. Therefore, it
is generally easier to recover the ores by grinding them to a finer state. The power
consumption in the grinding section generally accounts for more than 60% of that in
the whole grinding-flotation section. Therefore, reduction of the grinding cost plays
an important role in improving the running benefit of concentrators. Based on this, it
is very valuable to research the separation performance of the flotation machine for
different particle sizes, improve the separation performance of the flotation machine
and reduce the grinding consumption.
(3) Influences of a single particle size on solid phase holdup
Figures 5.26 and 5.27 shows the distribution of solid phase holdups in the KYF-160
flotation machine with the particle sizes of 0.1 and 0.25 mm. It is not hard to see that
with the increase of particle sizes, the phenomenon of accumulation of ore particles
at the bottom of the tank body becomes more and more serious, and the range of
low solid holdup area at the top is getting larger. This indicates that the deposition of
coarse particles at the bottom becomes more serious after the particle size increases,
and it is more difficult for coarse particles to be lifted to the upper part of the tank
body, making the recovery effect of coarse particles worse. On the whole, all the solid
phase holdup distributions near the rotor area with different particle sizes coincide
well with the circulation flow of the rotor, and the solid holdup distribution in the
upper-middle area is still relatively uniform. In Fig. 5.28, the coordinate values of the
solid holdup are adjusted to the solid holdup results of 100% (max.) and 0% (min.)
based on Fig. 5.27, which is a more visual reflection of the deposition condition of
the coarse particles. Coarse particle deposition areas with the solid phase holdup of
nearly 100% begin to appear at the bottom of the tank body and below the rotor, an
area with a very low solid holdup has appeared in the top area, which shows that
the grind fineness of the particle size 0.25 mm has approached the separation limit
of the flotation machine without changing the operating parameters and optimizing
the design, and it is not easy to further coarsen the grinding. This coincides with the
generally considered feed fineness of below 0.3 mm in the engineering practice.
(4) Influences of multiple particle sizes on solid phase holdup
Ore grinding products cannot be of a single particle size. Generally, the grind fineness
is evaluated by the proportion of −200 mesh products. In many concentrators, the
Fig. 5.26 The solid holdup distribution of 0.1 mmin the KYF-160 flotation cell
Fig. 5.27 The solid holdup distribution of 0.25 mm in the KYF-160 flotation cell
Fig. 5.28 The solid holdup distribution of 0.25 mmin the KYF-160 flotation cell (the maximum in
the coordinates 100%, minimum 0%)
proportion of −200 mesh products needs to be up to more than 90%, such as Cu–Mo
deposits. On other occasions, −200 mesh products can be liberated as long as the
proportion reaches 45%, and the −200 mesh products only account for less than
30% even in some comprehensive tailing recovery projects. Therefore, it is of great
significance to explore the distribution of all the size fractions in the tank under the
condition of multiple particle sizes for the research of the size fraction separation
performance of flotation machines.
With the comprehensive recovery of apatite tailings as the research background,
the grind fineness of apatite tailings is coarse, and sediment in the tank occasionally
occurs in the production of the flotation equipment due to the coarse particle size in
industrial production. Therefore, the project group carried out the researches on the
distribution characteristics of different size fractions in the flotation machine under
the two conditions: 9% 0.1 mm particle size and 3% 0.25 mm particle size; 9%
0.1 mm particle size and 3% 1 mm particle size. And the project group investigated
the maximum floating size (with the total solid phase volume holdup of 12%, which
is converted into the mass concentration of about 30%) of the equipment.
Figures 5.29 and 5.30 is the solid phase holdup distribution diagrams of particle
sizes 0.1 mm and 0.25 mm under the condition of combination of double particle size
0.1 mm and 0.25 mm, respectively. The solid phase holdup distribution of mineral
particles with the particle size of 0.1 mm is similar to that in Fig. 5.26 (with the single
particle size of 0.1 mm). The distribution of solid phase holdups of mineral particles
Fig. 5.29 The solid holdup distribution of 0.1 mmin the KYF-160 flotation cell in the two kinds
of particles 0.1 and 0.25 mm
with the particle size of 0.25 mm has a higher solid holdup below the rotor, but the
particles can be raised to the upper-middle area of the tank body with the circulation
flow of water. It shows that the KYF-160 flotation machine can basically achieve the
effective mixing of the combination of double particle size 0.1 and 0.25 mm.
Figures 5.31 and 5.32 is the solid phase holdup distribution diagrams of particle
sizes 0.1 mm and 1 mm under the condition of combination of double particle size
0.1 mm and 1 mm, respectively. The main difference between the distribution of solid
phase holdups of ore particles with the particle size of 0.1 mm and that in Fig. 5.26
(with the single particle size of 0.1 mm) lies in that the solid holdups at the bottom of
the tank body and that directly below the rotor are very low because the above areas
are occupied by deposited particles with the particle size of 1 mm. Solid particles
with the particle size of 1 mm are mainly concentrated at the bottom of the tank
body and directly below the rotor, and the solid holdups in both positions are above
90%. In consideration of the overall volume fraction of 1 mm particles which only
accounts for 3% of the tank body volume, it can be concluded that almost all 1 mm
particles are deposited at the bottom of the tank body, and the KYF-160 flotation
machine cannot realize the suspension of 1 mm ore particles, which further shows
that the size of the floating particles of the flotation machine is limited.
of particles 0.1 and 0.25 mm
(5) Influences of the ore density on solid phase holdup
There are a great variety of ores. As general equipment, the flotation equipment
needs to adapt to the separation requirements of different kinds of ores. Therefore,
it is very important to research the influences of different kinds of ores on the flow
of the flotation machine. In the differences among the ore types, the most critical
difference is their difference in density in the case of CFD numerical simulation.
Apatite, chalcopyrite and quartz are selected for comparative research which focuses
on the influence of changes in the ore density on the solid phase holdup. Table 5.5
shows the physical parameters of different ores.
Figures 5.33, 5.34 and 5.35 is solid phase holdup distributions of quartz, apatite
and chalcopyrite, respectively. With the increase of density, the solid phase holdup
at the bottom of the tank body continuously increases, and the low solid holdup area
at the top is continuously enlarged. With the increase of ore density, the deposition
of ore particles will become more serious. On the whole, the distribution of solid
phase holdups is relatively uniform in most areas of the tank body, and all the high
solid holdup areas are small. Therefore, this flotation machine can fully agitate and
mix quartz, apatite and chalcopyrite, with good ore adaptability.
of particles 0.1 and 1 mm
(6) Influences of the pulp viscosity on solid phase holdup
The pulp viscosity is an important process parameter for the flotation process. There-
fore, the project group studied the influence of the pulp viscosity on the solid phase
holdup of ore particles. Figure 5.36, 5.37 and 5.38 is the diagrams of the distribution
of solid holdups with the pulp viscosities of 3 mpa.s, 8 mpa.s and 13 mp.s, respec-
tively. With the increase of pulp viscosity, the average solid holdups in the upper
and middle areas of the tank body decrease significantly, which indicate that the ores
deposited in the tank body are increased.
Due to the introduction of the solid phase medium, the simulation of the flotation
equipment in the three-phase system can simulate and research the phase distribution
of the gas–solid two-phase system, the influence of solid properties on the original
flow field, the wear in the rotor–stator caused by solid particles and other research
work full of practical significance, so the research on the flow field of the flotation
equipment under the three-phase system is of extraordinary significance for guiding
practice. However, from the prediction results of the simulation, we can see that
the continuous homogeneous phase assumption of solid and liquid phases leads to
similar prediction results of the solid and liquid phase flow fields and convergence
of variation laws, the actual phenomena such as solid phase separation and diffusion
in the flotation tank are difficult to reflect, so the simulation research of the three-
phase system still has much room for improvement in the fundamental theory of
computational fluid dynamics and specific model settings.
Fig. 5.32 The solid holdup distribution of 1 mmin the KYF-160 flotation cell in the two kinds of
particles 0.1 and 1 mm
Table 5.5 Physical parameters of ores

Ore Density Molecular Viscosity (cp) Volumetric Mass
(kg/m3 ) weight concentration concentration
(kg/kmol) (%) (%)
Quartz 2650 60 3 14 30
Apatite 3200 300 3 12 30
Chalcopyrite 4100 119 3 9.5 30
5.2.5 Optimization of Flotation Machines Based on CFD

Simulation
The influence research on the rotor off-bottom height based on the CFD method
introduces the application of the CFD method in the optimization and design of
flotation machines. The key to the design of the middle positioned rotor is the design
of the false bottom, circulating cylinder structure, off-bottom height, etc. Figure 5.39
is the velocity vector diagram of the flotation machine after the rotor is raised. The
flotation machine still has obvious upper and lower circulation flow fields. The lower
circulating flow field has a wide range of action, with a significant rotor suction
effect. The upper circulation is located near the top. It is worth noting that there is
Fig. 5.33 The solid holdup distribution of the quartz with 2650 kg/m3
Fig. 5.34 The solid holdup distribution of the apatite with 3200 kg/m3
Fig. 5.35 The solid holdup distribution of the copper pyrites with 4100 kg/m3
Fig. 5.36 The solid holdup distribution of the viscosity with 3 mPa.s
Fig. 5.39 The water velocity in the KYP-160 flotation cell
an obvious effect of horizontally projected jet after the fluid is discharged from the
rotor area.
Figure 5.40 is the velocity vector diagram of the KYP160 flotation machine after
the draft tube is added. After the diversion cylinder is added, the velocity in the
diversion cylinder at the lower part of the rotor area obviously increases. Compared
with the flow field without the diversion cylinder, the lower circulation has changed
greatly.
Figure 5.41 is the velocity vector diagram of the KYP160 flotation machine after
the draft tube and the false bottom structure are added. After the draft tube and the
false bottom structure are added, the structure of upper and lower circulating flow
fields is still obvious. The influence of the false bottom structure on the flow field
is mainly embodied near the lower circulation wall surface. Since the false bottom
reduces the flow area at the bottom edge, most of the circulating fluid at the lower
part is forced to pass through the flow section between the false bottom and the tank
body, where the flow velocity is reinforced. Therefore, the diversion cylinder plays
a role in reinforcing the lower circulation.
Fig. 5.40 The vector of water velocity in the KYP-160 flotation cell with draft tube
Fig. 5.41 The vector of water velocity in the KYP-160 flotation cell with draft tube and false
bottom
References 177
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Chapter 6
Flotation Machine Upsizing Method
and Technology
With the social development, there has been increasing demand for mineral resources,
and mineral resources have gradually become poor and complex due to the contin-
uous development. It is necessary to improve the processing capacity of flotation
equipment greatly in order to process more and more poor ores and refractory ores
[1]. In addition, the large flotation equipment has outstanding advantages [2] such as
a small number of machines to be installed, small foot, easy implementation of auto-
matic control, low capital investment in infrastructure and low power. The flotation
machine upsizing has always been the focus of research in the recent 30 years.
Flotation is a complex physicochemical reaction process involving the three
phases of gas, liquid and solid. The scale-up process of the flotation machine does
not mean to increase geometric dimensions of key components (such as the tank cell,
rotor and stator) of the flotation machine simply in proportion, but it requires the full
consideration of internal flotation dynamics feature of the flotation machine so that
the hydrodynamic environment meets the requirements for the separation of minerals
particles with different size fractions. Compared with small and medium flotation
machines, the large flotation machine has significantly different flotation dynamics
process and micro-flotation behaviours. For the large flotation machine, due to its
high tank cell and long rising distance of mineralized bubbles, coarse minerals are
prone to fall off from mineralized bubbles, which will reduce the recovery. In addi-
tion, the Reynolds number is low due to the low specific power (kW/m3 ), relatively
small rotor circulation flow rate and high short-circuit probability, which reduces the
collision probability between fine mineral particles and bubbles.
Therefore, during flotation machine upsizing, besides the scale-up by a certain
method based on the original design of small and medium flotation machines, the
impact of factors mentioned above on the separation performance shall be fully
considered. In addition, when the large flotation machine is amplified in proportion,
the relation between the volume of the large flotation machine and the number of tanks
for a group of flotation machines must be considered carefully. The number of tanks
for a group of flotation machines depends primarily on the volume of the flotation
machine tank, the processing capacity of the flotation circuit and the flotation time

180 6 Flotation Machine Upsizing Method and Technology
sufficient to achieve the desired recovery rate. For the minimum number of tanks for
a group of flotation machines, an appropriate margin shall be reserved in order to
avoid the adverse impact of the pulp flow short circuit on the recovery rate [3].
6.1 Flotation Machine Upsizing Process
Since the 1940s, the flotation machine has been developed towards upsizing. Since
the 1990s, the use of the large-volume flotation machine has attracted much attention.
The production practice has shown that the cost per unit may be reduced by improving
the production capacity per unit of the flotation equipment, and the design work of the
flotation machine should follow the principles of the large single tank volume, strong
production capacity, low power consumption, simple structure and good automatic
control. The volume of the flotation machine has been increased by 10 times at least
in the recent 30 years, and increased by 100 times compared with that in the 1940s.
The flotation equipment with the single tank volume greater than 100 m3 has been
applied in the industry substantially [4]. At present, the volume of the largest flotation
machine for the industrial application has reached 680 m3 . Figure 6.1 shows changes
in the volume of the flotation machine over about 50 years.
The single tank volume of the flotation equipment reflects the level of research and
technology for the flotation equipment to a certain extent. At present, companies that
can represent the internationally highest level research, development and application
of the flotation equipment mainly include Outotec, FLSmidth, Metso and Beijing
General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (BGRIMM). Particularly,
representative products include OK-TankCell flotation machine, Wemco flotation
machine, Dorr-Oliver flotation machine, XCELL flotation machine, RCSTM (reactor
cell system) flotation machine, KYF flotation machine, JJF flotation machine, etc.
Fig. 6.1 Scale-up of flotation machine process

6.1 Flotation Machine Upsizing Process 181
Table 6.1 Statistical table of flotation equipment with the largest volume developed and applied
by different manufacturers
Flotation Developed Applied Air inflation R&D launched Country
equipment flotation flotation method year
brand machine with machine with
the largest the largest
volume/m3 volume/m3
KYF flotation 680 680 Air-forced 2017 China
machine
JJF flotation 320 320 Air-induced 2015 China
machine
TankCell 630 630 Air-forced 2014 Finland
flotation
machine
Wemco 660 300 Air-induced 2014 USA
flotation
machine
Dorr-Oliver 660 660 Asir-forced 2014 USA
flotation
machine
XCELL 350 50 Air-forced 2009 USA
flotation
machine
Table 6.1 lists the flotation equipment with the largest volume that is successfully
developed by flotation equipment developers.
Due to the complexity of the flotation process, it is difficult to measure and calcu-
late the three-phase flow field. The theoretical results of original fluid dynamics
and flotation dynamics are far from supporting the research on flotation machine
upsizing. At present, although researchers have made a lot of efforts and made great
contributions to the research on flotation machine upsizing, the speed of increasing
the volume of the flotation machine is much faster than that of theoretical research.
Currently, all kinds of upsizing methods are mainly based on empirical formulas and
supplemented by experience in engineering practice. It is difficult to find a uniform
and accurate scale-up method for the large flotation machines.
6.2 Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology
The flotation machine upsizing technology is the core secret of flotation machine
manufacturers. This section will briefly introduce the upsizing technology of typical
pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machines, such as the TankCell flotation
machine, BGRIMM mechanical agitation flotation machine and Wemco flotation
machine.
6.2.1 TankCell Flotation Machine
Since the first batch of OK-1.5 and OK-3 flotation machines developed by Outotec
was put into operation at the Kolatahti mineral processing plant in 1959, Outotec
has always focused on the development of the flotation equipment. As a pneumatic
mechanical agitation flotation machine, it utilizes the characteristics of the height-to-
diameter ratio of the flotation column and combines with the mechanical agitator of
the flotation machine; therefore, with the characteristics of both the flotation column
and the mechanical agitation flotation machine, it can not only make coarse particles
fully suspended, but also obtain relatively high-grade concentrates.
6.2.1.1 Development History
In 1983, the OK-TankCell flotation machine with the specification of OK-60-TC and
the volume of 60 m3 was firstly installed and used at Pyhasalmi Concentrator. Since
then, the OK-TankCell flotation machine has been amplified in proportion, achieving
the good separation effect in many mines.
In 1996, 6 set of 100 m3 OK-TankCell flotation machines were deployed in the
copper roughing and flotation circuit in a 2-2-2 layout at the Morenci-Metcalf copper
ore concentrator of Phelps Dodge in USA. In view of the space, the tanks were
arranged in a “U” shape in the circuit design, achieving the excellent separation effect
and significantly reducing the power consumption. In 1999, 80 set of 100 m3 OK-
TankCell flotation machines were installed at the Escandeda copper ore concentrator
of BHP/RTZ in Chile. Compared with the flotation machine used previously, due
to the successful installation and industrial application of the TankCell flotation
machine, the copper grade and recovery rate of BHP’s copper concentrates were
greatly improved [5–10].
In 1999, the TankCell-200 flotation machine was applied at the Zinifex Century
zinc concentrator in Queensland and the Cowal gold concentrator in Australia.
In 2007, the first 300 m3 TankCell flotation machine was applied at the Macraes
gold mine in New Zealand. It was used together with the original TankCell-150 of
this concentrator to replace the old line composed of two flotation columns and the
traditional flotation machine, increasing the recovery rate by 4%.
In 2009, the TankCell-300 flotation machine was successfully tested and certified
to achieve the desired effect at Chuquicamata Branch of CODELCO in Chile, as
shown in Fig. 6.2. Compared with two TankCell-160 machines installed in parallel,
the recovery rate was increased by 5% and the concentrate grade was increased by 1%;
moreover, the power consumption of the TankCell-300 was reduced to 0.58 kW/m3 . A
single Outotec TankCell-300 flotation cell was installed at Codelco’s Chuquicamata
copper mine in Chile outperformed two TankCell-160 cells, for this flotation machine,
the air supply flow rate was about 16–31 m3 /min and the shaft inlet air pressure was
71 kPa.
6.2 Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology 183
In 2012, Outotec developed the TankCell e500 flotation machine with larger
volume than before (as shown in Fig. 6.3) by using the FloatForce agitation mech-
anism and gearbox transmission technology, in which low-pressure air was forced
into the rotor chamber directly from the hollow part of the gearbox output shaft.
The flotation machine had a diameter of 10 m, an overflow weir height of 6.8 m and
Fig. 6.2 A single Outotec

TankCell-300 flotation
cell was installed at
Codelco’s Chuquicamata
copper mine in Chile
outperformed two
TankCell-160 cells,
providing higher recovery
with copper grade equal to
the two smaller machines.
As featured in Womp 09 Vol
05—www.womp-int.com
Fig. 6.3 TankCell e500

flotation cell. Picture from
https://www.e-mj.com
Fig. 6.4 e630 flotation cell

(picture from https://www.
outotec.com)
a rotor diameter of 2200 mm; its installed power varied within the range of 400–
500 kW under different working conditions and its absorbed power varied within
the range of 260–430 kW; its aeration pressure was 66 kPa and its aeration rate was
30–80 m3 /min.
In 2014, the company launched the research program of the world’s largest e630
flotation machine, which was designed with a diameter of 11 m, an overflow weir
height of 7 m and a geometric volume up to 700 m3 , as shown in Fig. 6.4. By
means of the FloatForce agitating technology, its installed power reached 500 kW.
The flotation machine was intended for roughing and scavenging operations of gold
ores and base metals. Compared with concentrators using the TankCell-300, it was
expected that the operation cost might be reduced by 10–20%.
6.2.1.2 TankCell Upsizing Technology
In 2001, Outotec successfully developed the 160 m3 flotation machine by ampli-

fying the 16 m3 TankCell flotation machine in proportion, for which the following
parameters were mainly considered:
(1) Structure of rotor/stator.
(2) Geometry of tank cell.
(3) Suspension capacity of mineral particles. Flotation feed generally contains
coarse, medium and fine particles. The behaviour for different size particles is
different in the flotation process. All flotation machines with different volumes
should have the ability to mix the pulp effectively and disperse air thoroughly.
(4) Froth characteristics. The mineral recovery may be influenced by the froth
stability, froth depth, froth stability and the method for scraping froth out
effectively.
During the scale-up in proportion for tank bodies of flotation machines with
different volumes, the dynamic head should be similar to the hydrostatic pressure
head, which means that the Froude number should be equal. The equations of scale-
up in proportion for a series of flotation machines are obtained according to the
Froude number [11].

23
Impeller diameter to tank width ratio: DD = LL .
53
25
Pulp volume ratio: Q
Q
= L
L
= D
D
.

73
27
Power ratio: P
P
= L
L
= D
D
.
where D, Q, P and L refer to the rotor diameter, pulp flow rate, power and tank width
of the flotation machine.
Upon the determination of the primary parameters above, the three-phase flow
state of the flotation machine is simulated and optimized by use of the computational
fluid dynamics, which accelerates the research process of flotation machine upsizing.
6.2.2 Wemco Flotation Machine
FLSmidth is one of the world’s largest flotation cell manufacturers; its representative
products are WEMCO and Dorr-Oliver flotation machines. In recent years, over 400
flotation machines with the volumes of 130 and 160 m3 have been installed in South
America [12–19].
6.2.2.1 Wemco Development History
In 2003, the SmartCell-250 flotation machine with the single tank volume of 257 m3
was developed successfully. The industrial test of the machine was conducted at
Minera Los-Pelambres in Chile. The SmartCell-250 flotation machine was used in
the roughing circuit of the copper sulphide concentrator to replace the SmartCell-160
flotation machine. The test result showed that the installed power was reduced by
15%, the energy cost was decreased by 7%, the spare part cost was saved and the
downtime for maintenance was shortened. The pilot machine was shown in Fig. 6.5
[13]. After the successful test, Minera Los Pelambres used 10 set of 257 m3 flotation
machines to increase its throughput from 120,000 to 140,000 t/d.
Fig. 6.5 Test location of

SmartCell-250 (https://www.
mining-technology.com/con
tractors/crushers/ffe_min
erals/pressreleases/pre
ss5-16/)
In 2004, FLSmidth Mining Company designed the SuperCells (super flotation

machine) with the world’s largest volume from 300 to 350 m3 .
In 2009, the industrial test of two SuperCells™—300 machines was launched
at the Kennecott Copperton concentrator in Utah, USA. The machines were
successfully applied in the copper and molybdenum bulk flotation process of the
concentrator, shown in Fig. 6.6.
In 2012, FLSmidth launched the development program for the SuperCell™ 600
flotation machine with the volume of 600–650 m3 in three types, i.e. WEMCO,
Dorr-Oliver and Xcell.
Fig. 6.6 Test location of

SuperCell-300 (https://www.
directindustry.com/prod/fls
midth-dorr-oliver-eimco/pro
duct-62016-554816.html)
Fig. 6.7 SuperCell™ 660 flotation cell test location (https://www.at-minerals.com/imgs/101314

984_167b4c4489.jpg)
In 2015, one SuperCell™ 660 flotation machine was installed for test in Rougher
and Scavenger of Robinson Mining Company in Nevada, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
6.2.2.2 Wemco Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology
The Wemco flotation machine was scaled up in proportion by use of the fluid
dynamics parameters. Such parameters are as follows [14]:
(a) Superficial gas velocity: It depends on the amount of gas entering the unit
cross-sectional area of the flotation tank. Due to the low gas flow rate per unit
section of the flotation machine, the recovery rate of hydrophobic minerals
is reduced; however, as the gas flow rate per unit froth surface is too large,
the pulp surface is disturbed or tumbled. In order to prevent the pulp surface
from being excessively disturbed, generally for the flotation, the maximum
allowable gas flow rate is 1.5–2.5 cm/s.
(b) Downtime of the gas and pulp in the disperser: It represents the time of contact
between bubbles and mineral particles, which depends on the total volume of
the pulp and gas in the disperser area per unit time. The volume of the disperser
of the flotation machine refers to the volume of the disperser covering chamber.
(c) Power intensity of the disperser covering: It represents the power of the
disperser volume per cubic foot, which is another parameter that depends on
the disperser cover area.
(d) Circulation intensity of the flotation tank: The circulation intensity represents
the number of times the pulp passes through the aeration mechanism before
discharging from the flotation tank. The greater the circulation intensity is, the
more times the particles contact with air bubbles in the disperser cover area.
(e) Pulp velocity in upward tube: The pulp flow velocity refers to the pulp flow rate
per unit cross-sectional area of the tube. In order to improve the solid suspension
characteristics of the large-volume flotation machine, the pulp flow velocity
should be increased with the increase in the size of the flotation machine.
Therefore, this parameter can quantify the solid suspension characteristics of
the flotation machine.
(f) Number of gas flow (Q/DN 3 , Q—gas flow, N—rotor speed and D—rotor diam-
eter). It represents the suction capacity of the agitation mechanism, which
directly determines the aeration velocity of the mechanical agitation flotation
machine which is an important determinant in the flotation process.
6.3 BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology
The research on flotation machine upsizing started late in China, and was commenced
in 1990s. In order to meet China’s demand for the large flotation machine, BGRIMM
has made a lot of efforts to figure out the technical difficulties and key points in the
process of amplifying the flotation machine, and thus has formed the key flotation
machine upsizing technology. In 2000, the flotation machine with the single tank
volume of 50 m3 was developed successfully, and nearly 1000 flotation machines
were promoted and applied rapidly in China. In 2005, the flotation machine with the
single tank volume of 160 m3 was successfully developed; in 2007, it was applied
in the 34,000 t/d project of Wunugetushan copper-molybdenum mine of China Gold
Group. In early 2008, one 200 m3 pneumatic flotation machine was successfully
developed and used in the 90,000 t/d project of Dashan Concentrator of Jiangxi
Copper Corporation Limited. At the end of 2008, BGRIMM successfully developed
the KYF-320 pneumatic flotation machine; the industrial test data of Dexing Copper
Mine showed that the copper enrichment ratio can reach 20.62, the sulphur enrich-
ment ratio can reach 71.44 and the power consumption of a single machine is 160 kW.
The test site of KYF-320 is shown in Fig. 6.8. In 2009, 28 sets of 320 m3 flotation
machines were finally applied in the Toromoch project of Aluminum Corporation of
China (Chinalco) in Peru. In 2011, 16 sets of 320 m3 flotation machines were applied
in the phase II upgrade project.
6.3 BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology 189
Fig. 6.8 KYF-320 test in Dexing copper mine in China in 2008
In 2015, BGRIMM had completed the design of the 680 m3 flotation machine,
with 500 kW installed power, 65 kPa air pressure and the control system for the slurry
level, aeration rate and froth image. In 2018, the industrial test was completed and
the operation power consumption was about 350–400 kW. The test site of 680 m3
flotation machine is shown in Fig. 6.9.
Fig. 6.9 680 m3 flotation machine test in Dexing copper mine in Jiangxi Province in China
6.3.1 Difficulties of Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology
The scale-up technology of the flotation machine relies on the analysis and verifi-
cation of the flotation process, which actually is a process of mixing three phases
of gas, liquid and solid and having complicated physical and chemical interactions
between each other. Those processes cannot be directly observed. Therefore, the
flotation machine upsizing technology has the following difficulties.
(1) Similar scale-up of the flotation machine
As the geometry of the flotation machine becomes larger, the characteristics of the
internal fluid dynamics of the flotation machine with different specifications should
be similar in order to ensure the kinetic environment required for bubble–particle
collision, adhesion and mineralized bubble transport. However, the characteristics
of the fluid dynamics for the rotor mixing zone, transport zone, separation zone and
froth zone in the flotation machine are quite different; in addition, the requirements
of the flotation dynamics for the air bubbles, particles and liquid are different too.
Therefore, it is very difficult to make the three-phase separation environment in the
flotation machine with different specifications similar.
(2) Difficult recovery of flotation froth recovery
In terms of mechanical structure, compared with the medium and small flota-
tion machines, the large flotation machine has a larger cross-sectional area and a
deeper tank cell. In terms of process, compared with the medium and small flotation
machines, a single large flotation machine has a larger froth output and thicker froth.
Therefore, the froth transport distance of a large flotation machine becomes rela-
tively long; if the froth cannot be recovered as soon as possible, the targeted mineral
particles that have attached on the mineralized bubble will be dropped, so that the
recovery rate of the flotation will be reduced.
(3) Difficulty to overcome the shortcut in the flotation machine
Compared with the small flotation machine, the large flotation machine has a deeper
tank cell, larger diameter and more processing capacity, in which the dead zone
and shortcut turn seriously. In this case, the actual retention time of the pulp in
the flotation tank will be less than the flotation time that is calculated based on the
effective volume of the flotation machine, i.e. a shortcut, which will also reduce the
recovery rate of the flotation. Therefore, it is a key and difficult point for the flotation
machine upsizing technology to eliminate the dead zone of the flotation machine and
avoid the phenomenon of a shortcut.
6.3.2 BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing Technology
As the largest flotation machine research institute and flotation equipment supplier
in China, Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy (BGRIMM)
has carried out a series of researches on key technologies and gradually formed the
key technologies of BGRIMM flotation machine upsizing with independent intellec-
tual property rights, including similar scale-up technology of the flotation machine,
froth transport technology, pulp direction and selection circulation technology and
dynamic calculation technology of the pulp retention time.
6.3.2.1 Similar Scale-Up Technology of the Flotation Machine
The key of the flotation machine scale-up is the scale-up principle and the selection
of the scale-up factor. Due to different work principles, operating parameters and
scope of applications, different flotation machines adopt different scale-up factors
and principles.
The fluid movement states in different sizes of flotation tanks are different, which
results in different flotation effects. The similar scale-up criteria of flotation machine
provide a certain guiding significance in the design of the large flotation machine.
There are some similar scale-up criteria in the design of the flotation machine, such
as the power number, Froude number, air flow number, Weber number, Reynolds
number and suspension similarity [14–16].
(1) Power number, N P = ρ NP3 D5 (in the formula: N P —power number; P—power;
ρ—pulp density; N—rotor speed; D—rotor diameter): It represents the power
in the tank of the flotation machine and reflects the relation between the
geometrical characteristics of the components in the tank and the working
parameters.
2
(2) Froude number, Fr = N g D (in the formula: Fr—Froude number; N—rotor
speed; D—rotor diameter): It is defined as the ratio between the centrifugal
or inertial forces due to the pumping action of the rotor and the gravitational
forces due to hydrostatic head in the flotation cell.
(3) Air flow number, N A = NQDA3 (in the formula: N A —air flow number; Q A —air
flow; N—rotor speed; D—rotor diameter): It represents the suction capacity
of the agitation mechanism, which directly determines the aeration rate of the
flotation machine.
2 2
(4) Weber number, We = NγgtD (in the formula: We—Weber number; γgt —tension
at the gas–liquid interface; N—rotor speed; D—rotor diameter): It is the ratio
of the inertial force to the surface force and describes the similarity of the
bubble size in the flotation tank.
Reynolds number, Re = ρ NηD (in the formula: Re—Reynolds number; η—
2
(5)
dynamic viscosity; ρ—pulp density; N—rotor speed; D—rotor diameter): It
is a dimensionless number to determine the fluid flow character and is the ratio
of the inertial force to the viscous force.
(6) Suspension similarity: In order to make the flotation tank operate normally, it
is necessary to maintain sufficient suspension state in the tank. The mineral
particles can be attached to the bubble and the flotation process can be processed
only on the premise of suspension state. The suspension similarity is based on
the principle of kinetic similarity.
All criteria above are equal. However, in fact, they are not equal in the same
model of the flotation machine with different specifications. It is impossible to apply
all those criteria in the design of the flotation machine. Different types of flotation
machines require different scale-up criteria.
For the flotation equipment, in addition to mechanical structural parameters,
main factors affecting the flotation process are kinetic factors: turbulence inten-
sity, particle suspension, air dispersion, bubble–particle collision, bubble size and
quantity, liquid level stability (such as aeration velocity), etc. Therefore, under the
premise of ensuring the similarity of the mechanical structure at the time of ampli-
fying the flotation machine, it requires the suspension similarity in the flotation tank
and the fluid dynamics similarity of the flotation machine.
A. Similar scale-up of the mechanical structure
Similarity of the mechanical structure means to maintain the geometrical similarity

of key components of the flotation machine, including the tank cell similarity and
geometrical similarity of the rotor agitation mechanism. The tank cell similarity and
the rotor similarity are the premise of suspension similarity in the flotation tank and
the similarity of fluid dynamics parameters. The scale-up factors and rules of the
tank cell and rotor may be found by the regression method.
a. Tank cell similarity
According to the required volume of the flotation machine, it is not necessary to

make the scale-up mechanically based on the geometrical method when simulating
the tank cell scale-up; it is necessary to fully consider hydrodynamics in the large-
scale flotation tank. First, it is necessary to find the parameters to represent the
correlation of key components in the tank and their relationship to the volume of
the flotation tank. Generally, the flotation machine is amplified by the method for
maintaining the ratio of the rotor diameter to the section characteristic dimensions
of the tank cell unchanged; moreover, the section characteristic dimension of the
tank cell is characterized as the width of tank. Such scale-up method has following
problems:
(1) First, the tank cell dimensions should include the tank depth, which cannot
be replaced with the section dimension of the tank cell; moreover, the section
dimensions of the tank cell include the tank width, tank length and section area
of the tank, which cannot be replaced with the tank width simply, either.
(2) Researches show that the ratio of the rotor diameter to the tank width of the
same type of flotation machines with different size is not fixed [20].
Fig. 6.10 The relationship 30
Ratio between cross-sectioin area

between the volume of tank 28
and the ratio of 26
cross-sectional area and rotor 24
and rotor diameter

diameter 22
20
18
16
14
12 Air-forced flotation machine
10 Air-induced flotation machine

8
6
4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
3
Volume/m
Through researches on the same type of flotation machines with different size,
the relationship between tank cell dimensions, rotor diameter ratio and tank volume
can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 6.10. It can be seen from Fig. 6.10 that the ratio
of the cross-sectional area of the tank to the rotor diameter shows a power function
relationship with the tank cell volume; therefore, the ratio of the sectional area to
the rotor diameter is used as the scale-up factor for amplifying the tank cell of the
flotation machine, and its scale-up formula is given as follows:
S
= a1 V b1 (6.1)
D
where
S cross-sectional area of the flotation tank;
D rotor diameter;
V tank cell volume;
a1 , b1 coefficients related to the tank cell structure, which may be determined by
fitting the structural data of the same series of the flotation machines.
When the section area of the tank cell is determined, it is not possible to get the
tank cell depth mechanically by dividing the tank cell volume by the section area of
the tank. The tank cell volume used above refers to the effective volume of the tank
cell, but the geometrical volume of the flotation machine should include the rotor,
stator, froth tank, dead corner at the bottom of the tank, etc. Therefore, the tank cell
depth should be calculated based on the geometrical volume of the tank cell.
b. Rotor similarity
Similarly, it is also necessary to find the key parameters of the rotor and their rela-
tionship with the volume of the flotation tank for amplifying the rotor. The rotor
diameter is a key parameter that can reflect the rotor properties in a best manner. The
Fig. 6.11 Relationship 1.5

between the tank volume and 1.4
rotor diameter 1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
Rotor diameter/m
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Air-induced flotation machine
0.5
0.4 Air-forced flotation machine
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Volume/m 3
relationship between the rotor diameter and the tank cell volume of the same type of
main flotation machines in the world is plotted in Fig. 6.11.
It can be seen from Fig. 6.11 that the rotor diameters of two types of flotation
machines show a power function relationship with the tank cell volume of the flotation
machine, and moreover the fitting degree is high. Therefore, the rotor diameter may
be used as the scale-up factor; its scale-up formula is given as follows:
D = a2 V b2 (6.2)
where
D rotor diameter, m;
V tank cell volume, m3 ;
a2 , b2 coefficients related to the tank cell structure, which may be determined by
fitting the rotor data of the same type of the flotation machines.
B. Suspension similarity scale-up
Upon the achievement of the geometrical similarity of key components of the flotation
machine, it is important to keep the similar suspension of solid particles. In flotation
tanks with different sizes, the absolute value and direction of the velocity of the
fluid at the corresponding point should be similar. It is assumed that at any point
in the flotation tank (coordinate X), the pulp velocity is u and the velocity at the
corresponding point of another flotation tank (coordinate X ) is u , then

u(X ) ∝ u (X ) (6.3a)
It can be seen from the analysis in the previous section that the cross-sectional
area of the tank can reflect the characteristics of the flotation tank in a better way
than the tank length, tank width and tank depth; therefore,
the equivalent radius can
be taken as the characteristic dimension of the tank R = πS and the factor analysis
method is used, and it can be available from the formula above that

u(R) ∝ u (R ) (6.3b)
The formula for calculating the velocity is derived approximately by the charac-
teristics of the velocity field of the pulp flow pumped from the rotor. For simplicity, it
is assumed that the jet flow is from a circular outlet, and symmetry plane orthogonal
to the outlet centre and the axial line is taken as the coordinate, i.e. the position
is determined based on the radius r and the distance to the symmetry plane z. The
velocity of this point is given as follows:
u = u 0 f (r )φ(z /r ) (6.4)
where
u0 jet-flow velocity at the circular outlet on the symmetry plane;
f (r) change rate of the velocity on the symmetry plane to value r;
φ(z /r ) change rate of the velocity in the vertical direction of the symmetry plane
at radius r to value z.
When the pumped fluid is injected to the surrounding fluid, it is available based
on the law of conservation of momentum that
∞
I =ρ 2π u 2 r dz = Constant
−∞
According to Formula 6.4:
∞ z z
I = u 20 f (r )ρ
2
2π φ 2 d = Constant
r r
−∞
If the momentum is constant, the f (r ) · r = Constant, i.e. f (r ) = C/r . The

jet-flow velocity along the symmetry plane is
u(r ) = u 0 f (r )

At the distance of r = σ (D 2), the jet-flow velocity is the same as the velocity
in the circular disc gap of the rotor: u 0 = u 0 C/σ D2 , then: C = σ2 D.

Therefore u(r ) = u 0 (σ 2)(D r ).
where
σ coefficient, only related to the shape of the rotor; the σ values of geometric
similarity are equal.
According to Formula 6.3b:

u0 D u D
∝ 0
R R
The jet-flow velocity at the circular outlet on the symmetry plane of the jet flow
is proportional to the average velocity of the outlet, and the later is proportional to
the linear velocity of the rotor, then u 0 = N D.
Then

D2 N D 2N
∝ (6.5)
R R
Therefore, the scale-up factor for the suspension similarity of the flotation machine
2
is DRN . The rotor is a key component to suspend the flotation machine; therefore,
this scale-up factor is defined as the suspension number J, then
D2 N
J= (6.6)
R
As shown in the formula below, the suspension number also includes two factors,
namely, the rotor diameter and the rotor speed, which may reflect the impact of the
rotor on the fluid dynamics state in the flotation tank.
Formula (6.6) may be derived from Formulas (6.1) and (6.2) as follows:
J = a3 · V b3 (6.7)
where a3 , b3 —structural parameters of the tank cell, which may be determined by

fitting the rotor data of the same series of flotation machines.
C. Dynamics similarity scale-up
Flotation kinetics is mainly related to the law of the flotation rate and analyses
various influencing factors in order to provide basis for improving the flotation
process and flow picture, design of the flotation machine, proportional scale-up,
etc. The flotation rate may be measured by the grade change or recovery rate change
of targeted minerals per time. There are many factors influencing the flotation rate,
which mainly include ore properties, flotation environment and characteristics of the
flotation machine. Particularly, the characteristics of the flotation machine mainly
include structural characteristics (tank cell structure, rotor structure, etc.), agitating
characteristics (including rotor and linear velocity of the rotor, etc.), bubble charac-
teristics (including bubble size, aeration rate, air retention amount, etc.), froth layer
properties (including thickness and stability of the froth layer, froth load rate, etc.),
etc. Bubble characteristics and froth layer characteristics may be indicated by the
fluid characteristics in the flotation tank. Reynolds number is an important parameter
to indicate the fluid characteristics.
Re = ρLν/η (6.8)
where
Re Reynolds number;
ρ pulp density, g/cm3 ;
L characteristic length of the flow field, m;
η dynamic viscosity, Pa s;
v fluid velocity, Pa s.
Generally, in order to attempt to evaluate the agitating suspension conditions with
ND constant, the velocity v in Formula (6.8) can be indicated by the value of ND that
is proportional to the rotor linear velocity π ND [17, 18]. In fact, for the same type
of flotation machines, the fluid dynamics states in the tank cell are greatly different
at the same rotor linear velocity, so it is inevitable to lead to the design error by use
of this method [19]. ND cannot represent Re, because it is only the velocity in Re. If
that is the case, we can not ignore the influence of another linear velocity L.
In addition, someone replaces the linear velocity L with N, i.e. Re = ρ NηD ,
2
which is the Reynolds number criteria mentioned above. However, in fact, based on
calculation, it is not equal for the same type of flotation machines with different
specifications; it cannot evaluate the fluid dynamics states in the flotation tank
accurately.
In order to evaluate the fluid dynamics states in the flotation tank accurately,
first, it is necessary to establish a dimensionless number without missing of factors
indicating the fluid state in Re, and indicating the correlation of key components in
the flotation tank. Upon the analysis of the tank cell scale-up method in the previous
section, S/D is used as the tank cell scale-up factor, which can show the correlation
of key components in the flotation tank. Therefore, the revised Reynolds number Re
is given as follows:

Re = k × S D × ρ η × N D (6.9)
where
S section area of the tank cell;
k correction factor.
In the system of Metres Kilograms Seconds (MKS), L, T and M are taken as the
basic dimensions, and the derived dimensions include.
Dim N = T −1 ; dim ρ = L −3 M; dim η = L −1 T −1 M.
where k refers to a dimensionless number, with the results of
T −1 × L 2 × L −3 × M
dim Re = =1
L 2 × L −1 × T −1 × M
It can be seen that the corrected Reynolds number Re is same as the physical
property of Re. S/D is able to reflect the correlation of dimensions between two key
components in the tank cell.
For a determined system, ρ/η is unchanged. Therefore, the fluid movement state
in the same type of flotation tanks with different specifications has relation to the
value of k × (S/D) × N D, and particularly ND is proportional to the rotor linear
velocity πND. So it can be said that the fluid movement state in the same type of
flotation tanks with different specifications is related to the S/D times of the rotor
linear velocity. The relationship between the S/D times of the rotor linear velocity
of the same type of main flotation machines and the tank cell volume of the flotation
machine is analysed in Fig. 6.12.
Therefore, the S/D times of rotor linear velocity may be used as the scale-up
factor; its scale-up rule is given as follows:
S
ν = a4 V b4 (6.10)
D
where
a4 , b4 coefficient related to the tank cell structure, which may be determined by
fitting the data of the same series of the flotation machines.
In summary, for amplifying the flotation machine, it is necessary to achieve the
similarity of the mechanical structure, suspension similarity in the flotation tank and
the fluid dynamic similarity of the flotation machine; its scale-up method is given as
follows:
(1) Scale-up of the tank, the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the tank cell to the
rotor diameter DS is taken as the scale-up factor; its scale-up rule is DS = a1 V b1 .
Fig. 6.12 The relationship 240

between the tank volume and 220
-1
S/D Mutiply linear velocity of rotor / m.s
S/D multiply linear velocity 200

of rotor
180
160
140
120
100
Air-forced flotation machine
80
60 Air-induce flotaiton machine
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
3
Volume/m
(2) The rotor diameter is taken as the scale-up factor to amplify the rotor shape;
its scale-up rule is given as follows: D = a2 V b2 .
(3) Suspension similarity, the suspension number is taken as the scale-up factor;
its scale-up rule is given as follows: J = a3 · V b3 .
(4) Hydrodynamic similarity in the tank, the S/D times of rotor linear velocity is
taken as the scale-up factor; its scale-up rule is given as follows:
S
ν = a4 V b4 .
D
6.3.2.2 Pulp Direction and Selection Circulation Technology
Pulp direction and selection circulation technology is a material circulation tech-

nology for a single large flotation machine, which is specially developed for the
difference of flotation behaviours of coarse and fine minerals with different size
fractions, as shown in Fig. 6.13.
The rotor structure is closely related to the pulp circulation rate and the flow
direction. It is an effective method to improve the height of the transport area by
strengthening the upper circulation of the pulp, which further ensures the recovery
of coarse minerals and reduces the shortcut. Forced pulp circulation passages are
arranged in the flotation tank to return the un-mineralized fine minerals to the rotor
area again, so that it can increase the chance of fine minerals attaching to the bubbles
and thus improve the separation effect of fine minerals and also reduce the probability
of the shortcut.
6.3.2.3 Dynamic Calculation Technology of Pulp Retention Time
The pulp retention time is an important basis for the sizing of the flotation machine.
Generally, it is recognized that the pulp retention time is approximately equal to the
flotation time. The whole operation is fully considered for the calculation based on
Fig. 6.13 Sketch of pulp direction and selection circulation

Fig. 6.14 Traditional retention time calculation mode
the traditional pulp retention time calculation model, as shown in Fig. 6.14. In the
figure, QF refers to the volume flow rate of the pulp fed into a certain operation, QC
refers to the froth volume flow rate of a certain operation and QT refers to the tailing
volume flow rate of a certain operation, so the retention time of the operation is given
as follows:
tr = Ve n/Q F (6.11)
where
tr pulp retention time in a single operation, min;
Ve effective volume of a single flotation machine, m3 ;
n number of equipment in the flotation operation;
QF feed flowrate, m3 /min.
For a large flotation machine, it produces a large amount of froth; the production
fact that froth is produced from each flotation machine is not considered in this
method, which results in that the actual flotation time is more than the calculation
time, causing disadvantages of heavier circulation load, higher energy consumption,
more equipment and longer process.
However, in actual production, each working flotation machine produces different
froth yields; the dynamic calculation model of the retention time is shown in Fig. 6.15.
It is assumed that the pulp amount fed into a certain flotation machine is given as
follows:
Q fi = Q fi−1 − Q ci−1 (6.12)
where
Qfi volume flow rate of feeding into a certain flotation machine, m3 /min;
Qfi − 1 volume flow rate of feeding into the previous flotation machine, m3 /min;
Qci − 1 volume flow rate of froth into the previous flotation machine, m3 /min.
Fig. 6.15 Dynamic calculation model of the retention time
The actual pulp retention time for this flotation operation is calculated based on
the formula which is given below:
tr = Ve /Q f1 + Ve /Q f2 + · · · + Ve /Q fi (6.13)
In this model, the production fact that the large flotation machine produces a large
amount of froth and each flotation machine produces froth is fully considered; by use
of the system theory method, a new dynamic calculation model of pulp retention time
of a flotation machine is established to change the traditional calculation method for
flotation time and achieve the flotation through a shortcut.
6.3.3 Key Structure Design of BGRIMM Large Flotation

Machine
6.3.3.1 Tank Cell Design
Generally, the tank cell bottom is designed with a tapered structure in order to avoid
the large particles settling, force them flow towards the tank centre to return to the
rotor area for recirculation and reduce the phenomenon of pulp shortcut and ensure
the uniform dispersion of the pulp. Take the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation
machine as an example. Unlike air-induced flotation machine, the air is forced into
the tank by a blower, in which it does not require the consideration of the impact of
the static pressure of the upper part of the rotor on the air forced. Therefore, the tank
cell may be deepened appropriately, which may bring the following advantages:
(1) The bubble rising distance is long, the retention time of the bubble in the tank is
extended; the chance of collision between the bubble and particles is increased;
the sufficient bubble utilization rate is increased; the air consumption is reduced
as the increase of the tank depth.
(2) The rotor diameter size of the flotation machine is directly related to the tank
cell diameter of the flotation machine. When the tank cell is enlarged, the
required rotor diameter should also be enlarged; when the tank cell diameter
is reduced, the required rotor diameter shall also be reduced. Therefore, when
the volume is constant, if the tank depth is increased, the tank cell diameter of
the flotation machine may be reduced and the rotor diameter should be reduced
accordingly and thus the power consumption may be reduced.
(3) It is easy for a deep tank to form a relatively stable froth area and separation area
in the flotation process, which is good for improving the concentrate quality.
(4) The deep tank occupies a small area of the plant, which may reduce the
infrastructure cost.
6.3.3.2 Rotor Design
The following problems are mainly considered in the rotor design:

(1) The rotor should be able to produce a large pulp flow under a relatively low
head in order to ensure a smooth pulp circulation, sufficient suspension of
particles and no particles settling at the bottom of the tank.
(2) The ability to disperse air should be strong. The air dispersion cannot be reduced
due to the expansion of the cross-sectional area of the large flotation machine;
the air dispersion degree should be maximized.
(3) The three-phase mixture pumped from the rotor should be transported to a
relatively high position in order to improve the rising distance of the particle
and bubble to increase the chance of collision between the particle and air
bubbles and shorten the rising distance of the mineralized bubble.
Firstly, for the design of the large flotation machine rotor, the following three
aspects must be considered: the height of the transport area should be maximized in
order to transport the mineral particles to a relatively high position in the tank and
thus reduce the rising distance of the mineralized bubble and decrease the chance of
particles falling off the bubble. The comparison of different pulp circulation forms
that are created by two types of rotors is shown in Fig. 6.16; compared with the
former one, the later one significantly increases the transport height of the mineral
particles.
Secondly, it is necessary to change the shape of the rotor and expand the
mineralized area of the rotor chamber in order to strengthen the recovery of fine
minerals.
Fig. 6.16 Pulp circulation created by two types of rotor
6.3.3.3 Stator Design
The three-phase mixing zone in the flotation cell is a very important zone for the
flotation kinetics, which requires strong agitation in order to make the pulp be in a
turbulent state, and the separation area and the froth area require a relatively stable
state. If the turbulence intensity is too strong, it will increase the detachment of
particles from bubbles, which may affect the separation effect. Pulp will be thrown out
tangentially from the rotor; it will rotate in the tank, which may affect the separation
environment. Therefore, the stator must be deigned to be able to stabilize the flow in
order to convert the circumferential pulp flow that is produced by the rotor into the
radial pulp flow in order to prevent the pulp from spinning in the flotation machine;
it is also helpful to recirculate the pulp in the tank. Secondly, a strong shearing force
annular area is generated around the rotor and between the stator blades; big bubbles
are shredded under the action of shearing force to promote the formation of small
bubbles.
The large flotation machine is designed with a suspended radial vane opening
stator; it is composed of 24 blades and installed on the periphery of the rotor; it also
maintains a certain radial and axial clearance with the rotor. It is fixed at the bottom
of the tank with feet in order to increase the pulp flow area around the lower area of
the stator, eliminate the hindrance of the lower parts against the pulp, assist the pulp
to flow into the lower area of the rotor and reduce the power consumption, enhance
the pulp circulation in the lower part of the circulation area of the tank cell and the
suspension capacity of the solid particles.
6.3.3.4 Air Distributor Design
BGRIMM believes that the recovery of fine minerals may be improved by strength-
ening the pre-mineralization. BGRIMM invents the air distributor, which is used for
pre-cutting the air into small airflow and then distributing it to the rotor chamber in
order to improve the bubble surface area flux.
(a) Saline minerals (b) Oxidized minerals (c) Sulfide minerals
Fig. 6.17 3 types of air distributor
Due to the difference of aeration rate required in the mineral flotation process, the
air distributor may be designed differently according to the types of minerals, namely,
saline minerals, oxidized minerals and sulphide minerals, as shown in Fig. 6.17.
Saline minerals require the least amount of air; oxidized minerals require the medium
amount of air and sulphide minerals require the most amount of air.
6.3.3.5 Flow Steadying Grid (A Special Mechanism for the Large

Flotation Machine in a Flotation Environment for Coarse
and Heavy Minerals)
Upon the consideration of the flotation characteristics of coarse and heavy minerals
that are easy to fall off from the mineralized bubbles and rest at the bottom of the
tank, a suspension flow steadying grid may be designed in the large flotation machine,
as shown in Fig. 6.18. The flow steadying grid is composed of multiple V-shaped
structures that are arranged fully on the cross section of the tank cell; the clearance
L b is designed between multiple V-shaped structures; it is installed on the above of
the rotor. The pulp rising velocity is increased by reducing the cross-sectional area
of the rising pulp flow and such velocity is required to be greater than the settling
velocity of the high specific gravity particles of the pulp. Therefore, a suspension
layer of coarse and heavy particles is formed on the grid when the pulp flows upward
through the flow steadying grid in order to ensure the good suspension and efficient
recovery of coarse and high specific gravity minerals.
L
Lb V2
V1
Fig. 6.18 Schematic diagram of steady flow grids
6.3.3.6 Froth Tank Design
Compared with the medium and small flotation machines, in order to design the froth
launder for the large flotation machine, it is necessary to consider the movement char-
acteristics of froth and the structural parameters of the tank in large flotation cell.
Because the froth layer is relatively thick, the rapid recovery of froth must be consid-
ered. The distance to transport froth is too long, which causes the particles attached
on bubbles to fall off during moving to weir. In addition, local froth stagnation is
also a problem to be considered.
The froth transport distance is a key factor to affect the targeted mineral recovery.
Because the large flotation machine has a relatively large volume and a relatively long
tank cell radius, it may be designed with double crowders, which consists of external
crowder and inner crowder. Froth close to the edge of the tank cell overflows from
the external froth launder; froth close to the centre overflows from the inner froth
tank; in this way, froth is divided into two parts so that the froth transport distance is
shortened. As shown in Fig. 6.19.
Fig. 6.19 Double crowders in KYF-160 flotation machine
6.3.4 Rapid BGRIMM Flotation Machine Upsizing Driven

by CFD Technology
In the flotation machine upsizing process, BGRIMM analyses the hydrodynamic

macroscopic features and local features in the large-scale flotation machine by full
use of CFD technology, which promotes the upsizing advanced. The CFD method
is fully applied in the process of R&D of the flotation machines with the volume of
160, 200 and 320 m3 , even for the largest volume of 680 m3 .
The velocity cloud picture and turbulent energy distribution diagram of the central
section of the 680 m3 flotation machine are shown, respectively, in Figs. 6.20 and
6.21 [21–23]. It is generally recognized that the agitating and mixing areas in the
flotation machine are located near the rotor and the stator areas, where it requires
strong turbulence intensity. It can be seen from the velocity cloud picture that the
velocity is large in the rotor and stator areas and a relatively large horizontal jet
effect occurs in the middle and upper parts of the stator blades, which is good for
increasing the flow intensity of the mixing area. The turbulence intensity distribution
cloud picture can reflect the relatively large turbulence energy near the rotor and
stator areas in a better manner. Except the area near the rotor and stator, the velocity
and turbulence energies in the central and top section of the flotation machine are
very small, which is essential to form the stable transport area and separation area.
The velocity flow diagram and vector diagram of the central section of the 680 m3
flotation machine are shown, respectively, in Figs. 6.22 and 6.23. It can be seen
clearly from the diagram that there are two significant upper and lower circulation
flow field structures in the flotation. For the upper circulation flow field, its covering
aera is large, but its turbulence intensity is not large, which is good for increasing
Fig. 6.20 Velocity cloud

picture in central section
Fig. 6.21 Turbulent energy

distribution diagram of the
central section
Fig. 6.22 Velocity flow

diagram in central section
Fig. 6.23 Velocity vector

diagram in central section
the transport area and improving the conveying capacity of coarse particles. For the
lower circulation flow field, its action range is small, but its velocity intensity is large,
which has positive significance for bottom suspension and circulation of particles.
The results show the fluid dynamic environment suitable for the mineral separation
can be established in the 680 m3 flotation machine.
The dynamical dimensionless number analysis is a common design method and an
optimization method. The relationship between the volume of the flotation machine,
power number N p and power density PF is shown in Fig. 6.23. The power intensity
or power density is a function criterion for evaluating the economics of the flotation
equipment, which reflects the energy consumption indicator per unit volume of the
equipment. In the process of developing the flotation machine from the volume of
70 m3 to the volume of 680 m3 , the power number is basically in the range of 5–6,
which indicates that the scale-up of the equipment achieves a good power balance.
The power density PF reflects the energy consumption for pulp per circulation unit.
It can be seen that the power density is basically stable, but it has a slight increase
trend with equipment upsizing. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to change
in the circulation capacity during the process of amplifying the equipment in order
to further improve the energy consumption.
The relationship between the volume of the flotation machine, Froude number Fr
and circulation density (QF ) is shown in Fig. 6.26. Froude number (Fr) is a very impor-
tant similarity number, which reflects the ratio of the centrifugal force to the inertial
force. Specifically for the flotation machine, it indicates the ratio of the pumping
action of the rotor to the hydrostatic head, which is related to the suspension of solid
particles in the flotation machine. It is not difficult to find that the Froude numbers
of the flotation machines with different specifications are similar, which shows a
good consistency. Circulation density QF reflects the relative circulation capacity
of the equipment, which shows the relationship between the structural change and
circulation capacity of the tank cell to a certain extent. For a large flotation machine,
the circulation density QF is basically constant, but it also shows a decreasing trend.
Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the circulation capacity of a large flotation
machine (Figs. 6.24 and 6.25).
Fig. 6.24 The relationship

of volume, power number N p
and circulation intensity

of volume, power intensity,
air flow number Na and
Froude number Fr

of volume, power intensity,
air flow number Na
The relationship between the volume of the flotation machine, air preservation
number Ca and flow rate number Na is shown in Fig. 6.26. It can be seen that the air
preservation number Ca and flow rate number Na are basically consistent during the
process of scale-up. The main dynamic parameters of the 680 m3 flotation machine
show a good consistency with those of its same series of flotation machines, which
indicates that the scale-up design of the equipment is reliable so that it can ensure
the equipment with good hydrodynamic characteristics.
Due to years of development and utilization of the world’s mineral resources,
high-grade resources that are easy for processing have been gradually exhausted, the
proportion of poor, fine and complex mineral resources is increasing, so the daily
processing capacity of a new ore concentrator is also increasing, and it is even over
100,000 t/d for some concentrators. Therefore, there is an urgent demand for the large
flotation equipment. The flotation equipment faces a more arduous task, which will
be further developed towards the direction of upsizing, specialization, environmental
protection and efficiency.
References
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machine of Outokumpu. Met Ore Dressing Abroad (5):30–34
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mechanical agitation flotation. Min Metal 11:43–47
Chapter 7
BGRIMM Mechanical Agitation
Flotation Machine
The mechanical agitation flotation machine is one of the flotation machines that is
invented at the earliest. The early mechanical agitation flotation machine is designed
with a complicated structure, but a poor flotation effect. With the development of
science and technology and the gradual revealing of the principle of flotation, the
performance of the equipment has been improved continuously and a large number
of mechanical agitation flotation machines with different structures have appeared
[1, 2]. Chinese mining companies introduced the A-type mechanical agitation flota-
tion machines from the Soviet at the earliest, which solved the concentrators’ urgent
need for the technology of the flotation equipment after the founding of the country.
With the deepening of research on the technology of the mechanical agitation flota-
tion machine in China, research institutes, represented by Beijing General Research
Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, have gradually developed China’s mechanical
agitation flotation machine [3]. The mechanical agitation flotation machine has the
function of automatic air suction, so it does not require a complicated air supply
system; especially for a mechanical agitation flotation machine with the function of
automatic pulp suction, due to this function, it does not require the process pipeline for
middling return; therefore, the process is simplified and the operation is more conve-
nient [4, 5]. Due to its simple structure and superior functions, the new mechanical
agitation flotation machine has been widely used. However, it has the disadvantages
of the narrow adjustable range of the suction rate and failure of accurate control. At
present, the mechanical agitation flotation machine has been mainly suitable for the
separation of the metal and non-metallic minerals which have a wide requirement
for the air volume range.

214 7 BGRIMM Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
7.1 SF, BF and GF Mechanical Agitation Flotation

Machines
The research on the flotation machine started late in China. Until 1970s, China has
begun to independently develop the flotation machine; and in the early 1980s, the SF
mechanical agitation flotation machine was developed successfully. With the change
of resources and the improved requirements for equipment technology by concentra-
tors, BF and GF mechanical agitation flotation machines have appeared successively,
which have been widely used due to their excellent separation performance [6–8].
They can meet the production requirements of different concentrators.
7.1.1 SF Flotation Machine
The SF flotation machine was developed successfully by the Beijing General

Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy (BGRIMM) in 1986. In the initial stage
of its research and development, the SF flotation machine was generally used as the
first tank in each flotation work; it was combined with the JJF flotation machine as a
joint unit to play the automatic pulp suction in order to return to the middling without
the use of ladder configuration and the froth pump. Due to its excellent use effect,
the SF flotation machine was used along to form a horizontal configuration that is
fully composed of SF flotation machines.
As shown in Fig. 7.1, the structure of the SF flotation machine is mainly composed
of the tank body, spindle components (including the impeller), motor, scraper and its
Fig. 7.1 SF flotation

machine (1–pulley;
2–suction pipe; 3–central
cylinder; 4–spindle; 5–tank
body; 6–stator; 7–impeller;
8–tube; 9–false bottom;
10–upper blade; 11–lower
blade; 12–impeller disc)
7.1 SF, BF and GF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machines 215
transmission device, etc.; when its volume is greater than 10 m3 , it is equipped with
the tube and the false bottom structure.
The SF flotation machine is mainly characterized with its rotor with the back-
ward tilting double blades, as shown in Fig. 7.2, which can achieve the double pulp
circulation in the tank. Its working principle is the spindle is driven by the motor
through the V-shaped belt to rotate its lower impeller. The pulp in the upper and lower
impeller chambers can produce the centrifugal force under the action of the upper
and lower blades, so that the pulp is thrown to the periphery to establish a negative
pressure area in the upper and lower impeller chambers. At the same time, the pulp
in the upper part of the stator (as shown in Fig. 7.3) can also be sucked into the upper
impeller chamber through the circulation hole on the stator to form the upper pulp
circulation. The specific gravity of the pulp that is thrown out from the lower impeller
chamber is larger than that of the three-phase mixture that is thrown out from the
upper blade; so its centrifugal force is larger and its movement speed is attenuated
slowly; moreover, it also produces additional driving force to the three-phase mixture
that is thrown out from the upper blade to increase its centrifugal force; therefore,
Fig. 7.2 Rotor of SF

flotation cell
Fig. 7.3 Stator of SF

flotation cell
the vacuum degree in the upper impeller chamber is improved; and it plays a func-
tion of assisting the suction. When the pulp is thrown out to the periphery from the
lower blade, the pulp from its lower part moves to the centre to form the lower pulp
circulation. Air is sucked into the upper impeller chamber through the suction pipe
and central cylinder, and is mixed with the sucked pulp to form a large number of
fine bubbles, which are evenly dispersed in the tank after being stabilized through
the stator to form mineralized bubbles. The mineralized bubbles are floated up to the
froth layer and scraped off by the scraper to form a froth product.
7.1.2 BF Flotation Machine
The BF flotation machine is an efficient separation plant developed by Beijing

General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, having the characteristics of
planar configuration, automatic air suction, automatic pulp suction, automatic return
of middlings froth, etc., without the need of any auxiliary equipment [9, 10]. The BF
flotation machine is a brand new efficient automatic air and pulp suction flotation
machine that is developed by Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metal-
lurgy based on the summary of A-type and SF flotation machines. Compared with
A-type flotation machine, it has the advantages of saving of power consumption per
unit volume by 15–25%, adjustable suction rate, stable pulp level, high separation
efficiency, long service cycle of wearing parts, convenient operation, maintenance
and management, etc. It is a kind of fuel-efficient separation equipment.
7.1.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures
As shown in Fig. 7.4, the BF flotation machine is mainly composed of the spindle
mechanism, tank body components, scraper components, etc. The entire spindle
mechanism is installed on the main beam of the tank body.
(1) Working principle
When the spindle is driven by the motor to rotate the impeller, the pulp in
the impeller chamber is thrown out to the periphery under the action of the
centrifugal force, so that a negative pressure is formed in the impeller chamber
and air is sucked in through the suction pipe. At the same time, the pulp in the
lower part of the impeller is sucked in through the central hole of the lower cone
disc of the impeller and is mixed with air in the impeller chamber; and then it
is thrown out to the periphery through the passage between the stator and the
impeller; the air and some pulp moves towards the upper part of the flotation
tank to participate in the flotation process after leaving the stator passage. The
rest pulp moves towards the bottom of the flotation tank and returns to the
impeller chamber again due to the impeller pumping and suction to form the
Fig. 7.4 Working principle

of BF flotation cell
lower pulp circulation. The existence of the lower pulp circulation is good for
the suspension of coarse particle minerals, which can minimize the deposition
of coarse sand in the lower part of the flotation tank.
(2) Key structures
The BF flotation machine mainly consists of a motor device, tank body compo-
nents, a spindle mechanism, a froth scraper and other components. The spindle
mechanism comprises a big pulley, a bearing block, a central cylinder, a spindle,
a suction pipe, an impeller, a stator and other parts and components. The spindle
mechanism is fixed to the main beam of the tank body.
1. Design of the tank body structure

The tank body of the BF flotation machine is designed as a shallow
tank structure with a trapezoidal cross section; the bottom of the tank
is provided with the false bottom and the tube to promote the generation
of a large forced lower pulp circulation, as shown in Fig. 7.5.
2. Impeller and stator
The impeller and stator are key components of the BF flotation machine.
The superiority of the efficient flotation machine is mainly reflected in the
rationalization of the structures of the impeller and stator and the optimum
values of the relevant parameters. The requirements for the performance
of the BF flotation machine mainly include small power consumption,
sufficient suction rate, reasonable pulp circulation, no deposition of coarse
particle minerals, long service life of wearing parts and stable pulp level.
Impeller: According to the design theory of a centrifugal pump, the
outlet installation angle β of the impeller blade includes three conditions,
namely, blade forward (β > 90°), blade radial (β = 90°) and blade back-
ward (β < 90°), as shown in Fig. 7.6. For these three types of impellers,
the relationship curve between the pressure head Ht and the theoretical
Fig. 7.5 Structure of BF

flotation cell (1. agitator
assembly 2. tank cell 3.
motor device 4. froth paddle)
Fig. 7.6 Three angle forms of rotor blades. If β = 90º, it will be the radial type; if β < 90º, it will
be the backward type; if β > 90º, it will be the forward type
>90¡ã
>90¡ã
Nt
Ht
=90¡ã
=90¡ã
<90¡ã
<90¡ã
Qt Qt
Fig. 7.7 Nt-Qt and Ht-Qt curve for Three angle forms of rotor blades
flow Qt and the relationship curve between the power Nt and theoretical
flow Qt are shown, respectively, in Fig. 7.7.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.7 that for a backward type impeller with β < 90º,
when the flow is large, the produced theoretical head will be low, the dynamic
head proportion in the total theoretical head will be relatively small and the
velocity head will be relatively low, which is good for stabilizing the pulp level.
For a backward blade, when the flow is large, the power consumption will be
low; and the flotation machine requires a large suction rate and does not require
a high head; therefore, the impeller of the BF flotation machine is designed
with the backward blade, which meets the requirements of a flotation machine
for a low head and a large flow.
According to the structural analysis of a centrifugal pump, there is no liquid
leakage phenomenon in a closed impeller, so the efficiency of such an impeller
is high. Combined with the actual situation of the flotation machine, the
impeller of the BF flotation machine is designed as a closed impeller with
a backward double cone disc; the final impeller form is shown in Fig. 7.8.
Stator: For a automatic suction flotation machine, its stator has three important
functions: ➀ It is combined with the impeller as an organic piece, which can
produce a vacuum in the impeller chamber when the impeller is rotating to
Fig. 7.8 Rotor shape of BF

flotation cell (α—angle of
the upper cone disc;
β—blade inclination;
γ —angle of the lower cone
disc; H—blade height;
D—impeller diameter;
d1—diameter of top impeller
aperture; d2—diameter of
low impeller aperture;
d3—Diameter of impeller
dividing disc)
suck sufficient air, feeding and middling; ➁ A strong shearing force annular
area is formed around the impeller and between the stator blades to promote
the formation of minor and fine bubbles; ➂ The tangentially rotating pulp flow
that is produced by the impeller is converted into a radial pulp flow in order to
prevent the pulp from spinning in the flotation tank, promote the formation of
stable froth layer and assist the re-circulation of the pulp in the tank.
The stator form of the BF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 7.9.
(3) Central cylinder: The central cylinder is a key component of the BF flotation
machine to achieve the function of automatic air and pulp suction. In the flota-
tion process, both the feeding froth and middling froth are sucked into the
upper impeller chamber through the feeding hole and middling hole on the
central cylinder; diameters of the feeding hole and middling hole can meet the
requirements for the processing capacity of the flotation machine. Upon the
geometrical analysis and calculation on the areas of the feeding hole, middling
hole and upper opening of the impeller, the diameters of the feeding hole and
middling hole are determined comprehensively.
Fig. 7.9 Stator shape of BF

flotation cell (α—angle of
the stator cone disc;
β—stator blade inclination
D—stator diameter; d—inner
diameter of stator blade;
H—height of stator blade)
(4) Suction pipe: The suction pipe is the passage for air to enter into the impeller of
the flotation machine; the inner diameter of the suction pipe not only affects the
suction rate of the flotation machine, but also affects the power consumption of
the flotation machine. A variety of factors should be analyzed comprehensively
in order to determine the inner diameter of the suction pipe, including the
vacuum degree to be achieved by the impeller of the flotation machine, air
amount required in the flotation process, etc. In the process of amplifying the
automatic suction flotation machine, the vacuum degree that can be achieved
by the flotation machine is basically consistent; it is assumed that the velocity
of the air is the same in the suction pipe and the inner diameter of the suction
pipe is calculated based on the required suction rate, upon the consideration
of installing a butterfly valve on the upper end of the suction pipe to control
the air amount of the flotation machine in the industrial production, the inner
diameter of the suction pipe should be amplified appropriately.
(5) False bottom and tube of the flotation machine (as shown in Fig. 7.10): The
combination of the false bottom and tube can make the flotation machine
produce a large lower circulation so that the no deposition occurs at the bottom
of the tank of the flotation machine at a low speed; when the volume of the
Fig. 7.10 False bottom and tube of BF flotation cell (1. Tube 2. False bottom)
flotation machine is constant, the depth of the tank may be increased appropri-
ately in order to reduce the length and width of the flotation tank as well as the
floor space; the conflict between a small suction rate and moderate agitation
intensity can be solved in a better way by the addition of a false bottom; the
false bottom can reduce the wearing of the bottom of the flotation tank and
extend the service life of the flotation machine.
The height H of the false bottom must ensure that sufficient amount of pulp can
pass through the gap between the false bottom and the bottom of the tank and enter
the lower circulation through the tube. Studies have shown that a mixing-type tube
can properly ensure the suspension of coarse particle minerals, while the flotation
indicators and power consumption are basically unchanged.
7.1.2.2 Performance of the BF-1.2 Flotation Machine
(1) Dynamic performance
The main technical performance of the BF-1.2 flotation machine is shown in Table
7.1. The actual power consumption of the BF-1.2 flotation machine is lower than
that of the 5A flotation machine and the SF-1.2 flotation machine; moreover, its
suction rate is increased. It is also indicated that when the pulp concentration under
processing is not high (<30 ~ 32%), such as roughing and scavenging of copper and
molybdenum ores, DC and fine separation, the 4.0 kW motor may be considered for
use.
(2) Process indicators
As an improved model of the SF flotation machine, a parallel comparison and analysis

is carried out between the SF-1.2 flotation machine that has been mature and widely
applied in the production practice, and the improved BF-1.2 flotation machine at a
certain copper concentrator.
The result of comparison in Table 7.2 shows that compared with the SF-1.2 flota-
tion machine, under the same feeding grade and similar feeding fineness, concentra-
tion and fine ore fineness, the recovery rate of the copper concentrate of the BF-1.2
Table 7.1 Main technical performance of SF-1.2 flotation machine, 5A flotation machine and
BF-1.2 flotation machine
Flotation Dimensions Production Effective Installed Actual power Suction rate
machine of the capacity volume power consumption (m3 /m2 min−1 )
flotation (m3 /min) (m3 ) (kW) per unit
machine volume
(length x (kW/m3 )
width x
height mm)
5A 1100 × 0.6 ~ 1.6 1.1 5.5 4.50 0.6 ~ 0.8
1100 ×
1000
SF-1.2 1100 × 0.6 ~ 1.6 1.2 5.5 4.41 0.9 ~ 1.0
1100 ×
1100
BF-1.2 1100 × 0.6 ~ 1.6 1.2 5.5(4.0) 3.46 1.0 ~ 1.1
1100 ×
1100
flotation machine is improved by 2.50% and the test indicators are consistent with
the production indicators.
It can be seen from the result of comparison in Table 7.3 that under the same condi-
tions, the power consumption of the BF-1.2 flotation machine is saved by 21.55% than
that of the SF-1.2 flotation machine. In the comparison test, the 3# flotation machine
(BF-1.2) for the 1series of coarse separation is installed with a 4.0 kW motor, with
the average load current of 8.0A and the maximum current of 8.87A; therefore, it
is completely feasible to provide a BF-1.2 flotation machine with a 4.0 kW motor
with the rated current of 9.4A. Generally speaking, the pulp suction tank requires
a relatively high current; so except the pulp suction tank, a 4.0 kW motor can be
provided.
It can be seen from the result of comparison that under the same impeller speed and
impeller diameter and similar feeding grade, concentration and fineness conditions,
the BF-1.2 flotation machine can achieve better indicators of its kind than those of
the SF-1.2 flotation machine. It shows that the BF-1.2 flotation machine has superior
technical performance, high separation efficiency and strong adaptability, which is
the ideal energy-saving automatic suction flotation equipment.
7.1.2.3 Performance of the BF-40 Flotation Machine
The BF-40 flotation machine is the largest automatic suction mechanical agitation
flotation machine among the BF series of flotation machines. When the structure of
the flotation machine is determined, the performance of the BF-40 automatic suction
mechanical agitation flotation machine may be affected by the impeller speed and the
impeller immersion depth. In the dynamic performance test, three impeller speeds
224
Table 7.2 Comparison of industrial production indicators

Model Processing Fineness Concentration (%) Copper grade (%) Recovery
capacity (t) (-0.074 mm%) Raw ore Coarse and fine Concentrate Tailings
SF-1.2 2103.672 62.3 31.2 1.12 4.94 18.52 0.098 91.77
BF-1.2 2090.168 62.9 31.7 1.12 5.10 18.08 0.069 94.27
Difference (BF-SF) −13.504 +0.6 +0.5 0 +0.16 −0.44 −0.029 +2.50
Production 4193.384 60.04 / 1.054 / 18.15 0.082 92.64
indicators (1 series
+ 2 series)
7 BGRIMM Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
Table 7.3 Comparison of load currents of flotation machines

Model Effective volume (m3 ) Installed power (kW) Load current (A)
SF-1.2 1.2 5.5 10.58
BF-1.2 1.2 5.5(4.0)* 8.30
Power saving (SF-BF) /SF = 21.55%
*The 5.5 kW motor is installed in suction tank, the 4.0 kW motor is installed in free-flow tank
Table 7.4 Dynamic performance of the BF-40 flotation machine

Impeller speed (rpm) 145 151 157
Impeller immersion depth (mm) 1115 1215 1115 1195 1215 1115 1195 1215
Suction rate (m3 /m2 min−1 ) 0.97 0.74 1.18 1.06 0.96 1.20 1.09 1.08
Current (A) 105 109 114 118 113 118 119 118
Air holding capacity (%) 7.08 6.91 7.97 6.95 7.58 8.19 8.46 8.00
Air dispersion 2.11 1.75 2.12 2.03 2.53 1.61 1.72 1.68
Note: 1. Air dispersion = average aeration rate/(maximum aeration rate − minimum aeration rate);
2. The current of the flotation machine shown in the table is the average value of three phases
(145, 151 and 157 rpm) and three impeller immersion depth (1115 mm, 1195 mm
and 1215 mm) are tested; the indicators to be tested include the suction rate, power
of the flotation machine (current), air holding capacity, air dispersion, etc.; results
are shown in Table 7.4.
It can be seen from Table 7.4 that the actual power consumption of the flotation
machine is less than 60 kW, which meets the design requirement. Judging from the
suction rate and air dispersion, when the impeller speed is 151 rpm, the suction rate is
about 1 m3 /m2 min−1 and the air dispersion is greater than 2; so it is a relatively ideal
result. Combined with the working principle of the flotation machine, based on the
theory of similar amplification and upon the comprehensive application of geometry
similarity, dynamic similarity and movement similarity method, the developed BF-40
flotation machine can meet the design requirements.
7.1.2.4 Performance of the BF-T16 Flotation Machine
The BF-T flotation machine is the efficient separation equipment that is developed and
improved by Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy to specially
meet the process characteristics of large specific gravity and easy deposition on the
bottom of the tank in the reverse flotation of the iron concentrates; the design is
optimized based on the special process conditions for the reverse flotation of iron
concentrates to achieve a superior technical performance of the whole machine.
Followed by the advantages of the BF flotation machine, the BF-T flotation machine
is improved based on the process characteristics of the reverse flotation of iron
concentrate. The structures of its impeller and stator are different from those of the BF
flotation machine. The impeller of the BF-T flotation machine is designed as a closed
structure with a double cone disc to increase the volume in the impeller chamber,
which is divided into the upper impeller chamber and lower impeller chamber; the
stator is designed with a structure of cone disc type forward blades; due to the organic
matching between them, the BF-T flotation machine achieves the advanced overall
technical performance and significant power saving effect. Moreover, the pulp in the
tank is circulated at the lower part, which can solve issues of the previous flotation
machine properly, such as easy deposition on the bottom of the tank, instable level
and difficult adjustment of aeration rate. Performance parameters of the BF-T16
flotation machine are shown in Table 7.5.
Dong’anshan Sintering Plant of Ansteel processed the Anshan type martite. In 2003,
Dong’anshan Sintering Plant carried out the process and equipment transforma-
tion by use of “two-stage continuous grinding, middling re-grinding, re-selection—
magnetic separation—anion reverse flotation process”; the BF-T16 flotation machine
was applied in the reverse flotation operation; after the transformation, the iron
concentrate grade was higher than 66% and the tailing grade was reduced to about
19.53%.
The raw material of Jianshan Iron Mie of Taiyuan Iron & Steel (Group) Co., Ltd.
was the Anshan type sedimentary metamorphic type of poor magnetite. In 2003,
Jianshan Iron Min carried out the mineral processing transformation by use of “stage
grinding, weak magnetic separation, anion reverse flotation process”; the BF-T16
and BF-T10 flotation machine unit was applied in the reverse flotation operation;
before the transformation, the concentrate grade was about 65.5% and the content of
SiO2 was about 8%; after the transformation, the following indicators were received:
the concentrate iron grade after flotation was higher than 68.9% and the content of
SiO2 was reduced below 4% and the recovery rate of the reverse flotation operation
was about 98.5%.
7.1.3 GF Flotation Machine
The GF mechanical agitation flotation machine is an efficient, energy-saving and

automatic air suction flotation machine that is developed successfully by Beijing
General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy [11–13]. The GF flotation
machine is the flotation equipment that is developed based on solving the weak
suspension capability and other problems that are encountered in the separation
process of coarse and heavy minerals by BF flotation machine. The GF flotation
machine has solved the flotation problem of multiple heavy minerals with the content
of gold, silver, etc. successfully; therefore, it is suitable for medium and small size
enterprises for the separation of non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals, precious metals
Table 7.5 Table of performance parameters of the BF-T16 flotation machine
Flotation machine Dimensions of the Production Effective volume Installed power Actual power Suction rate Circulation rate
model flotation machine capacity (m3 /min) (m3 ) (kW) consumption per (m3 /m2 min−1 ) (m3 /min)
(length × width × (calculated based unit volume
height mm) on the pulp) (kW/m3 )
BF-T16 2850 × 3800 × 5~16 16 45 2.08 0.9~1.1 40
1700
7.1 SF, BF and GF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machines
227
and non-metallic minerals. The size range of particles that can be processed by this
machine is 0.074 mm, accounting for 48% ~ 90%; the pulp concentration is <45%.
It is designed with upper blades and lower blades; the upper blades are used for air
pumping and absorbing, feeding and middling; the lower blades are used for forming
the pulp circulation at the bottom; the stator is provided with corner blades which are
used for stabilizing and guiding the pulp flow; and thus the stabilizer is cancelled.
All of these ensure that the GF flotation machine can have good pulp circulation in
the tank and uniform size distribution on both the upper part and the lower part; the
level is stable and the pulp does not spin in the tank; the separation area and the level
are stable, without turning phenomenon; with high separation efficiency, it is good
for improving the recovery rate of coarse particles and fine particles; the energy is
saved by about 20%.
7.1.3.1 Working Principle and Key Structures
The structure of the GF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 7.11. It is mainly composed
of the impeller, stator, spindle, central cylinder, tank body and bearing block. The
entire impeller mechanism is installed on the tank body frame.
When the impeller rotates, the negative pressure is formed in the central area
of the upper blades of the impeller; under the action of such negative pressure,
the air pumping, air absorbing, feeding and middling are processed and both
the air and pulp enter the gap between the upper blades simultaneously; at the
same time, the pulp is absorbed and pumped from the bottom of the tank by
the lower blades; so the pulp enters the gap between the lower blades; both
Fig. 7.11 Structure of GF

flotation cell
the upstream of pulp flow and the downstream of the pulp flow are mixed in
the central part of the blades, which continuously flow to the periphery of the
impeller; the mixture of pulp and air passes through the stator after leaving the
impeller, which is stabilized and guided by the corner blades on the stator; after
that, the mixture enters the main pulp in the tank; mineralized bubbles rise to
the surface to form the froth layer; one part of the pulp in the tank returns to
the lower blades of the impeller for re-circulation; the other part of the pulp
enters the next tank for re-separation or removal.
(2) Key structures
1. Tank body
The tank body shape of the GF flotation machine may change along with
the volume of the flotation machine. A rectangular tank body is used for
the flotation machine with the volume less than 1m3 ; a polygon tank body
is used for the flotation machine with the volume greater than 1m3 . In this
way, it can effectively avoid the accumulation of ore sand and facilitate
the movement of coarse and heavy mineral particles towards the centre of
the tank so as to return to the impeller area for re-circulation and reduce
the phenomenon of pulp short circuit.
2. Impeller
In a conventional flotation machine, the pulp circulation route in the tank is
as follows: The pulp passes through the impeller from the bottom to reach
the tank wall and then returns to the bottom of the tank. Therefore, there is a
pulp circulation area without air injection at the bottom of the tank; so this
area does not participate in the flotation process. This results in reducing
the effective utilization factor of the tank body volume and decreasing the
flotation probability of large minerals moving axially along the bottom of
the tank body, so that the production efficiency of the flotation machine
is decreased. The GF flotation machine requires both air suction and pulp
circulation. For this purpose, the impeller that is composed of the dividing
disc, upper blade and lower blades is specially used, as shown in Fig. 7.12
in order to ensure the sufficient suspension of minerals and full distribution
Fig. 7.12 Rotor of GF

Flotation cell
Fig. 7.13 Stator of GF

Flotation cell
of bubbles in all pulp at the time of air suction, so that it can achieve a
high flotation probability in the tank.
3. Stator
Firstly, for main functions of the stator, it must be able to convert the
tangentially rotating pulp flow that is produced by the impeller into the
radial pulp flow, prevent the pulp from spinning in the flotation tank,
promote the formation of stable froth layer and help the pulp re-circulation
in the tank. Secondly, a strong shearing force annular area is formed around
the impeller and between the stator blades to promote the formation of fine
bubbles; The GF flotation machine is provided with a stator with corner
blades, as shown in Fig. 7.13. The radial clearance between the stator and
impeller is large; the pulp at the periphery of the lower part of the stator can
flow over a large area in order to eliminate the unnecessary disturbance
against pulp by the lower parts, and reduce the power consumption and
enhance the circulation and suspension of solid particles in the lower
circulation area of the tank. The mixture of pulp and air that is thrown out
from the impeller may enter the pulp smoothly to make the air dispersed
properly.
Main features of this type of machine are it is designed with double pulp circulation in
the tank, automatic air suction, automatic pulp suction and horizontal arrangement;
a froth pump is unnecessary; the radial clearance between the impeller and stator is
not strictly required; the suction rate does not change significantly along with the
increase of the grinding clearance; the pulp in the tank is circulated in the upper part
and the lower part based on a fixed flow method, which is good for suspension of
coarse mineral particles.
The volume of GF flotation machine varies in the range of 0.35 ~ 42 m3 ; its
technical parameters are shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6 Technical

Specification Effective Installed power Suction rate
parameters of GF flotation
volume
machine
m3 kW m3 /m2 min−1
GF-0.35 0.35 1.5 1.2
GF-0.7 0.7 3 1.2
GF-1.1 1.1 5 1.2
GF-2 2 7.5 1.2
GF-3 3 11 1.2
GF-4 4 15 1.2
GF-6 6 22 1.2
GF-8 8 30 1.2
GF-10 10 30 1.2
GF-16 16 45 1.2
GF-20 20 45 1.2
GF-24 24 55 1.2
GF-28 28 55 1.2
GF-42 42 75 1.2
7.1.3.2 Performance of the GF-1.1 Flotation

The GF-1.1 flotation machine is a mechanical agitation flotation machine that
is suitable for medium and small size concentrators; it may be used for the
separation of non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals and non-metallic minerals.
The production capacity that is calculated based on the pulp volume is 0.15 ~
1 m3 /min. Generally speaking, the size range of selected materials is 0.01 ~
0.03 mm; the content of particles with the mesh of −200 accounts for about 50–
90%. The GF-1.1 flotation machine has the ability of automatic pulp suction;
generally, it can be arranged in a plane layout; the middling can be returned
without the need of the froth pump.
1. Suction rate
For a mechanical agitation flotation machine, its separation performance
directly depends on the suction rate. For the GF-1.1 flotation machine, its
automatic suction rate is 1.23 m3 /m2 min−1 in clean water or 1.1 m3 /m2
min−1 in pulp; But for the 5A flotation machine with the same volume, the
suction rate is only 0.82 m3 /m2 min−1 in pulp; the significant improvement
of the suction rate lays a good foundation for improving the separation
performance of the GF flotation machine.
2. Power consumption
The power consumption is a very important factor in production and oper-
ation costs of medium and small size mines. And the design guiding
Table 7.7 Comparison of power consumption between GF flotation machine and 5A flotation
machine
Flotation Effective tank Installed power Actual power consumption
machine volume (m3 ) (Kw) Concentration Rough
scavenging
GF 1.1 5.5 3.57 3.93
5A 1.1 5.5 4.6 5.23
ideology of the GF flotation machine is to minimize the power consump-

tion during the operation. Upon the actual measurement, the comparison
of power consumption between GF-1.1 flotation machine and 5A flotation
machine is shown in Table 7.7.
It can be seen from Table 7.7 that for the roughing and scavenging oper-
ations, the power consumption per tank of GF-1.1 flotation machine is
saved by 1.3 kW than that of 5A flotation machine; for the concentration
operation, the power can be saved by 1.03 kW.
3. Wearing conditions
The peripheral speed of the impeller of the flotation machine directly
affects the service life of its consumable parts. The peripheral speed of
the impeller of the GF-1.1 flotation machine is only 7.23 m/s; and the
peripheral speed of the impeller of the 5A flotation machine is 8.6 m/s;
the low peripheral speed of impeller provides a reliable guarantee for the
GF flotation machine to extend the service life of its consumable parts
and reduce the consumption of spare parts. According to the calculation,
the service life of its consumable parts can be extended to over two times
of that of the 5A flotation machine.
4. Separation performance
The GF-1.1 flotation machine is designed with a unique impeller–stator
structure. The impeller is designed with upper blades and lower blades.
The upper blades are used for air pumping and absorbing, feeding and
middling, while the lower blades are used for forming the pulp circulation
at the bottom. The stator is provided with corner blades which are used for
stabilizing and guiding the pulp flow; and thus the stabilizer is cancelled.
All this guarantees that the GF flotation machine has good separation
performance for gold and silver mines.

The GF-1.1 flotation machine was used for roughing and scavenging operations
and the GF-0.35 flotation machine was used for concentration operation in a
gold mine in Shandong. When the raw ore grade is 3.07 g/t and the grinding
fineness is −0.07 mm, which accounts for 75%, based on the production by the
GF flotation machine, the concentrate grade is 43.64 g/t and the recovery rate
is 94.3%, which is improved by 1% according to the comparison with the XJK
flotation machine that is used in the previous process before transformation.
7.1.3.3 Fluid Dynamics of the GF-24 Flotation Machine
The fluid dynamic performance of the GF-24 flotation machine is studied by use
of CFD and test research method. The 3D streamline diagram of the GF flotation
machine is shown in Fig. 7.14, which directly reflects the 3D flow status of the
pulp in the GF flotation machine. The pulp-streamline flows out from the stator
blade after stabilizing and forms a number of upwards flow circulations in the tank
body; the number of circulations is equivalent to the number of passages between
stator blades. The central section streamline diagram of the GF flotation machine is
shown in Fig. 7.15. The GF flotation machine forms a significant circulation flow
field structure, which is divided into the upper circulation and lower circulation. The
Fig. 7.14 Three-dimensional streamline of GF flotation cell
Fig. 7.15 Centre section streamline of GF flotation cell

Fig. 7.16 Cross-sectional velocity nephogram of GF flotation cell
circulation flow field structure is the most basic and important flow feature of the
flotation machine; the radial impeller is always designed and characterized by the
upper and the lower flow circulations.
The cross-sectional velocity cloud chart of the GF flotation machine is shown in
Fig. 7.16. The high-speed pulp flow that is thrown out of the impeller area is converted
gradually into the radial flow in the passage between blades under the strong force
of the corner blades. This means that the special stator structure of the GF flotation
machine has a significant effect on guiding and stabilizing the flow, which plays an
important role in forming a stable separation area.
The pressure distribution on the impeller blades of the GF flotation machine is
shown in Fig. 7.17. It can be seen that the largest negative pressure area in the whole
impeller area is formed in the centre of upper blades, which is the driven force to
pump the middling and absorbing the air. Therefore, the blade design on the GF
impeller reaches the desired design target. The distribution characteristics of the
pressure field are also important for judging the wearing tendency of the equipment
during operation. The distribution of the pulp suction velocity at the pulp suction
nozzle of the central cylinder of the GF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 7.18. Due
to the suction effect of upper blades, the middling will be sucked into the flotation
machine. It can be seen from the speed distribution diagram that the suction speed
has a certain fluctuation; the overall average value is about 2.3 m/s; the aeration rate
is 10 m3 /min; this test result is matched.
Fig. 7.17 Pressure distribution in impeller area of GF flotation cell
Fig. 7.18 Suction velocity at suction port of central cylinder of GF flotation cell
The turbulent dissipation rate distribution of the central section of the GF flotation
machine is shown in Fig. 7.19. The turbulent dissipation rate is of great significance
for the collision mineralization theory of particles. It is very important for a flotation
machine to control the agitation intensity in the flotation machine. The turbulent
dissipation rate distribution greatly reflects the agitation intensity of the equipment; a
proper agitation angle is of important significance for the suspension and separation of
mineral particles. It can be seen from the figure that the largest turbulence dissipation
Fig. 7.19 Dissipation rate distribution of turbulent flow in the centre section of GF flotation cell
rate is shown in the impeller area; it is small in other areas; this is consistent with
the flotation theory.
7.1.3.4 Performance of the GF-40 Flotation Machine
The GF-40 flotation machine is widely used in the positive flotation operation of
bauxite; the required aeration rate is generally about 0.1–0.3 m3 /m2 min− 1 . When
the flotation machine is loaded for operation, the froth layer of the bauxite is thick,
so it is not convenient for measurement. Therefore, the dynamic parameters of this
series of flotation machines under clean water conditions are examined (Table 7.8).
The flotation froth from the bauxite is fine with high viscosity; the froth in the froth
tank is not easy to be broken; moreover, the froth volume and the process circulation
rate are large, so it is difficult to transport the froth; therefore, it is necessary to use
the GF flotation machine with sufficiency capacity of pulp suction in order to ensure
the smooth process.
(2) Pulp suspension capacity
In order to examine the pulp suspension capacity of the GF-40 flotation machine,
samples are taken and analyzed from five pulp layers, respectively, at the depth of
Table 7.8 Dynamic

Type of Flotation Machine GF-40
parameters of the GF-40
flotation machine Average aeration rate Q 0.27
Maximum aeration rate Qmax 0.3
Minimum aeration rate Qmin 0.21
Air dispersion 3
Table 7.9 Analysis of pulp size at different depths of the tank

Depth to the weir 1.0 m (%) 1.5 m (%) 2.0 m (%) 2.5 m (%) 3.0 m (%0
Size fraction/μm Pulp 30.72 30.97 31.10 29.48 30.92
concentration %
+88 Productivity 1.86 1.43 1.31 1.42 1.22
−88 ~+74 Productivity 6.13 6.56 6.04 6.41 6.46
−74~+53 Productivity 14.59 15.30 16.05 16.76 17.45
−53~+45 Productivity 5.32 6.48 6.16 5.79 5.62
−45~+37 Productivity 7.23 8.49 7.62 7.97 7.60
−37 Productivity 64.87 61.74 62.82 61.65 61.65
Cumulative Productivity 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
1.0 m, 1.5 m, 2.0 m, 2.5 m and 3.0 m below the weir during the flotation operation
process of the bauxite. The analysis result is shown in Table 7.9. It can be seen
that the pulp concentrations of 5 layers in the tank body are all about 30% and the
yield of the minerals with the size of −74 μm of each layer is about 92%, which
means that the bauxite pulp is generally distributed evenly in the tank body of the GF
flotation machine, without significant stratification of particles; it indicates that the
pulp suspension capacity of this type of flotation machine is good after operation,
which meets the design requirements and can provide favourable flotation conditions
for the positive flotation of the bauxite.
In a certain bauxite mine, the combined unit of the GF-40 flotation machines is used
to achieve the positive flotation production of bauxite; the whole equipment runs
reliably, with stable pulp level. With the strong agitation capability, a suspension
layer can be formed on the upper and middle part of the flotation machine; the froth
layer is stable, without the phenomenon of turning and sinking; the process indicators
are shown in Fig. 7.20.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.20 that the indicators of the concentrator are good, the
A/S ratio of the raw ore has improved from 5.31 to 9.33 for the concentrate; the
average grade of Al2 O3 concentrate is up to 69.70% and the average recovery rate
is up to 66.51%; the final indicators of mineral dressing can fully meet the design
requirements of the concentrator.
Since the 1980s, Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy has
developed the SF, BF and GF mechanical agitation flotation machines successively,
which have been applied in a variety of non-ferrous mines to properly promote
the efficient development of mineral resources and advancement of technology for
Fig. 7.20 Comparative analysis of raw ore and concentrate indexes
7.2 JJF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
JJF flotation machine is a mechanical agitation flotation machine that is developed by

Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy [14, 15]. This machine
is one of the mechanical agitation flotation machines that are widely applied in
China presently; the volume of a single tank is up to 320 m3 ; it is mainly used for
the separation of metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals with a wide range of
requirements for aeration rate, such as copper and molybdenum.
7.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures
The JJF flotation machine is a mechanical agitation flotation machine that is designed
with a large lower circulation for the pulp in the tank. Its structure is shown in
Fig. 7.21. It is mainly composed of the impeller, stator, disperser cover, vertical
cylinder, spindle, bearing seat, tank body, etc.
When the impeller rotates, the pulp near the periphery of the impeller can
produce a liquid vortex, the gas–liquid interface of which is extended upwards
to the inner wall of the vertical cylinder and extended downwards to the tube
through the impeller centre; a negative pressure area is established in the centre
of the vortex; its negative pressure mainly depends on the impeller speed and
the impeller immersion depth. The vertical cylinder is connected with the
surrounding air, so the air is sucked into the vertical cylinder and impeller centre
to complete the air suction under the negative pressure formed by the vortex. At
the same time, the pulp enters the clearance between impeller blades upwards
through the tube at the bottom of the tank to mix with the air that is sucked
7.2 JJF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine 239
Fig. 7.21 Structure of JJF flotation cell
into the impeller centre. The three-phase mixture leaves the radial impeller
blades with a large tangential and radial momentum; when it passes through
the passage on the stator, the tangential flow is converted into the radial flow;
and at the same time, a local turbulence field is established to make the air and
pulp mixed in further. The three-phase mixture enters the flotation area after
leaving the stator, where the flotation and separation process is completed;
the mineralized bubbles rise to the froth area and the remaining pulp flows
downwards to the bottom of the tank for re-circulation.
(2) Key structures
1. Impeller
The impeller of the JJF flotation machine is the I-shaped impeller with
radial radiation blades, as shown in Fig. 7.22. The impeller is designed
with a symmetrical structure longitudinally, which can be changed with
Fig. 7.22 Rotor of JJF

flotation cell
Fig. 7.23 Stator of JJF

flotation cell
each other. The upper part of the impeller is used for suction, so it is
worn slightly; the top of the upper blades is the key part for automatic
air suction, so it is designed with a widened diameter in order to improve
the suction capacity through a large linear velocity. The lower blades are
used for agitating pulp. The bottom of the lower blades is the key part for
agitating and pumping pulp, so it is designed with a widened diameter
in order to improve the agitation and pumping capacity through a large
linear velocity. Upon the symmetrical design, the impeller can be turned
for use, so that it can extend its service life.
2. Stator
The stator is designed with a large flow passage and high stable flow,
as shown in Fig. 7.23. The stator is designed with a cylindrical profile;
it is designed with horseshoe-shaped cylinders which are distributed at
intervals to form an elongated flow passage along the circumferential
distribution. The flat steel is designed with intervals along the longitudinal
direction; associated with the horseshoe-shaped cylinder, a number of
independent big-hole deep flow passages are formed in order to achieve
the efficient and stable flow of the fluid and the large velocity gradient near
the flow passage to promote the production of micro-bubbles. This type of
stator can effectively suppress the circumferential flow in the tank, so that
the stabilizer on the tank wall of the flotation machine may be cancelled.
3. Disperser cover
The disperser cover is designed in a cone shape; small holes are uniformly
distributed on its surface; it is used for dispersing air and pulp and stabi-
lizing the level. For the JJF flotation machine, its impeller is installed on
a high position, so the immersion depth is shallow; therefore, it is easy to
cause level fluctuation after the pulp is thrown out, so that it cannot ensure a
good flotation environment. The disperser cover is used for stabilizing the
pulp level, maintaining a relatively static separation area and completing
the transition of the pulp from a strong mixing area to a relatively static
separation area in order to make mineralized bubbles rise to the froth area
in a relatively uniform manner.
4. Tank body
The JJF flotation machine with a small volume is generally designed with
a square tank body and the false bottom and tube device are provided under
the tank. There is a gap between the false bottom and the bottom of the
tank; the false bottom is fixed on the bottom of the tank; and there is a pulp
circulation hole on the false bottom. The tube is located at the centre of
the tank body and fixed on the false bottom; the adjustable ring is installed
on the tube and matched with the lower part of the impeller. When the
adjustable ring is worn, the axial dimension between the adjustable ring
and the impeller may be adjusted. The false bottom and tube device are
used for leading the circulation pulp into the impeller and promoting the
large circulation of pulp, which is good for circulating mineral particles
at the lower part of the tank and preventing deposition on the bottom of
the tank.
The JJF flotation machines with the volume of 50 m3 or above are generally designed
with a cylindrical tank body. The bottom of the tank is designed with a cone-shaped
bottom, which is good for coarse mineral particles to return to the middle part of the
bottom of the tank for re-circulation; the conical bubble pusher is designed in the
tank to accelerate the recovery of froth.
At present, the JJF flotation machines for industrial application are designed with
a volume range of 1 ~ 320 m3 ; technical parameters of main models are shown in
Table 7.10; the JJF flotation machines with the volume less than 1 m3 are mainly
applied for the kinetics performance test of the flotation machine and the lab test of
the concentrator.
Table 7.10 Technical

Specification Effective Installed power Suction rate
parameters of JJF flotation
volume
machine
m3 kW m3 /m2 min−1
JJF-1 1 5.5 1.0
JJF-2 2 7.5 1.0
JJF-3 3 11 1.0
JJF-4 4 15/11 1.0
JJF-8 8 30/22 1.0
JJF-16 16 45/37 1.0
JJF-24 24 45/37 1.0
JJF-42 42 90/75 1.0
JJF-130 130 160 1.0
JJF-200 200 220 1.0
JJF-320 320 280 1.0
7.2.2 Analysis of Dynamic Performance of the JJF Flotation

Machine
7.2.2.1 Performance of the JJF-0.2 Flotation Machine
(1) Fluid state analysis of the flotation machine
The fluid state is the foundation for the fluid dynamics and flotation dynamics of a
flotation machine. The fluid state of the JJF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 7.24;
an upper part of circulation flow is formed outside the disperser cover; the liquid
phase is mainly thrown out from the central part of the impeller. The circulation in
the upper part of the tank body is a circulation that is formed in the tank body because
the radial flow is thrown out obliquely upwards to the wall surface after stabilizing
through the stator and disperser cover, which is opposite to the froth flow direction
in the flotation process. A lower circulation flow with a wide range of influence is
formed at the lower and middle part of the tank body. Due to the design of the false
bottom and the reverse flow cylinder, pulp is forced to enter the lower part of the
impeller through the passages of the false bottom and tank body.
Vapour entrainment is one of the core functions for a mechanical agitation flotation
machine. The air content cloud chart in a vertical plane is shown in Fig. 7.25. The
dispersion of air phase is consistent with the phenomenon that is observed in the
laboratory, which is mainly distributed in the tank body at the disperser cover area
and above; at the same time, some air can also be able to reach the middle and lower
Fig. 7.24 Pulp flow pattern in JJF flotation cell

Fig. 7.25 Vertical plane gas holdup nephogram in JJF flotation cell
part of the tank body. The liquid phase can form a vortex properly in the vertical
cylinder, which is consistent with the experimental phenomenon. Liquid flows into
the vertical cylinder through the gap between the impeller and stator; under the action
of centrifugal force and gravity, the water head is increased gradually up to the top
of the vertical cylinder as a maximum; and then it is dropped down under the action
of gravity; together with some air, it is fallen down on the upper end surface of the
impeller; and then it is thrown out to the periphery by the rotating impeller to achieve
the air entrainment and dispersion and thus realize the automatic air suction. Air is
mainly jetted out through the upper exhaust hole of the disperser cover; at the same
time, it is sufficiency mixed with the liquid phase in the small holes between the
stator and disperser cover to form small bubbles.
The air content cloud chart of the cross-section of the impeller is shown in
Fig. 7.26. It can be seen from the analysis that when h = 0 m (defined as close to the
bottom of the impeller), basically little air enters the circulation cylinder from the
tank body; a small amount of air is accumulated on the back surface of the impeller;
the front surface of the impeller is covered with a large amount of water; when h =
0.03 m, it can be seen that the air content in the impeller chamber has reached to
a certain value and the air content is distributed in a relative uniform manner; it is
increased rapidly along with the increase of the height; when h = 0.09 m, it reaches
the maximum value; after that, it is decreased along with the increase of h; from
another side, it is proved that the mixture flow of air and liquid is exhausted from the
central part of the impeller.
Fig. 7.26 Cloud chart of gas holdup on cross section of rotor (H = 0 is located at the lower end
face of impeller) in JJF flotation cell
(2) Hydrodynamic performance of the impeller
The impeller is the core of a flotation machine; different structures of impellers

may reflect different dynamics performance. Different impeller structures are shown
in Fig. 7.27. The wing impeller, I-shaped impeller, convex impeller and standard
impeller is compared and analyzed under different immersion depth conditions, as
shown from Figs. 7.28, 7.29, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32 and 7.33. It can be seen that the impeller
with large suction rate changes under different immersion depths. In terms of suction
rate, the wing impeller, I-shaped impeller and convex impeller show a better tendency
than that of the standard impeller. In terms of power consumption, those three new
(a) V-shaped impeller (b) Wing impeller
(a) I-shaped impeller (b) Convex impeller
Fig. 7.27 Impeller structure design of JJF flotation cell
Fig. 7.28 Comparison of

air-suction rate of different
impellers in immersion depth
40 mm

power consumption of
different impellers in
immersion depth 40 mm

70 mm

impellers also show a better tendency than that of the standard impeller; it means
that there is a certain advantage in the circulation rate.

100 mm

7.2.2.2 Performance of the JJF-0.0.3 Flotation Machine
(1) Clean water kinetics test
The clean water kinetics test is carried out for the I-shaped impeller and wing impeller
in a 30L flotation machine in order to compare their performance. Based on a nominal
diameter of the impeller of ϕ 80 mm, the clean water dynamics test is carried out, as
shown from Tables 7.11, 7.12 and 7.13. It can be seen from the data that the suction
rate of different impellers is different under different immersion depths. When the
immersion depth is large, the standard impeller will have a slightly large suction
Table 7.11 Comparison of clean water test data at the insertion depth of 10 mm and immersion
depth of 85 mm
746 rpm 891 rpm
Impeller Type Aeration rate Air dispersion Aeration rate Air dispersion
I-shaped impeller 0.38 2.75 0.42 4.03
Wing impeller 0.28 3.79 0.40 1.90
Standard impeller 0.44 1.86 0.56 2.02
depth of 50 mm
746 rpm 891 rpm
Impeller type Aeration rate Air dispersion Aeration rate Air dispersion
I-shaped impeller 0.74 3.258 0.87 3.59
Wing impeller 0.68 1.69 0.79 3.59
Standard impeller 0.668 1.24 0.86 2.76
depth of 50 mm
891 rpm/60hz 1110 rpm/75 (hz) 1256 rpm/85 (hz)
Impeller Aeration rate Air Aeration rate Air Aeration rate Air
type dispersion dispersion dispersion
I-shaped 0.76 4.93 0.86 2.45 1.06 2.57
impeller
Wing 0.77 3.41 0.93 7.08 1.03 3.78
impeller
Standard 0.67 2.59 0.84 5.87 0.97 5.87
impeller
rate; when the immersion depth is small, the I-shaped impeller and wing impeller
will have a relatively large suction rate. But the difference is not significant. The I-
shaped impeller and the wing impeller also show a certain advantage in terms of the
air dispersion. Due to the machining and testing errors, it is believed that three types of
impellers have equivalent clean water dynamics test performance. The suction rate is
required to be in the range of 0.7–1.2 m3 /m2 min− 1 for the ore-loaded test study; and
the suction capacity of the I-shaped impeller may be greater than 1.06 m3 /m2 min− 1 .
Therefore, the ore-loaded test study is based on the immersion depth of 50 mm.
(2) Verified by ore-loaded test
The JJF-0.03 flotation machine is used for the analysis of the ore-loaded test, as
shown in Fig. 7.34. The test system is shown in the figure. The agitation tank is used
for agitation and dosing; the high level flows to the 30 L flotation machine for the
flotation test.
The copper–nickel ore is used for the test; the collector is xanthate at 80 g/t; keep
agitating for 4 min; No. 2 oil is used as the frothing agent at 40 g/t; keep agitating
for 0.5 min.
JJF-0.03 flotation machine is designed with a round tank; the bubbles are
exhausted by use of the overflow; water is added in order to promote the froth
overflow for the time duration of 5min20s. For a single test, 9 kg ore sample with the
Fig. 7.34 Litres JJF

flotation cell
concentration about 25% is used; the concentrate and tailing are tested; the produc-
tivity is measured and thus the separation indicators are calculated. The test is carried
out twice in consideration of the repeatability.
In general, the data of the two ore-loaded tests is highly repetitive; what more
important is the productivity of wing impeller is significantly different in the first test.
It can be seen from results in Figs. 7.14 and 7.15 that I-shaped impeller shows the best
performance, followed by the standard impeller and the wing impeller (Tables 7.14
and 7.15).
Table 7.14 The first test

Impeller Product Weight/g Productivity/g Copper Copper Nickel Nickel
name (%) grade recovery grade recovery
rate rate
Standard Concentrate 1826.3 20.29 0.38 49.1 1.71 48.9
impeller Tailings 7173.7 79.71 0.1 50.9 0.46 51.1
Raw ore 9000 100.00 0.157 100 0.71 100
Wing Concentrate 739.2 8.21 0.4 31.2 1.63 28.8
Raw ore 9000 100.00 0.105 100 0.464 100
I-shaped Concentrate 1643 18.26 0.43 51.4 2.21 54.6
impeller Tailings 7357 81.74 0.091 48.6 0.41 45.3
Raw ore 9000 100.00 0.153 100 0.74 100
Table 7.15 The second test

Impeller Product Weight/g Productivity/g Copper Copper Nickel Nickel
name (%) grade recovery grade recovery
rate rate
Standard Concentrate 2195.6 24.40 0.41 65.08 1.87 63.29
Raw ore 9000 100.00 0.154 100 0.72 100
Wing Concentrate 1976 21.96 0.42 64.17 1.99 65.21
impeller Tailings 7023 78.04 0.066 35.83 0.3 34.88
Raw ore 9000 100.00 0.144 100 0.67 100
I-shaped Concentrate 2233.3 24.81 0.39 68.21 1.69 67.38
Raw ore 9000 100.00 0.142 100 0.62 100
7.2.2.3 Performance of the JJF-130 Flotation Machine
The flotation kinetics test of the JJF-130 flotation machine is carried out in the pulp,
in which relevant parameters such as the aeration rate, air dispersion degree, speed,
power, air holdup, etc. are mainly determined. For a specific impeller mechanism, the
impeller speed and the impeller immersion depth are two main operating parameters
that affect the suction rate, circulation rate and power. The relationship between
the impeller speed and the suction rate and the relationship between the impeller
immersion depth and the suction rate are shown, respectively, in Figs. 7.35 and 7.36.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.35 that based on a specific speed, when the impeller
immersion depth increases, the suction rate will be decreased, the power will be
increased and the level will be increased. It can be seen from Fig. 7.36 that based
on a specific immersion depth, when the impeller speed increases, it will cause
the obvious increase of the suction rate. Based on a specific impeller speed, when
the impeller immersion depth increases, the suction rate will be reduced. Based on
Fig. 7.35 Influence of rotor 130

speed and immersion depth
120
on power
110 510
460
100
410
90 360
80
70

between rotor speed,
immersion depth and
1.6
air-suction rate
1.4
1.2
1
510
460
0.8
410
360
0.6
Table 7.16 Result of kinetics test in pulp of the JJF-130 flotation machine
Serial No. 1 2 3 4
Aeration rate (m3 /m2 min−1 ) 0.78 0.86 0.95 1.04
Air dispersion 3.50 3.61 3.45 3.28
Motor power (kw) 104.2 100.3 98.5 96.8
Air holding capacity (%) 12.6 13.5 14.80 15.50
a specific impeller immersion depth, when the impeller speed increases, both the
suction rate and power will be increased.
The result of the kinetics test in pulp of the JJF-130 flotation machine is shown in
Table 7.16. In order to verify the kinetics properties of the JJF-130 flotation machine,
the kinetics test of the same flotation machine with the same volume is carried out
at the same position in the process by the same method before the commencement
of this test, the result of which is shown in Table 7.17.
The test result is analyzed as follows.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.37 that within this test range, when the suction rate
increases, the air dispersion degree will be firstly increased and then decreased. When
the JJF-130 flotation machine is loaded with minerals, its maximum air dispersion
Table 7.17 Result of kinetics test in pulp of the same flotation machine with the same volume
Serial No. 1 2 3 4
Air dispersion 3.73 3.82 3.62 3.02
Motor power (kw) 118.8 114.2 110.9 109.8
Air holdup 11.5 12.8 14.65 16.23

between air dispersion and
air-suction rate

between air hold and
air-suction rate
degree is 3.61; its minimum air dispersion degree is 3.28; for the same flotation
machine with the same volume, its maximum air dispersion degree is 3.82 and its
minimum air dispersion degree is 3.02. It can be seen that for the JJF-130 flotation
machine, its air is dispersed evenly and its aeration performance is better than that
of the same flotation machine with the same volume.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.38 that the maximum air holdup and the minimum
air holdup of the JJF-130 flotation machine are 15.5% and 12.6%, respectively; The
maximum air holdup and the minimum air holdup of the same flotation machine with
the same volume are 16.23% and 11.5%, respectively; the JJF-130 flotation machine
is basically equivalent to a certain foreign brand.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.39 that based on the comparison between the JJF-
130 flotation machine and the same flotation machine with the same volume, the
power consumption of both flotation machines will be decreased as the increase of
the aeration rate; moreover, the motor power consumption of the JJF-130 flotation
machine at the largest aeration rate is 96.85kw, which is less than the rated power
consumption and which is also 8.98% lower than the maximum power consumption
of the same flotation machine with the same volume, i.e. 106.4kw; it means that
the structure and strength of the flotation machine are designed reasonably and the
significant power saving effect is achieved from the flotation machine.

between power consumption
and air-suction rate
The industrial test is carried out at the copper-sulfide separation flotation section of a
certain concentrator. The JJF-130 flotation machine is used to substitute the previous
into the same flotation machine with the same volume; and the single-tank flotation
effect of the JJF-130 flotation machine is observed; the flotation indicators of a single
tank are compared with those of the flotation machine that is observed before the
test.
After the process testing and equipment commissioning stage, the JJF-130 flota-
tion machine enters the industrial test stage. Cumulative indicators of the industrial
test stage are shown in Table 7.18 and a comparison on the cumulative indicators
between JJF-130 flotation machine and the same flotation machine with the same
volume is performed, the result of which shows that in the same flotation work, based
on the equivalent raw ore grade, for the JJF-130 flotation machine, its concentrate
grade is 0.22% higher, its tailing grade is 0.07% lower, its recovery rate is 3.82%
Table 7.18 Comparison of production indicators

Item Raw ore Concentrate Tailings Cu Cu
Cu S Cu S Cu S recovery flotation
rate efficiency
% % % % % % % %
JJF-130 1.61 16.70 3.47 17.79 0.88 15.52 60.70 34.17
cumulative
indicators
Cumulative 1.59 16.30 3.25 16.50 0.95 14.61 56.88 30.47
indicators of
the same
flotation
machine
with the
same volume
Comparison 0.02 0.40 0.22 0.34 −0.07 0.91 3.82 3.70
higher and its flotation efficiency is 3.70% higher, than those of the same flotation
machine with the same volume.
For the JJF-200 large mechanical agitation flotation machine, when the main structure
of the flotation machine is determined, the flotation kinetics performance of the
flotation machine are mainly affected by the impeller speed and impeller immersion
depth; the number and size of the stabilizers may also greatly affect the flotation
kinetics. Relevant parameters such as the suction rate, air dispersion degree, power,
air holding volume and bubble diameter are mainly determined.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.40 that when the impeller immersion depth is constant,
the suction rate will be increased as the increase of the impeller speed; and moreover,
the change trend will be basically consistent. When the impeller speed is constant,
the suction rate will be increased as the decrease of the impeller immersion depth.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.41 that when the impeller immersion depth is constant,
the motor current will be increased as the increase of the impeller speed. When the
impeller speed is 109r/min, the motor current will not be changed as the change of
the impeller immersion depth; when the impeller speed is 113 r/min and 119 r/min,
the motor current will be increased as the increase of the impeller immersion depth.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.42 that when the speed is low (105 r/min), the air
dispersion degree will be greatly affected by the impeller immersion depth and will
be increased gradually as the increase of the impeller immersion depth; when the
impeller speed is high (≥109 r/min), the air dispersion degree will basically not be
affected by the impeller immersion depth.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.43 that when the impeller speed is 113 r/min, the air
dispersion degree will be greatly increased as the increase of the impeller immersion
depth without a stabilizer; when there is a stabilizer, the difference between air

between rotor speed and 1.6
air-suction rate at the same
1.4
immersion depth
1.2
1.0
0.8
170mm
0.6
220mm
0.4
320mm
0.2
370mm
0.0
Fig. 7.41 Relationship between rotor speed and motor current in different immersion depth
Fig. 7.42 Relationship between rotor immersion depth and air dispersion in different rotor speeds
Fig. 7.43 Relationship between air dispersion and rotor immersion depth in different baffles
dispersion degrees under different impeller immersion depths is small. It is shown

that the existence of the stabilizer has a significant impact on the air dispersion degree
of the JJF-200 flotation machine.
(2) Determination of pulp suspension capacity
In order to examine the pulp suspension capacity, the distribution of the ore particles
at different depths in the flotation machine is determined; that is, samples are taken
from eight pulp layers at the depth of 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0 and 4.5 m,
respectively, below the weir and hydraulic analysis are carried out. Its result is shown
in Figs. 7.44 and 7.45. It can be seen from the figure that the pulp size is distributed
evenly in the tank of the JJF-200 flotation machine, without showing the stratification
Fig. 7.44 Pulp density curves at different depths in JJF-200 flotation cell
Fig. 7.45 Proportion of size fraction at different depths in JJF-200 flotation cell
Table 7.19 Comparison of production indicators between JJF-200 application and copper
separation
Raw ore grade Raw ore grade Raw ore grade Coarse 1 work Flotation
% % % recovery rate efficiency %
%
Test 0.430 12.410 0.154 65.75 66.02
process
indicator
Compared 0.424 10.426 0.162 63.72 63.97
process
indicator
Difference 0.006 1.984 -0.008 2.03 2.05
phenomenon between coarse and fine particles; it means that the flotation machine
has a good mineral suspension capability and meets the design requirement.
It can be seen from Table 7.19 that based on the comparison of work indicators
between the test process and the contrast process, when the feeding copper grade
is 0.006% higher, the concentrate copper grade will be 1.984% higher, the tailing
copper grade will be 0.008% lower, the copper recovery rate will be 2.03% higher
and the flotation efficiency is 2.05% higher. It reflects that all indicators of the test
process are higher than those of the contrast process and the process performance of
the JJF-200 flotation machine meets the advanced level of the large flotation machine.
The influence of the speed, impeller immersion depth and tube insertion depth of the
320m3 JJF mechanical agitation flotation on its performance is studied.
(1) Analysis of correlation and significance of key structural parameters
Based on the SPSS statistics and analysis software and combined with the engineering
experience, the significance, correlation and interactivity of independent variables on
dependent variables are studied to determine the relationship between independent
variables and dependent variables.
The correlation analysis may determine the degree of association between changes
in independent variables and changes in dependent variables. And the significance
refers to the significance how changes in independent variables affect changes in
dependent variables. The correlation and significance of three independent variables,
namely, speed, impeller immersion depth and insertion depth on the influence of three
dependent variables, namely, power consumption, circulation rate and suction rate
are examined. It is necessary to examine the partial correlation because of the multi-
dependent variable analysis. For example, the influence of the speed on the power
Table 7.20 Analysis result of the partial correlation of speed on power consumption
Analysis of partial correlation
Control variable Speed Power consumption
Immersion depth & Speed Correlation 1.000 0.991
insertion depth Significance (double 0.000
sides)
df 0 25
Power consumption Correlation 0.991 1.000
Significance (double 0.000
sides)
df 25 0
consumption is examined when the immersion depth and insertion depth are constant;
the analysis result of the partial correlation of the speed on the power consumption
is shown in Table 7.20; it can be seen that the significance of the influence of speed
on power consumption is 0.000 < 0.05, that is, the power consumption is signifi-
cantly affected by the speed within the confidence interval of 95%. The correlation
coefficient R between them is 0.991, which means a high correlation.
The significance and correlation of each independent variable on dependent vari-
able is summarized in Table 7.21. The result shown in the table is the analysis result
of partial correlation, that is, the influence of other independent variables is shielded.
It can be seen that the power consumption, circulation rate and suction rate are
significantly affected by the speed, impeller immersion depth and insertion depth
taken in the test, which also shows a high correlation. However, the influence of
Table 7.21 Analysis results of partial correlation and significance of independent variables on
dependent variables
Independent variable Dependent Significance indicator Correlation
variable efficient
Speed Power 0.00 Significant 0.991
consumption
Circulation rate 0.00 Significant 0.776
Suction rate 0.00 Significant 0.994
Impeller immersion Power 0.335 Not significant -0.193
depth consumption
Insertion depth Power 0.00 Significant 0.674
consumption
the impeller immersion depth on the power consumption is not significant and the
correlation coefficient is very low. Its correlation with the circulation rate is also low.
The correlation coefficient between the insertion depth and suction rate is 0.427, so
the correlation is not high.
(2) Analysis of variance
The analysis of variance may be used for analyzing the significance of independent
variables on dependent variables (i.e. inter-subjectivity effect) and if the interaction
between independent variables significantly affects dependent variables, as shown
in Table 7.22.
In the aspect of the examination on the inter-subjectivity effect, the three indepen-
dent variables have basically significant influence on the dependent variables, which
is the same as the analysis of partial correlation. However, it can be seen from serial
No. 4 that the influence coefficient of the immersion depth on the power consumption
is 0.531 > 0.05, that is, it does not affect the power consumption significantly; the
influence coefficient of the immersion depth on the power consumption and circu-
lation rate is 0.05 < 0.1 ≤ 0.1, that is, it does not affect the power consumption
significantly within the confidence interval of 95%, but it is recognized as significant
influence within the confidence interval of 90%. It can be seen from serial No. 5 that
the influence efficient of the insertion depth on the suction rate is 0.471 > 0.05, that
is, it does not affect the suction rate significantly;
In terms of the influence of interaction, the speed x immersion depth and the speed
x insertion depth have little influence on the power consumption, circulation rate and
suction rate, that is, the correlation between independent variables is not big, but the
independence is good, so the fitting of function may be simplified. However, it can
be seen from serial No. 6 that the influence coefficient of the speed x insertion depth
on the power consumption is 0.024 < 0.05, which shows a significant influence. The
influence coefficient of the speed x insertion depth on the circulation rate is 0.05 <
0.062 < 0.1; so it is recognized that the influence is significant within the confidence
interval of 90%.
Upon the analysis of partial correlation and variance, the conclusion is obtained
as follows:
1. P = f (N, h, N*h)
2. Q = f (N, h, t, N*h)
3. Qs = f (N, t).
Remarks: Where P refers to power consumption, kw; Q refers to circulation rate,

m3 /min−1 ; Qs refers to suction rate, m3 /m2 min−1 ; N refers to speed, rpm; or it is
converted to the impeller linear speed V, m/s; h refers to insertion depth, m; t refers
to immersion depth, m;
JJF mechanical agitation flotation machine is a series of flotation machine with
a large volume that is developed by Beijing General Research Institute of Mining
& Metallurgy. The large mechanical agitation flotation machine shows a significant
Table 7.22 Analysis result of variance
260
Test of inter-subjectivity effect

Serial No. Source Dependent variable Class III square sum Degree of freedom Mean square F Significance
1 Corrected model Power consumption 17,385.948 24 724.415 526.847 0.000
16,844.926 24 701.872 16.355 0.007
Suction rate 0.614 24 0.026 53.641 0.001
2 Intercept Power consumption 251,189.514 1 251,189.514 182,683.283 0.000
Circulation rate 563,698.019 1 563,698.019 13,135.120 0.000
Suction rate 3.577 1 3.577 7501.179 0.000
3 Speed Power consumption 12,613.589 5 2522.718 1834.704 0.000
Circulation rate 3310.953 5 662.191 15.430 0.010
Suction rate 0.251 5 0.050 105.338 0.000
4 Immersion depth Power consumption 3.543 3 1.181 0.859 0.531
Suction rate 0.148 3 0.049 103.758 0.000
5 Insertion depth Power consumption 90.122 3 30.041 21.848 0.006
Suction rate 0.001 3 0.000 1.025 0.471
6 Speed × immersion Power consumption 3.288 4 0.822 0.598 0.685
depth Circulation rate 148.783 4 37.196 0.867 0.553
Suction rate 0.001 4 0.000 0.614 0.676
7 Speed × insertion Power consumption 54.527 4 13.632 9.914 0.024
depth Circulation rate 961.327 4 240.332 5.600 0.062
(continued)
7 BGRIMM Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
Test of inter-subjectivity effect
Serial No. Source Dependent variable Class III square sum Degree of freedom Mean square F Significance
Suction rate 0.005 4 0.001 2.654 0.184
Error Power consumption 5.500 4 1.375
Circulation rate 171.661 4 42.915
Suction rate 0.002 4 0.000
In total Power consumption 554,864.000 29
Circulation rate 1,150,521.630 29
Suction rate 9.083 29
Total variation after Power consumption 17,391.448 28
correction Power consumption 17,016.588 28
7.2 JJF Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
Suction rate 0.616 28

261
technical advantage in the reduction of power consumption, simplification of process

configuration and improvement of mineral separation effect, which is expected to
play an important role in the development of large-scale low-grade mineral resources.
References
1. Shiyuan S (1990) Foreign mineral processing equipment handbook [M]. Nanjing: technical
information research office of Ma’anshan mine research institute, Ministry of metallurgy. p 4
2. Fahrenwald AW (1922) Flotation apparatus, US Patent 1417895, 30 May 1922
3. Fahrenwald AW (1928) Flotation practice in the Coeur d’Alene district. AIME Transactions,
Idaho, pp 107–132
4. Weber A, Walker C, Redden L, Lelinski D, Ware S (1999) Scale-up and design of large-scale
flotation equipment. In: Parekh BK, Miller JD (eds) Advances in flotation technology. The
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration SME, Littleton, pp 353–369
5. Nelson MG (1998) 127.5 m3 Wemco smartcell energy consumption measurement [J]. Met Ore
Dressing Abroad 10:22–25
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Industry Press, Beijing p, p 10
7. Ganguo D (2005) Application of BF-T flotation machine to upgrading iron concentrate [J].
Min Metall 12:20–22
8. Yiping M, Lifu H, Fugng Z (2005) Achievements and development prospect of mineral
processing technology of China’s iron mines[J]. Metal Mine 2:1–5
9. Zhengchang S (2012) Principle and technology of flotation machine [M]. Metallurgical Industry
Press, Beijing
10. Changan W (2005) Application and development of foreign float cell[J]. Express Inf Min Ind
3:P9-13
11. Zhengchang S (1996) Development of flotation machines in China in the past 15 years[J]. Met
Ore Dressing Abroad (4):18–19
12. Qiming F (2001) Proceedings of the 9th national annual review conference on mineral
processing. pp 10–16
13. Huilin L (2004) Development survey of flotation equipments[J]. Non-Ferrous Metall Equip-
ment, Suppl 21–26
14. Dianyin L, Jianming W, Zhengchang S et al (2002) New development of mineral processing
equipment[J], Min Metall (7):12–15
15. Shijie Lu, Zhengchang S, Xiaoming S (2010) Study on GF flotation machine[J]. Mineral
Processing Section, Nonferrous Metals, pp 24–28
Chapter 8
BGRIMM Pneumatic Mechanical
Agitation Flotation Machine
With the changes in mineral resource endowments, especially the increasing propor-
tion of low-grade ores, large pneumatic flotation machines have been developed
rapidly and become the most widely applied flotation machines. There are many
kinds of non-ferrous, ferrous and non-metallic minerals in China, but the resource
grades are not high, and the separation is very difficult. Beijing General Research
Institute of Mining & Metallurgy (BGRIMM) started its research on the flotation
equipment technology from 1960. After decades of development, from digestion
and absorption of the A-type flotation machine of the Michael Nobel Research Insti-
tute of the former Soviet Union to independent design of KYF and XCF pneumatic
flotation machines, it has developed the pneumatic flotation machine equipment tech-
nology that meets the requirements of Chinese mineral resources and served more
than 80% of the mines in China [1–3]. Since the 1960s, with OUTOTEC, Mesto
and other companies as representatives, the pneumatic flotation machines have been
developed towards upsizing, and a large pneumatic flotation machine with the single
tank volume of up to 160 m3 emerged at the beginning of the century [4–7]. Based
on years of accumulation of basic theory, Beijing General Research Institute of
Mining & Metallurgy took the lead in realizing the engineering of the world’s largest
pneumatic flotation machine with the volume of 320 m3 at that time by indepen-
dent innovation, and completed the development of the world’s largest pneumatic
flotation machine with the volume of 680 m3 in the last 2 years. At present, there
are numerous specifications of BGRIMM pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation
machine series. From the volume 5L at the laboratory level to the maximum volume
680 m3 industrially applied in the world, they can meet the requirements of research
institutes and concentrators of different scales. The BGRIMM pneumatic mechan-
ical agitation flotation machine with good applicability to different minerals can be
used to separate copper, lead, zinc, nickel, molybdenum, sulphur, iron, gold, bauxite,
apatite, leopoldite and other minerals.

264 8 BGRIMM Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
8.1 KYF Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation

Machine
At present, the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine is one of the most
widely applied flotation machine types in China, and it has also been industrially
applied around the world. Thousands of flotation machines have been popularized
worldwide. This type was successfully developed by Beijing General Research Insti-
tute of Mining & Metallurgy on the basis of a large number of researches and
long-term practice accumulation.
8.1.1 Working Principle and Key Structures of KYF Flotation

Machine
The structure diagram of the KYF flotation machine is shown in Fig. 8.1. This
flotation machine mainly consists of rotors, stators, spindles, motors, transmission
Fig. 8.1 KYF flotation machine

8.1 KYF Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine 265
components, tank bodies, etc. At present, the structures of tank bodies of flotation
machines include circular tank body and U-shaped tank body, and the transmission
types available now mainly include belt transmission and gear transmission.
8.1.1.1 Working Principle
When the rotor is rotating, the pulp in the tank is sucked into the spaces between
the rotor blades from all sides via the tank bottom by the lower end of the rotor.
Meanwhile, the low-pressure air supplied by the blower enters the air distributor of
the rotor chamber via the air duct, air regulating valve and hollow spindle, and enters
the spaces between the rotor blades through the holes in the air distributor. After being
fully mixed between the rotor blades, the pulp and air bubbles are discharged from
the periphery of the upper part of the rotor. The discharged ore current is inclined
upward and enters the whole tank after current stabilization and orientation by the
stators installed to be inclined upward around the rotor. As mineralized bubbles
ascend to the tank surface, froth is formed and flows into the froth tank through the
scraping plates or automatically, and then the pulp is returned to the rotor area for
recirculation.
8.1.1.2 Key Structures
a. Rotor
According to the design theory of the centrifugal pump, there are three cases of the
mounting angle β of the rotor blade at the outlet, i.e. forward inclined, radial and
backward inclined. For the backward-inclined blade, when the flow rate is high, the
theoretical head is low, the dynamic head component in the gross theoretical head is
accordingly small and the velocity head is low, which is good for stabilizing the pulp
level in accordance with the requirements of fluid dynamics of the flotation machine.
In addition, the adoption of the backward-inclined blade forms complies precisely
with the requirements of fluid dynamics of the flotation machine due to high flow
rate and low power consumption of the backward-inclined blade.
After the blade direction is determined, the rotor shape is to be further determined.
Specific speed is the main basis for determining the rotor shape. For the high specific
speed pump, it has the characteristics of high flow rate and small head. On the
contrary, it has low flow rate and great head. The rotor of the flotation machine
is similar to that of the high specific speed pump. Since the rotor inlet diameter
and outlet width of the high specific speed pump are relatively large and the outlet
diameter and inlet width are relatively small, it is proper to design the rotor of the
flotation machine using a rotor shape similar to that of the high specific speed pump.
Another important function of the rotor is air dispersion. For this reason, an air
distributor is arranged in the rotor chamber. The air distributor can distribute the
air evenly in most areas of the rotor blade in advance, and provide a lot of pulp–
air interfaces, thus greatly improving the air diffusion capability of the rotor and
improving the degree of air dispersion of the flotation machine.
Therefore, the rotor of the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine is
designed into a centrifugal rotor with backward-inclined blades and high specific
speed, with an air distributor provided in the centre of the rotor.
The determination of structural parameters of the rotor is a complicated process. In
addition to theoretical calculations, a lot of experiments must be carried out by making
use of past experiences to obtain reasonable parameters step by step. Figures 8.2 and
8.3 show the main structural parameters of the rotor of the KYF flotation machine.
Generally, a large number of tests should be conducted to determine the relation-
ship between rotor structures, so the tests are usually conducted in a small flotation
machine in the laboratory in order to reduce the testing expenses. After the relation-
ship between rotor structure parameters is determined, the rotor diameter, which is
Fig. 8.2 Rotor of KYF flotation machine
Fig. 8.3 Structure parameters of KYF rotor (d—feed bore; b—blade height; β—blade incidence)
Fig. 8.4 Stator of KYF

flotation machine
the parameter characterizing the rotor structure, is amplified through the amplifica-
tion factor determined through research and tested in an industrial flotation machine,
and finally the desired reasonable parameters are obtained.
b. Stator
The KYF flotation machine is provided with low damping direct suspension stators
and radial short blades. As shown in Fig. 8.4, they are installed above the rotor,
distributed in the periphery and fixed to the tank bottom by support members. This
makes it possible to enlarge the pulp circulation area around the lower area of the
stator, eliminates the unnecessary interference of the lower parts to the pulp, facilitates
pulp flow to the lower area of the rotor, reduces the pulp circulation resistance and
power consumption, and enhances the circulation in the lower circulation area of the
tank body and the suspending capability of the solid particles. The mixture of pulp
and air that is thrown out from the rotor may enter the pulp smoothly to make the air
disperse properly. The key parameter of the stator, i.e. the diameter, can be obtained
by amplification.
c. Tank body
The tank bodies of the flotation machine mainly include the U-shaped tank body and
the circular tank in order to reduce the sand deposit area, facilitate the movement
of coarse mineral particles to the tank centre so as to return to the rotor area for
recirculation and reduce the probability of pulp short circuit. For the KYF flotation
machine with the single tank volume of 70 m3 and below, the tank body of the
flotation machine is designed depending on its configuration mode. When horizontal
configuration is required for the floatation machine operations, the tank body is in
a U-shaped structure, and the froth is scraped out by the scraping plates. For the
step configuration, the tank body is mainly in the structure of a circular tank, and
the self-overflow of the froth is recovered. For the flotation machine with the single
tank volume of greater than 70 m3 , the step configuration shall be adopted for the
floatation machine operations, the base plate is designed into a flat base and the
section of the tank body is designed into the structure of a circular tank body in order
to ensure even dispersion of the pulp.
Large flotation machines have the problems of long froth conveying path, high
probability of target minerals falloff and difficult recovery in time. According to the
requirements of the flotation process, two froth push cones may be provided in areas
near the liquid level of the tank body, wherein the outer froth push cone also serves
as the outer froth tank (Fig. 8.5), so that the froth conveying distance is significantly
reduced, the froth migration velocity is increased and the froth recovery time is
effectively shortened. In addition, due to reduced froth area and increased froth layer
thickness, the secondary enrichment in the froth layer is effectively enhanced, and
the process index of the target minerals is improved. Froth near the edge of the tank
body overflows from the outer froth tank; froth near to the centre overflows from the
inner froth tank; in this way, froth is divided into two parts so that the froth transport
distance is shortened.
The KYF flotation machine has complete specifications and models and the most
mature flotation machine upsizing, and represents the highest level of the research on
flotation machines in China. In 2000, a flotation machine with the single tank volume
of 50 m3 was successfully developed, and nearly 1000 such flotation machines were
quickly promoted worldwide. In 2005, a flotation machine with the single tank
volume of 160 m3 was successfully developed and used in the 34,000 t/d project of
Wunugetushan Cu-Mo deposit of China National Gold Group Co., Ltd.; in early 2008,
a 200 m3 flotation machine was successfully developed and used in the 90,000 t/d
project of Dashan Concentrator of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited. In 2008,
a 320 m3 flotation machine was successfully developed, whose enrichment ratio of
copper reaches up to 20.62 for a single flotation machine, enrichment ratio of sulphur
Fig. 8.5 Dual crowder and

dual launder
1-outer launder 2-inner launder and crowder

3-inner crowder
is 71.44 and single unit power consumption is about 200 kW. In 2017, a 680 m3 intel-
ligent supersized flotation machine was successfully studied, which is the flotation
machine with the largest single tank volume for industrial application in the world.
It is applied in the tailing recovery project of Sizhou Concentrator of Jiangxi Copper
Corporation Limited, with reliable mechanical performance that meets the process
index requirements and considerable economic benefits. The technical parameters
of the KYF flotation machine are shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Technical parameters of KYF flotation machine

Specification Effective Installed Minimum inlet wind Aeration rate/m3
volume/m3 power/kW pressure/kPa (m2 min) −1
KYF-1 1 3 >11 0.05~1.4
KYF-2 2 5.5 >12 0.05~1.4
KYF-3 3 7.5 >14 0.05~1.4
KYF-4 4 11 >15 0.05~1.4
KYF-5 5 11 >15 0.05~1.4
KYF-6 6 11 >17 0.05~1.4
KYF-8 8 15 >19 0.05~1.4
KYF-10 10 22 >20 0.05~1.4
KYF-16 16 30 >23 0.05~1.4
KYF-20 20 37 >25 0.05~1.4
KYF-24 24 37 >27 0.05~1.4
KYF-30 30 45 >31 0.05~1.4
KYF-40 40 55 >32 0.05~1.4
KYF-50 50 75 >33 0.05~1.4
KYF-70 70 90 >41 0.05~1.4
KYF-100 100 132 >46 0.05~1.4
KYF-130 130 160 >50 0.05~1.4
KYF-160 160 160 >52 0.05~1.4
KYF-200 200 220 >56 0.05~1.4
KYF-320 320 280 >64 0.05~1.4
KYF-450 450 355 >65 0.05~1.4
KYF-560 560 400 >65 0.05~1.4
KYF-680 680 500 >70 0.05~1.4
8.1.2 Fluid Dynamics Research in KYF Flotation Machines
8.1.2.1 Flow Field Characteristics of KYF Flotation Machines
The KYF series flotation machines have similar flow field characteristics. By taking
the laboratory KYF-0.2 m3 flotation machine as an example, the flow field charac-
teristics of KYF flotation are introduced, and the overall three-dimensional velocity
vector is shown in Fig. 8.6. In the rotor area, the fluid driven by the rotor has a
very high velocity, and every stator blade has an obvious diversion effect. As the
fluid leaves the rotor–stator area, the fluid velocity gradually decreases, and multiple
strands of upward and downward circulation structures as many as the stator blades
are formed in the tank body. It should be noted that the original flotation theory
points out that there are upper and lower circulating flow field structures in the tank,
but when judging from the overall three-dimensional velocity vector diagram, the
circulating flow field structures are greatly affected by the stator, and a stream of
circulating flow will be formed at each stator blade.
Figure 8.7 shows the details of circulation flow at the longitudinal section in
the KYF flotation machine. Remarkable upper and lower circulating flow fields are
formed in the flow field after the fluid is thrown out by the rotor blades. According
to the design theory of flotation machines, one of the design intents for the special
structure of the rotor is to form the circulating flow field structures to ensure that the
pulp can realize the flotation process efficiently.
Figure 8.8 shows the details of fluid flow at the cross section below the rotor disc.
Due to the counterclockwise rotation of the rotor, the fluid is thrown out of the rotor
area under the action of centrifugal force, hits the blade side towards the pulp and
gets out as jet flow in the direction of the stator blades. In the velocity cloud picture,
Fig. 8.6 Velocity vectors of

the lab-scale KYF-0.2
flotation machine
(a) Velocity vector diagram (b) Velocity cloud picture
Fig. 8.7 Flow pattern of the lab-scale KYF-0.2 flotation machine
Fig. 8.8 Velocity contour on a plan below rotor lid

Fig. 8.9 Velocity vectors between rotor blades
the obvious jet flow effect of the fluid along the stator blade sides towards the pulp
indicates that the stator has good current diversion and stabilization effects.
Figure 8.9 further reveals the flow characteristics between the rotor blades. It
should be noted that a clockwise eddy obviously opposite to the rotation direction is
formed at the rotor blades near the leeward side of the pulp. The maximum velocity
region in the whole field appears near the leeward side of the pulp, which is even
higher than the blade tip velocity.
8.1.2.2 Research on the Rotor of KYF Flotation Machine
The rotor of the KYF flotation machine is designed with backward-inclined blades,
and a backward inclination angle β = 30 is formed in the relative rotation direction
(the rotor of the flotation machine rotates in the clockwise direction) of the blades,
as shown in Fig. 8.10. A research was carried out by selecting a backward-inclined
rotor, a radial rotor and a forward inclined rotor in order to master the dynamic
performance of the rotor at a backward inclination angle. Figure 8.11 gives the tests
of three kinds of rotors and the comparison of PIV power consumption. The results
show that the backward-inclined rotor has the lowest power consumption among
the three kinds of rotors, which verifies the advantage of the flotation machine with
backward-inclined rotors in energy consumption.
Backward inclined rotor Radial rotor Forward inclined rotor
Fig. 8.10 Feature of KYF flotation machine rotor (top view)
(a) Test (b) CFD
Fig. 8.11 Power consumption comparison of the three rotors
The rotors with different backward inclination angles (β = 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°,
60°, 69°, 75°) (Fig. 8.12) also have great influences on the performance of flota-
tion machines. Figure 8.13 gives the relationship between the power consumption
315 rpm and the backward inclination angle. With the increase of the backward
inclination angle, there is a law that the power consumption of the flotation machine
decreases first and then increases, and the flotation machine with the rotor that
is inclined backward at 69° has the smallest power consumption, and a point of
inflection appears.
8.1.2.3 Research on the Stator of KYF Flotation Machine
The size of the stator of the flotation machine is enlarged with the continuous enlarge-
ment of the volume of the flotation machine, but the structure type does not change
much. The continuously growing height of the stator blades causes the increase in
the impact of the pulp on the stator blades, and the deformed potential at the upper
end of the stator blades is bound to increase. From the mechanical point of view, a
Fig. 8.12 Rotor blades with different inclined angles
Fig. 8.13 Power consumption versus blade inclination angle at 315 rpm
(a) Standard stator (b) Stator with an annular reinforcing ring
(c) Stator with a vertical reinforcing ring (d) Stator with a 45° vertical reinforcing ring
Fig. 8.14 Different stator designs
reinforcing ring needs to be added to the upper part of the stator blades of a supersized
flotation machine to ensure the mechanical reliability. However, the introduction of
the reinforcing ring will affect the flow field structure. Therefore, the influences of
different reinforcing rings on the flow field are studied, as shown in Fig. 8.14.
Figure 8.15 shows the influences of the stator structure on the flow field. The results
show that the fluid flow pattern distributions of four kinds of flotation machines with
stators are slightly different. The stator with an annular reinforcing ring has more
obvious horizontal jet flow, and high velocity areas appear in the rotor area and the
stator horizontal jet flow area. The vertical reinforcing ring results in the trend of
upward flow of part of the fluid from the inside of the reinforcing ring. Therefore, a
high velocity area of the fluid also appears in the upper area inside the stator. Due to
the existence of the annular reinforcing ring, the original upward inclined jet flow is
not very obvious, and the fluid blocked flows out of the stator area horizontally. The
velocity is high at this point, and the annular reinforcing ring is impacted. On the
other hand, whether this will cause the mineralized particles in the rotor area to fall off
will also cause a waste of energy. Due to the existence of the vertical reinforcing ring,
the original upward inclined jet flow is blocked and thrown upward, and the current
stabilization and guiding effects of the stator are weakened, which is equivalent to
(a) Standard stator (b) Stator with an annular reinforcing ring
(c) Stator with a vertical reinforcing ring (d) Stator with a 45° vertical reinforcing ring
Fig. 8.15 Flow patterns of different stator designs
the fact that only part of the stator blades work, a high velocity area appears at the
upper part of the stator and the horizontal jet effect is obviously worsened. The 45°
vertical reinforcing ring acts as a guide for the fluid which is thrown out in the upward
inclined direction. To sum up, the addition of the reinforcing ring also plays a guiding
role for the fluid, leading to changes in the flow field.
8.1.3 Performance and Application of the KYF Flotation

Machines
8.1.3.1 Performance of the KYF-50 Flotation Machine
The KYF-50 flotation machine is the first large flotation machine independently
developed by Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy. Indus-
trial tests were carried out in 2000, and the product was rapidly put into industrial
application. At present, it has been widely applied in large and medium-sized mining
enterprises at home and abroad.
A. Dynamic performance
To investigate the performance of the KYF-50 flotation machine, the dynamic param-
eters of the flotation machine were measured under the clean water condition, mainly
including the suction rate, the degree of air dispersion, power, air holdup, bubble
diameter, etc. The test results are shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Dynamics test results of KYF-50 flotation machine

Speed of flotation machine Average aeration rate Air dispersion Current of flotation
/r min−1 /m3 (m2 min) −1 machine
/A
136 1.22 1.63 93
131 1.17 2.07 97
126 1.15 1.71 84
The degree of air dispersion of the KYF-50 flotation machine is greater than 2.0 at
131 r/min, which meets the requirement of air dispersion. The aeration rate reaches
1.17 m3 /(m2 .min), which meets the aeration rate required for conventional mineral
separation.
B. Pulp suspension capacity
Four points were measured downward from the liquid level of the overflow weir
of the flotation machine, i.e. samples were taken at four pulp layers at depths of
1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m and 2.5 m for hydraulic analysis and grade analysis. The results
of detection and analysis show that the distribution of particle sizes in the pulp in
the tank body of the KYF-50 flotation machine is uniform, without stratification of
coarse and fine particle sizes, which indicates that the flotation machine has strong
agitation force, good air dispersion and no turbulence in the ore current.
C. Process index
The industrial test of the KYF-50 flotation machines was carried out in a nickel
mine in Jinchuan. Two KYF-50 flotation machines were used to replace the five
16 m3 flotation machines and one 20 m3 agitation tank before primary rougher in the
original production process and the five 16 m3 flotation machines before secondary
scavenger in the original production process. Under the same process conditions, the
cumulative indexes in the primary rougher stage of the KYF-50 flotation machine
are shown in Table 8.3, and the cumulative indexes in the secondary scavenger are
shown in Table 8.4.
Compared with the indexes of the 16 m3 flotation machine with 5 tanks before the
primary stage of the original process, the indexes of the KYF-50 flotation machine,
i.e. the grades of nickel and copper in the concentrate, are improved by 2.322% and
1.408%, respectively, the content of magnesium oxide in the concentrate decreases
by 4.181%, the operational recovery rate of nickel is as high as 0.108% and the
operational recovery rate of copper is as high as 2.363% in the case that the nickel
grade in the run-of-mine is 0.045% higher and the copper grades are equivalent. This
indicates that the KYF-50 flotation machine has certain effects on improving the
concentrate grades of nickel and copper, reducing the content of magnesium oxide
in concentrate and improving the recovery rate of copper.
From Table 8.4, it is seen that the concentrate grade of nickel is improved by
0.06%, the concentrate grade of copper is improved by 0.06% and the concentrate
Table 8.3 Cumulative indexes in the primary rougher stage of the industrial test on KYF-50 flotation
machine (%)
Item Raw ore grade Concentrate grade Tailings grade Recovery
Ni Cu Ni Cu Ni Cu Ni Cu
50 m3
for 1.499 0.848 8.963 4.881 0.646 0.387 61.343 59.043
primary
rougher
16 m3 for 1.454 0.850 6.646 3.473 0.655 0.456 61.235 56.680
primary
rougher
Difference 0.045 −0.002 2.499 1.408 −0.009 −0.069 0.108 2.363
Table 8.4 Cumulative indexes in the secondary scavenger stage of the industrial test on KYF-50
flotation machine (%)
Item Raw ore grade Concentrate grade Tailings grade Recovery
Ni Cu Ni Cu Ni ara> Cu Ni Cu
50 m3
for 0.38 0.34 1.17 0.73 0.26 0.30 40.36 29.36
secondary
scavenger
16 m3 for 0.35 0.34 1.11 0.67 0.29 0.31 25.58 17.06
secondary
scavenger
Difference 0.03 0 0.06 0.06 −0.03 −0.01 14.78 12.3
grade of magnesium oxide is improved by 1.16% with a higher grade of selected

nickel when the indexes of the KYF-50 flotation machine are compared with those
of the 16 m3 flotation machine with five tanks before secondary scavenger in the
original process. The operational recovery rates of nickel and copper are increased
by 14.78% and 12.3%, respectively.
During the industrial tests, the current of the flotation machine under different
concentration working conditions was measured, and the results are shown in Table
8.5. The current of the flotation machine under the normal concentration condition
is close to that measured in the clean water test.
Table 8.5 Measured currents of KYF-50 flotation machine at different pulp concentrations
Pulp concentration/% 52 48 36 32
Measured current/A 100.6 96 91 90
To investigate the performance of the KYF-160 flotation machine, the dynamic

parameters of the flotation machine were measured under the clean water condition,
mainly including the suction rate, the degree of air dispersion, power, air holdup,
bubble diameter, etc. The flotation dynamic test results are shown in Table 8.6.
Through the above tests, we have basically determined the clean water test
condition of KYF-160 and relevant laws, as shown in Figs. 8.16, 8.17, 8.18 and
8.19.
The air dispersion is relatively uniform at the speed of 111 r/min. At the speed
of 111 r/min, the aeration rate is 0.79 m3 /(m2 min), the maximum motor power is
123.85 kW, the aeration rate is 1.6 m3 /(m2 min) and the minimum motor power is
99.37 kW. At the speed of 111 r/min, the maximum air holdup is 0.149% and the
minimum air holdup is 0.085%. At the same liquid level, the changes in the air holdup
with the aeration rate are the most obvious at the speed of 111 r/min. At the speed
of 111 r/min, the maximum bubble diameter is 1.5 mm and the minimum bubble
diameter is 1.23 mm. At the speed of 111 r/min, the range of bubble diameter distri-
bution is also relatively large, which meets the requirements of flotation. Therefore,
we can determine that the pulp test speed of the flotation machine is 111 r/min, which
conforms to the design requirement.
B. Pulp suspension capacity
To investigate the pulp suspension capacity, the distribution of mineral particles at

different depths in the flotation machine was measured, i.e. hydraulic analysis and
grade analysis were carried out by sampling at six pulp levels as deep as 1.2 m,
1.8 m, 2.4 m, 3.0 m, 3.6 m and 4.2 m from the lower part of the overflow weir. The
results of detection and analysis show that the distribution of partial sizes in the pulp
in the tank body of the KYF-160 flotation machine is uniform, without stratification
of coarse and fine particle sizes, which indicates that the flotation machine has good
suspension capacity that meets the design requirements.
C. Process index
The pulp of the KYF-160 flotation machine is tested in order to further verify the
performance of the KYF-160 flotation machine. The following tests are mainly
carried out: research on the method for comparison of process indexes, comparison
of pulp test indexes, on-load start test, current measurement of flotation machine,
distribution detection of mineral particles at different depths in the flotation machine,
automatic control of liquid level, automatic control of aeration rate, primary rougher
of original process as well as particle size distribution detection of run-of-mine, and
concentrates and tailings of the KYF-160 flotation machine.
280
Table 8.6 Test data of flotation dynamics tests

Speed/r min−1 104 111 117
Aeration rate/m3 (m2 min) −1 0.86 0.93 1.1 1.43 0.79 1.05 1.27 1.6 0.68 1.03 1.23 1.96
Air dispersion 1.37 2.63 1.81 1.89 2.50 2.64 2.85 2.33 1.21 2.18 3.34 1.83
Motor power/kW 106.57 104.17 99.37 93.61 123.85 114.73 108.97 99.37 144.01 131.53 123.85 112.81
Air holdup/% 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.133 0.085 0.096 0.122 0.149 0.105 0.118 0.13 0.154
Mean bubble diameter/mm 1.10 1.12 1.06 1.17 1.5 1.39 1.37 1.23 1.03 1.11 1.19
8 BGRIMM Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine

versus air dispersion

versus power consumption
The pulp test of the KYF-160 flotation machine was carried out in a nickel mine in
Jinchuan. Ten KYF-16 flotation machines in primary rougher of the original produc-
tion process were replaced with one KYF-160 flotation machine, and an agitation tank
with the diameter of 3000 was deleted from the pulp test process of the 160 flotation
machine as compared with the original process. Under the same process conditions,
the cumulative indexes and comparable cumulative indexes in the primary rougher
stage of the pulp test of the KYF-160 flotation machine are shown in Table 8.7, and
the comparison of total indexes of the system is shown in Table 8.8.
As seen from the table above, when the cumulative total index of the KYF-160
flotation machine is compared with the comparable cumulative index, with the run-of-
mine grade improved by 0.04%, the Ni concentrate grade is improved by 0.14%, the

versus air holdup

versus bubble diameter
tailings grades are equal and the recovery rate is improved by 0.67%. When the total
cumulative index of the KYF-160 flotation machine is compared with the cumulative
index of primary rougher in the original process, the grade of Ni concentrate obtained
after primary rougher is improved by 0.06%, with the run-of-mine grade reduced by
0.08%. The grade of Ni tailings is 0.08% higher than that of Ni tailings of primary
rougher in the original process. The KYF-160 flotation machine realizes the efficient
separation of minerals.
As seen from the table above, the system grade of Ni concentrate obtained through
the separation in the process of the 160 flotation machine is 8.88% with the run-of-
mine grade of 1.35%, while the system grade of Ni concentrate obtained through the
separation in the original process is 8.63% with the run-of-mine grade of 1.43%, and
the concentrate grade obtained by the KYF-160 flotation machine is 0.25% higher
Table 8.7 Comparison of primary rougher indexes of the system (%)
Comparison index Raw ore grade Concentrate grade Tailings grade Operational recovery rate
Ni Cu Ni Cu MgO Ni Cu Ni Cu
Debugging stage 1.40 0.85 4.51 2.60 20.79 0.51 0.39 72.29 64.49
Production stage 1.34 0.87 4.11 2.35 20.29 0.50 0.40 71.78 66.11
Cumulative index of 160 1.35 0.87 4.19 2.40 20.35 0.50 0.40 71.88 65.75
flotation machine
Comparable cumulative index 1.31 0.82 4.05 2.42 18.53 0.49 0.36 71.21 65.90
Comparable index error 0.04 0.05 0.14 −0.02 1.82 0.01 0.04 0.67 −0.15
Cumulative index of primary 1.43 0.83 4.13 2.03 19.08 0.42 0.36 78.43 68.87
8.1 KYF Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation Flotation Machine
rougher in the original process

Cumulative index error of −0.08 0.04 0.06 0.37 1.27 0.08 0.04 −6.55 −3.12
primary rougher
283
284
Table 8.8 Comparison of total system indexes (%)

Item Raw ore grade Concentrate grade of the system Total tailing grade of the system System recovery
Ni Cu Ni Cu MgO Ni Cu Ni Cu
Total cumulative index of 1.35 0.87 8.88 4.75 6.34 0.22 0.29 85.68 71.07
the 160 flotation machine
system
Total index of the original 1.43 0.85 8.63 4.10 6.45 0.24 0.31 85.73 68.86
process system
System index error −0.08 0.02 0.25 0.65 −0.11 −0.02 −0.02 −0.05 2.21
than that obtained in the original process; The tailings grade of the Ni system in the
process of the KYF-160 flotation machine is 0.02% lower than that of the original
process, while the recovery rate of the system is reduced by 0.05%. It shows that
the KYF-160 flotation machine is helpful to improve the total concentrate grade of
Ni to some extent, and also reduces the tailings grade. In addition, the grade of Cu
concentrate is increased by 0.65%, the recovery rate is increased by 2.21%, and the
grade of MgO is reduced. From these data we can see that the KYF-160 flotation
machine has good separation performance, and the equipment performance meets
the design requirements.
a. On-load start test
The on-load start of a large flotation machine is very important for large concentrators
because it can save the mineral resources and reduce the labour intensity. During
the tests, the start status of the pulp in the whole tank of the flotation machine was
investigated, stop and start tests were conducted, stop tests for 8, 24, 48 and 144 h were
conducted successively and the flotation machine was started successfully without
any problem, which indicates that the equipment can be started normally in the case
of long-term deposition after stop with the tank full of pulp.
b. Determination of power consumption of the flotation machine
The power consumption of the flotation machine is an important index to investigate

the performance of the flotation machine. During the tests, the current (power) was
measured under different aeration rates when the pulp concentration was 36%. The
data is shown in Table 8.9, and the results are shown in Fig. 8.20.
20.6
y = 106 + x−0.97 (8.1)
1+e 0.113
where
y motor power;
x aeration rate.
Throughout the test, since the pulp concentration was controlled at 36 ± 2%
and the aeration rate was generally adjusted between 1.1 and 1.2, the host power
consumption was 113 ~ 107 kW, the aeration power consumption was about 34 ~
38 kW and the unit total power consumption of the flotation machine was 147 ~
145 kW and less than 150 kW.
Table 8.9 Aeration rates and current change values

Aeration rate/m3 0.67 0.85 0.92 1.00 1.04 1.10 1.30 1.40 1.48
(m2 min) −1
Power/kW 132.41 126.65 122.81 117.05 113.21 112.25 105.53 104.57 104.09
Fig. 8.20 The relationship between the aeration rate and the power can be obtained by fitting
A. Dynamic test
To investigate the performance of the KYF-200 flotation machine, the dynamic

parameters of the flotation machine were measured under the clean water condi-
tion, mainly including the suction rate, the degree of air dispersion, power, air
holdup, bubble diameter, etc. The results of the dynamic test of the KYF-200 flotation
machine are shown in Table 8.10 and Figs. 8.21, 8.22, 8.23 and 8.24.
At the speed of 109 r/min, the maximum degree of air dispersion is 3.17 and the
minimum degree of air dispersion is 2.63. It can be seen that at the speed of 109 r/min,
all the degrees of air dispersion are above 2.5, which are not very different from each
other, and all of them are ideal with uniform changes. At the speed of 109 r/min, the
aeration rate is 0.80 m3 /m2 .min−1 , the current is 325A, the aeration rate is 1.8 m3 /m2
min−1 and the current is 252A. At the speed of 109 r/min, the maximum air holdup
is 0.13% and the minimum air holdup is 0.10%. At the speed of 109 r/min, the
maximum bubble diameter is 1.76 mm and the minimum bubble diameter is 1.29 mm.
Therefore, the speed of the flotation machine is determined as 109 r/min on the basis
of quantitative data in the above four aspects combined with the overall phenomena
in the test.
B. Pulp tests
To investigate the separation performance of the two KYF-200 flotation machines,

the run-of-mine, concentrate and tailings of the test system and the contrast system
were sampled and tested during the test. After the laboratory test, the elements were
Table 8.10 Data of dynamic test with clean water

Rotor Aeration rate/m3 Air dispersion Current/A Air holdup Mean bubble
speed/r (m2 min) −1 diameter/mm
min−1
101 0.4 4.0 300 0.08
0.69 1.32 275 0.11
0.94 3.49 255 0.12
1.22 2.24 250 0.14
105 0.43 2.53 340 0.10
0.67 2.63 315 0.11 2.68
0.88 3.08 310 0.11 1.0
1.15 2.80 270 0.12 1.19
1.6 2.99 260 0.13 0.98
109 0.80 3.17 325 0.10 1.29
1.07 2.89 280 0.13 1.63
1.13 2.67 270 0.11 1.76
1.8 2.63 252 0.11 1.47
113 0.8 2.72 340 0.10 0.98
0.99 2.2 330 0.11 1.61
1.23 3.27 320 0.12 1.60
1.49 2.32 280 0.09
Fig. 8.21 Air dispersion versus aeration rate
Cu and S for both. Samples were taken every 0.5 h and sent for the laboratory test
once per shift.
The 10-day debugging stage of the pulp test was carried out on the flotation
machines, and the cumulative indexes are shown in Table 8.11.
Fig. 8.22 Power consumption versus aeration rate
Fig. 8.23 Air holdup versus aeration rate
Fig. 8.24 Bubble size versus aeration rate

Table 8.11 Comparison of copper indexes in the commissioning stage (%)

Item Raw ore Concentrate Tailings Coarse 1 Flotation System
grade grade grade work efficiency recovery
recovery
rate
Test process 0.405 8.69 0.134 68.31 65.26 85.51
indicator
Compared 0.409 10.34 0.140 66.59 64.36 84.38
process
indicator
Difference −0.004 −1.65 −0.006 1.72 0.9 1.13
The indexes fluctuate greatly in the debugging stage, for example, the highest
grade of copper is 14.75% and the lowest grade of copper is 5.79%. The main
reason is that the liquid level is poorly controlled. The liquid level is controlled
manually in the debugging stage, resulting in failure to give immediate feedback for
the fluctuation of the pulp volume. The installation precision of the overflow weir of
the equipment is also one of the reasons affecting the index fluctuation. The optimal
production conditions, including the thickness of froth layer, the aeration rate and
the liquid level, were explored through the debugging stage, to provide the basis for
the technical conditions in the production stage.
The 17-day indexes in the production stage of the pulp test were counted, and the
cumulative indexes are shown in Table 8.12.
The statistical indexes of the production stage show that the recovery rate is 6.95
percentage points higher when the run-of-mine grade is reduced by 0.001%, which
is far beyond the index of the contrast process, and all the economic indexes of this
type of flotation machine meet the design requirements.
C. On-load start test
The full-load stop must be realized for supersized flotation machines in order to
reduce the economic losses caused by full-load stop of the supersized flotation
Table 8.12 Comparison of copper indexes in the industrial test stage (%)
Item Raw ore Concentrate Tailings Coarse 1 Flotation System
grade grade grade work efficiency recovery
recovery
rate
Test process 0.518 10.88 0.168 68.33 65.94 85.43
indicator
Compared 0.519 11.27 0.202 61.56 58.99 84.51
process
indicator
Difference −0.001 −0.39 −0.034 6.77 6.95 0.92
machines to the concentrators. Through several trial stops during the test, it can
be seen that the KYF-200 flotation machine can be started normally under the full
load.
D. Determination of power consumption of the flotation machine

the performance of the flotation machine. During the test, the main motor power of
the KYF-200 flotation machine was measured under different aeration rates with the
pulp concentration of 30%. The data is shown in Table 8.13, and the results after
collation are shown in Fig. 8.25.
After fitting, the relationship between aeration rate and power of the KYF-200
flotation machine is
59.5
y = 129.6 + (x−0.91)
(8.2)
1+e 0.266
where
y motor power;
x aeration rate.
Table 8.13 Relationship between aeration rate and power

Aeration rate/m3 0.70 0.85 0.92 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.48
(m2 min) −1
Power/kW 170.00 162.3 154.2 144.00 140.21 135.25 130.53 124.57 120.09
Fig. 8.25 The relationship between aeration rate and power

Since the pulp concentration was controlled at 30% ± 2% and the aeration rate was
generally adjusted between 1.0 and 1.2 throughout the test, the power consumption
of a single unit was 140 ~ 150 kW, the aeration power consumption of two flotation
machines was about 110 kW in total and the total power consumption of two KYF-200
flotation machines was 390 ~ 410 kW.
E. Determination of pulp suspension capacity
To investigate the pulp suspension capacity, the distribution of mineral particles at

different depths in the flotation machine was measured, i.e. samples were taken at
eight pulp levels as deep as 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0 and 4.5 m from the lower
part of the overflow weir, and hydraulic analysis and grade analysis were carried out.
The results of detection and analysis show that the distribution of partial sizes in the
pulp in the tank of the KYF-200 flotation machine is uniform, without stratification
of coarse and fine particle sizes, which indicates that the flotation machine has good
suspension capacity of mineral particles that meets the design requirements.
Statistical data of the dynamic test of the 320 m3 flotation machine is shown in Table
8.14.
Through the above tests, the clean water test condition and related laws of the
320 m3 flotation machine are shown in Figs. 8.26, 8.27 and 8.28.
The following conclusions can be drawn for the equipment: at the speed of
107 r/min, the maximum degree of air dispersion is 2.01 and the minimum degree
of air dispersion is 1.31. It can be seen that at the speed of 107 r/min, all the degrees
of air dispersion are above 1.5, which are not very different from each other, and
all of them are ideal with uniform changes. The maximum current is 305A and the
minimum current is 280A when the aeration rate is 0.9 ~ 1.4 m3 /(m2 min) and the
speed is 107 r/min. At the speed of 107 r/min, the maximum air holdup is 12.88%
and the minimum air holdup is 11.36%. At the same liquid level, the changes in the
air holdup with the aeration rate are the most obvious at the speed of 107 r/min.
To sum up, at the five speed levels, when the speed is greater than 107 r/min,
the air in the tank can be dispersed in the tank uniformly, but with the increase of
speed, the spindle power consumption of the flotation machine increases, and when
the speed is 107 r/min, the changes in the air holdup with the aeration rate are the
most obvious. Therefore, the pulp test speed of the flotation machine is determined
as 107 r/min, which is consistent with the design requirements.
Table 8.14 Clean water test data

Speed/r min−1 Aeration rate/m3 (m2 min) −1 Air dispersion Current/A Air holdup/%
98 0.95 1.63 242 11.14
1.07 1.47 230 11.87
1.15 1.39 223 12.43
1.27 1.27 214 12.68
102 0.98 1.83 269 11.43
1.08 1.61 259 11.95
1.19 1.55 250 12.67
1.31 1.29 242 12.50
107 0.95 2.01 300 11.36
1.06 1.8 305 12.15
1.17 1.74 295 12.73
1.36 1.31 280 12.88
111 0.96 1.98 340 11.49
1.08 1.75 326 12.29
1.17 1.66 318 12.05
1.26 1.45 311 12.64
115 0.94 2.09 384 11.24
1.07 1.85 370 11.85
1.15 1.7 361 12.67
1.27 1.55 351 12.84
Fig. 8.26 Air dispersion rate versus aeration rate
B. Pulp tests
To investigate the separation performance of the 320 m3 flotation machine, the run-
of-mine, concentrate and tailings of the test system were sampled and tested during
Fig. 8.27 Power consumption versus aeration rate
Fig. 8.28 Air holdup versus aeration rate
the test. Samples were taken once an hour and sent for the laboratory test once per
shift.
The pulp test production stage lasted for 10 days. The cumulative indexes are
shown in Table 8.15.
It can be seen from Table 8.15 that at the feed copper grade of 0.060%, the copper
grade of concentrate is up to 1.256%, and the copper enrichment ratio is up to 20.62.
At the feed sulphur grade of 0.386%, the sulphur grade of concentrate is up to 24.83%,
and the sulphur enrichment ratio is up to 71.44.
C. On-load start test
To reduce the economic loss of the concentrator caused by the failure of full-load stop
of the supersized flotation machine, the supersized flotation machine must realize
on-load start. The full-load start tests of the flotation machine were conducted in the
last stage of the test in order not to affect the tests. The 320 m3 pneumatic mechanical
agitation flotation machine was successfully started after full-load stop for 0.5, 1, 2
294
Table 8.15 Comparison of copper indexes in the industrial test stage

Item Raw ore Concentrate grade/% Tailing grade/% Recovery rate/% Productivity/g Flotation Enrichment ratio
grade/% efficiency/%
Cu S Cu S Cu S Cu S Cu S Cu S Cu S
Value 0.060 0.386 1.256 24.830 0.053 0.218 12.80 39.73 0.64 0.72 12.19 39.50 20.62 71.44
Fig. 8.29 Solids percentage at different depths
and 4 h, respectively, which indicates that the 320 m3 pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine can be started normally after on-load stop.
D. Determination of power consumption of the flotation machine

the performance of the flotation machine. During the test, the pulp concentration
was 30%. When the aeration rate was 1.0 ~ 1.4 m3 /(m2 min), the host current of the
flotation machine was always about 320A, and its actual power consumption was
about 160 kW.
E. Determination of pulp suspension capacity
To investigate the pulp suspension capacity, the distribution of mineral particles
at different depths in the flotation machine was measured, i.e. samples were taken
at eight pulp levels as deep as 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 m
from the lower part of the overflow weir, and hydraulic analysis was carried out. The
results are shown in Fig. 8.29 and Fig. 8.30. It can be seen from the figure that the
pulp size is distributed evenly in the tank of the 320 m3 flotation machine, without
showing the stratification phenomenon between coarse and fine particles; it means
that the flotation machine has a good mineral suspension capability and meets the
design requirement.
The inner part of the flotation machine is usually divided into four areas: rotor agita-
tion area, transport area, separation area and froth area, each of which has its own
functional features. The areas should not be simply scaled up in the process of rapid
upsizing of the flotation machine volume. For the purposes of full agitation and
suspension of the mineral particles and effective contact with the bubbles, the rotor
agitation area is scaled up to a great extent, and enough space and time are provided
Fig. 8.30 PSD at different depths
to enable effective bubble–particle contact for mineralization. The KYF-680 super-

sized flotation machine is supported by the amplification theory of the BGRIMM
flotation machine, and a flotation dynamics control technique for the characteristics
of target minerals has been developed so that coarse minerals can be transported
to higher areas to facilitate the rapid recovery in a short distance and realize the
relatively shallow tank flotation process. The bubble mineralization in the flotation
machine tanks mainly occurs in the way of downstream flow, while rotor agitation
and stator current stabilization are the main ways for formation of mineralization
environments. For the design of the rotor stator of the KYF-680 flotation machine
based on the optimal control strategy for the turbulent dissipation rate, the rotor agita-
tion area is enabled to form a powerful circulation output and produce a uniform and
stable gas–liquid–solid three-phase velocity gradient field. In the rotor chamber area
with high turbulent dissipation rate and great velocity gradient, fine minerals can
realize mineralization with the bubbles in advance here. Outside the rotor area, the
turbulent dissipation rate is moderate subject to the regulation effect of stator current
stabilization. In this state, the space area in the tank is the largest, and the coarse
connate minerals mainly collide with and adhere to the bubbles here. As the mineral-
ized bubbles carrying the coarse and fine minerals float up, the turbulent dissipation
rate gradually decreases so that the mineralized bubbles can smoothly enter the froth
layer for recovery.
From Fig. 8.31 which shows the cumulative mean values of the aeration rate and
the degree of air dispersion under the ore carrying condition, we can see that the
degree of air dispersion can reach 7 at the aeration rate of about 1.0 m3 /(m2 min),
showing excellent air dispersibility. From Fig. 8.32, it can be seen that the gas holdup
in the whole flotation tank varies at different depths. The closer the gas holdup is to
the liquid level, the higher the gas holdup is, which is consistent with the distribution
characteristics of gas holdups in the tank. By calculating the comprehensive gas
Fig. 8.31 Air dispersion rate
Fig. 8.32 Air holdup at

different depths
holdup of the whole flotation tank, it can be seen that the comprehensive gas holdup
of a 680 m3 flotation machine was 7.06% under the test conditions at that time.
The circulating capacity of the 680 m3 supersized flotation machine at the design
speed can reach 500 m3 /min, and the powerful circulating capacity ensures the full
suspension of coarse minerals. The relationship between different aeration rates and
circulation volumes is shown in Fig. 8.33. The circulation volume decreases as the
aeration rate increases. Figure 8.34 shows the change law curves of the speed and
power consumption of the supersized flotation machine under different aeration rate
conditions. It is obvious that the power consumption of the flotation machine shows
a fast-increasing trend as the speed increases, and the input power consumption of
the flotation machine can be reduced with the increase of the aeration rate.
Test on the suspension capacity of the 680 m3 flotation machine. The test contents
include concentration distribution and size fraction distribution at different depths.
From Fig. 8.35, it can be seen that all the concentration distributions of the pulp at
different depths are within the range of 30 ~ 35%. From Fig. 8.36, it can be seen
that the consistency of size fraction compositions is good in the same depth position,
Fig. 8.33 Pumping capacity versus rotor speed
Fig. 8.34 Power consumption versus rotor speed
which shows that the distribution effect of suspension of all size fractions at different
depths is quite good.
The flotation dynamics parameters which affect and reflect the performance of
the flotation machine itself were measured in the process of dynamic tests. Under
the optimal aeration rate condition, the degree of air dispersion can reach above 7,
with a good dispersion effect. The mean gas holdup under ore carrying conditions is
about 7%. The pulp concentrations are distributed uniformly at different depths, and
the size fractions also have consistent distributions in their depths. The circulation
Fig. 8.35 Concentration distribution in open-circuit test
Fig. 8.36 Suspended particle distribution in open-circuit test
volume can reach 500 m3 /min, and the operational power consumption is 360 ~
400 kW.
The behaviour of short circuit in the pulp flow is more common in supersized
flotation machines. The residence time distribution of the KYF-680 flotation machine
was studied in tests. Figure 8.37 shows that the mean residence time of the KYF-680
flotation machine is 17.81 min, which is 89% of the ideal residence time (20 min).
Therefore, there is no obvious short-circuit or dead zone phenomenon in the KYF-680
flotation machine.
Fig. 8.37 Residence time distribution of the KYF-680 flotation machine
8.2 XCF Automatic Suction Pneumatic Mechanical

Agitation Flotation Machine
The pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine has the characteristics of

good flotation process index, reduction of energy consumption and power consump-
tion, simple structure, convenient operation, maintenance and management, etc. The
traditional pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine does not have the pulp
suction capability, the step configuration is adopted between floatation operations
and the middlings must be returned by the froth pump. Since the froth pump is
easy to wear, it is difficult to lift the sticky and non-breakable froth, which makes it
difficult for the process to become unblocked, and the configuration is difficult for
complex processes and cleaner bank. For the newly built concentrator, the invest-
ment of capital construction is increased due to the step configuration, as shown
in Fig. 8.38. The transformation of old concentrators is difficult because both plant
height and process height difference are fixed, which limits the application scope of
the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine. Therefore, the development
of an automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine having
both the advantages of the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine and
the pulp suction capacity is good for saving the return of middlings to the pump,
reducing the plant height, reducing the capital costs, etc. and is of great significance
to the construction and transformation of new and old mines. The XCF automatic
suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine is used either separately or
formed into an aggregate unit with the conventional pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine so that different flotation operations are configured horizontally
without the froth pump, as shown in Fig. 8.39.
8.2 XCF Automatic Suction Pneumatic Mechanical Agitation … 301
Fig. 8.38 Step configuration of flotation bank
Fig. 8.39 Horizontal configuration of flotation bank
8.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures of XCF

Flotation Machine
The structure of the XCF automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation
machine is shown in Fig. 8.40. This flotation machine consists of tank bodies for
accommodating the pulp, big isolation disc rotors with upper and lower blades, seat-
type stators with radial blades, split disc-shaped cover plates, split central cylinders,
connecting pipes with exhaust holes, bearing blocks, hollow spindles, air regulating
valves, etc. There are two kinds of structures, i.e. open and closed. There are seat-type
and side-attached bearing blocks installed to the cross member which also serves as
an air supply pipe. Figure 8.41 is an aggregate unit formed by the XCF automatic
suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine and the KYF pneumatic
A. Working principle
The motor drives the rotor to rotate through the transmission device and the hollow
spindle. The pulp is sucked into the space between the lower rotor blades via the
inner edge of the lower rotor blades. Meanwhile, the low-pressure air supplied from
the outside enters the air distributor in the lower rotor chamber through the cross
Fig. 8.40 Structure diagram of XCF flotation machine (1—lower rotor blade; 2—stator; 3—isola-
tion disc; 4—lower rotor blade; 5—rotor cover plate; 6—central cylinder; 7—hollow spindle;
8—tank body; 9—middlings pipe; 10—feed pipe)
Fig. 8.41 Combined unit of XCF/KYF flotation machines

member, the air regulating valve and the hollow spindle, and then enters the space
between the lower rotor blades through the small holes around the air distributor. The
pulp and air are discharged from the outer edges of the lower rotor blades after being
fully mixed in the space between the lower rotor blades. A certain negative pressure
is generated in the upper rotor blades due to the rotor rotation and the combined
action of the cover plate and central cylinder so that the middlings froth and the
feed flow into the central cylinder through the middlings pipe and the feed pipe and
enter the space between the upper rotor blades, and finally they are discharged from
the outer edges of the upper blades. The pulp discharged from the upper and lower
blades of the rotor enters the tank after current stabilization and orientation by the
stator. The mineralized bubbles ascend to the tank surface and form the froth which
flows into the froth tank. Then the pulp is returned to the rotor area for recirculation,
and the other part enters the next tank for re-separation through the circulation holes
in the wall between the tanks. The function of the rotor isolation disc is to make the
mixture of pulp and air discharged from the lower blades not affect the pulp suction
of the upper rotor blades.
B. Key structures
The design of the XCF automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation
machine focuses on the structures and parameters of the tank body, rotor, stator,
cover plate, connecting pipe, etc., as well as the coordination relationship among
them. The main parts and components are designed as follows:
a. Tank body
The tank body of the XCF flotation machine is designed into a U shape, which is
favourable for the coarse mineral particles to return to the rotor area for recircu-
lation to avoid the accumulation of ore sand and reduce the phenomenon of pulp
short circuit. To facilitate manufacturing and installation, trapezoid-shaped tanks are
generally used when the tank volume is less than 3 m. When the XCF flotation
machine is combined with other pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation units to
form an aggregate unit, the shape of the tank body may be consistent with that of the
direct current tank body for convenient connection between tank bodies. To provide
the XCF flotation machine with the advantages of a general pneumatic mechanical
agitation flotation machine and make it easily combined with the general pneumatic
mechanical agitation flotation machine to form the aggregate unit, a deep tank struc-
ture is adopted, which creates an obstacle to automatic pulp suction and increases
the difficulty in the development of the rotor–stator mechanism.
b. Spindle
Since low-pressure air is compressed into the general pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine, the negative pressure in the central area of the rotor is reduced,
making it difficult to suck the pulp. For this reason, we have designed the spindle
assembly with a pneumatic agitation area and a pulp sucking area, which are separated
by the isolation disc. The pulp sucking area consists of the upper rotor blades, disc-
shaped cover plate, central cylinder, connecting pipe, etc. and the pneumatic agitation
area consists of the lower rotor blades, air distributor, etc.
c. Rotor
The rotor is the main component of the flotation machine and one of the key points
in the design of the flotation machine. The rotor is designed to have upper and lower
blades separated by the isolation disc in order to separate the pneumatic agitation
area from the pulp sucking area. The upper rotor blades are designed into radial
straight blades which can produce suitable suction force and static pressure head,
and reduce the counterflow between the blades and avoid the return of the air in the
main tank into the central cylinder and connecting pipe. The lower rotor blades are
backward-inclined centrifugal blades with high specific speed, low dynamic head
and high flow rate. They are used only for pulp circulation and air dispersion to
meet the requirements of the flotation process for the flotation machine. The range
of aeration rate and the degree of air dispersion have great influences on the scope
of application and process indexes of the flotation machine. The air distributor is
designed in the lower blade chamber of the rotor in order to further improve the
aeration rate and degree of air dispersion. The air distributor is a cylinder with small
holes in the wall. It can distribute the air much more evenly in most areas of the rotor
blades in advance and provide a large number of pulp–air interfaces, thus improving
the air dispersion capability of the rotor.
d. Stator
In addition to making the rotating pulp flow radially and shear the air, the stator of the
XCF automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine must also
protect the air aerated into the pulp via the lower rotor blades against the obstruction
of the stator so that the air can enter the main tank smoothly without entering the
pulp sucking area through the upper rotor blades.
The XCF flotation machine is provided with an open stator with suspended radial
short blades. The stator is installed above the periphery of the rotor and fixed to the
tank bottom by support members. There is a large radial clearance between the stator
and the rotor and a large area for pulp circulation around the lower area of the stator
so that the unnecessary interference of the lower parts on the pulp is eliminated,
which is favourable for the flow of pulp to the lower area of the rotor, reducing the
power consumption and enhancing the circulation in the lower circulation area and
the suspension of solid particles.
Currently, the XCF flotation machine has many specifications with the volumes
of 1 ~ 70 m3 , and the technical parameters are shown in Table 8.16.
Table 8.16 Technical parameters of XCF flotation machine

Specification Effective Installed Minimum inlet wind Aeration rate/m3
volume/m3 power/kW pressure/kPa (m2 min) −1
XCF-1 1 4 >11 0.05~1.4
XCF-2 2 7.5 >12 0.05~1.4
XCF-3 3 11 >14 0.05~1.4
XCF-4 4 15 >15 0.05~1.4
XCF-6 6 18.5 >17 0.05~1.4
XCF-8 8 22 >19 0.05~1.4
XCF-10 10 30 >20 0.05~1.4
XCF-16 16 45 >23 0.05~1.4
XCF-20 20 45 >25 0.05~1.4
XCF-24 24 55 >27 0.05~1.4
XCF-30 30 55 >31 0.05~1.4
XCF-40 40 75 >32 0.05~1.4
XCF-50 50 90 >33 0.05~1.4
XCF-70 70 110 >33 0.05~1.4
8.2.2 Fluid Dynamics Research in XCF Flotation Machines
The automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine has the
performance in two aspects, one is the flotation separation performance and the
other is suction of middlings or feed. The suction of middlings or feed may be
turned on or off according to the requirements of the flotation flow. By taking the
XCF-0.2 m3 flotation machine as an example, the fluid dynamics characteristics in
the automatic suction flotation machine are introduced. Figure 8.42 reveals the flow
pattern of the automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine
without middling suction under the condition of single-phase pure water. An upper
flow circulation and a lower flow circulation appear inside the flotation machine,
which is the basis of ensuring the excellent separation performance. Similar to the
conventional flotation machines, the pulp enters the rotor area from the area below the
rotor. The fluid is separated into upward and downward flows after being discharged
under the action of the rotor blades. Figure 8.43 reveals the flow pattern of the
automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine with middling
suction under the condition of single-phase pure water. The structure of the circulating
flow field is comparative to the overall flow pattern of the flotation machine, that is to
say, middling suction does not destroy the fluid dynamics state in the tank, which is
essential for ensuring the separation performance of the automatic suction pneumatic
mechanical agitation flotation machine. The fluid is sucked from the outside into the
middling pipe or feed pipe, supplied into the rotor area through the central cylinder,
and then discharged by the rotor. Intense collision and mixing occur to the middling
and the pulp sucked in below the rotor in the rotor discharge area. It is foreseeable that
Fig. 8.42 Flow patten of single phase—without middling suction
this is beneficial to increasing the turbulence intensity in the agitation and mixing area
of the flotation machine and improving the collision between particles and bubbles.
Relative to general pneumatic flotation machines, the rotor is the key to the double
function of the automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine.
Figure 8.44 shows the rotor structure and negative pressure distribution of the auto-
matic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine. The rotor consists
of upper and lower blades which are separated by a baffle plate. A wide range of nega-
tive pressure is produced at the leeward side of the pulp of the blades whether they
are upper blades or lower blades. Therefore, under the action of negative pressure
driving force, the pulp in the tank is circulated by the lower blades, and the middlings
are sucked by the upper blades, as shown in Fig. 8.45. In theory, it is contradictory
that negative pressure suction is formed in a low-pressure aerated environment. The
automatic suction flotation machine realizes the relative isolation of the low-pressure
aeration path from the suction path through a series of engineering design, thus
solving the problem of middling suction in the pneumatic flotation machine.
Fig. 8.43 Flow patten of single phase—with middling suction
Figure 8.46 reveals the axial flow distribution in the middle section of the stator
ring with or without middling suction. The flow patterns in both cases are similar, with
certain differences in the local velocities only. Table 8.17 Influence of pulp suction
on fluid dynamic performance Table 8.17 gives a comparative analysis of the main
dynamic performance parameters with or without middling suction. It can be seen that
the rotor circulation volume does not change much. This is very important to maintain
the stable performance of the automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine under different working conditions. From the data, it is seen that
the middling pumping effect of the automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine has no significant effect on the fluid dynamic flow pattern in the
flotation machine, but the operational power consumption is relatively increased to
a large extent by about 15%.
Fig. 8.44 Negative pressure

distribution on impeller of
the automatic suction
air-forced mechanical
agitation flotation machine
(a) Upper blades
(b) Lower blades
8.2.3 Performance and Application of the XCF Flotation

Machines
8.2.3.1 Performance of XCF-8 Flotation Machine
A. Pulp test
With the XCF-8 flotation machine as the testing object, its flotation dynamics in
clean water was tested, and the degree of air dispersion, pulp sucking capacity,
power consumption gas and other related parameters were mainly tested.
At the linear velocity of 7.54 m/s, the mean degree of air dispersion is 2.56 and
the pulp sucking capacity is 4.5 ~ 7 m3 /min. At the linear velocity of 6.97 m/s, the
degree of air dispersion is 3.68 and the pulp sucking capacity is 3.6 ~ 5.5 m3 /min.
Fig. 8.45 Flow path of air

and pulp in the automatic
suction air-forced
mechanical agitation
flotation machine
According to the clean water test, it can be determined that the linear velocity of the
flotation machine within 7 ~ 7.5 m/s fully meets the requirements of the pulp test.
Industrial tests were conducted in order to investigate the separation performance
of the flotation machine, and Table 8.18 shows the index comparison in the debugging
stage.
As can be seen from Table 8.19, the recovery rate of lead is increased by 0.87%
according to the test results of the XCF/XCF-8 flotation machine.
Subsequently, the industrial tests were conducted for 1 month, with the test indexes
as given in table.
As can be seen from Table 8.19, the indexes of the XCF/XCF-8 flotation machine
are better than those of the 6A flotation machine.
B. Comparison of power consumptions
The power consumptions were measured in order to compare the power consumptions
of individual flotation machines, as shown in Table 8.20.
As seen from Table 8.20, the specific power of the XCF-8 flotation machine is
10.80 lower than that of the 6A flotation machine, which shows that the XCF-8
flotation machine has a low power consumption that meets the design requirements.
C. Comparison of losses of wearing parts
The rotor stator of the 6A flotation machine has a service life of about 3 months. The
wear condition of the rotor stator was checked after the XCF-8 runs for 2000 h. It
Fig. 8.46 Axial flow

distribution in the middle
section of the stator ring
(a) Without pulp suction
(b) With pulp suction
Table 8.17 Influence of pulp suction on fluid dynamic performance

Serial No. Item Without pulp suction With pulp suction Unit
1 Torque 26 29.7 N.m
2 1.84 1.73 m3 /min
3 Middling pulp suction 0 0.82 m3 /min
volume
Table 8.18 Index comparison in the debugging stage

Raw ore grade Raw ore grade % Recovery rate (%) Remarks
%
Pb Zn PbK➀ Zn/PbK➁ PbK➀ Zn/PbK➁ ZnK
1 1.305 0.995 67.63 3.53 83.38 5.71 75.76 XCF/XCF-8
2 1.208 0.936 70.00 3.54 82.51 5.39 74.51 6A
3 1.244 1.092 69.38 3.69 82.71 5.29 79.77 6A
Note ➀ Lead concentrate; ➁ Lead concentrate with zinc
Table 8.19 Index comparison in the test stage

Raw ore grade/% Tailings grade/% Zinc Zinc Remarks
Pb Zn Pb Zn concentrate concentrate
grade/% recovery
rate/%
1 1.313 1.013 0.144 0.119 49.96 81.4 XCF/XCF-8
2 1.393 1.036 0.160 0.132 49.62 79.46 6A
3 1.208 0.936 0.167 0.167 49.50 74.57 6A
Table 8.20 Comparison of power consumptions of flotation machines

Item XCF XCF 6A
1 Tank volume/m3 8 8 2.8
2 Installed power/kW 22 15 10
3 Actual power consumption of spindle/kW 16.00 9.62 8.04
4 Aeration power/kW 4.47 4.47 0.00
5 Actual power consumption/kW 21.47 14.09 8.04
6 Specific power/kW m−3 2.56 1.76 2.87
7 Saving as compared with 6A/% 10.80 38.68
was found that the rotor stator was not worn seriously, with a minor impact on the
equipment performance. It was expected to be used normally for 7000 ~ 9000 h, and
the consumption of the wearing parts was reduced by about 70% compared with that
of the 6A flotation machine.
A. Dynamic test
The XCF-24 flotation machine is taken as the testing object and tested in terms of
its flotation dynamics in clean water, mainly including the determination of related
Table 8.21 Results of dynamic test

Rotor Aeration rate/m3 Air dispersion Current/A Air holdup Mean bubble
speed/r (m2 min) −1 % diameter/mm
min−1
145 0.95 2.49 73 12.6 1.32
151 1.13 2.80 75 12.3 1.41
157 1.08 3.89 84 13.4 1.22
163 0.97 3.33 88 11.2 1.20
parameters such as aeration rate, degree of air dispersion, speed, power, air holdup
and bubble diameter. The results of the dynamic test on the XCF-24 pneumatic
mechanical agitation flotation machine are shown in Table 8.21.
Through the testing and analysis of the dynamic parameters in the flotation
machine, the optimal dynamic performance of the pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine can be determined to adapt to the separation requirements of the
process and achieve the optimal application effect of the equipment.
A total of four groups of tests were conducted in order to investigate the pulp
sucking capacity of the XCF-24 flotation machine and the influence on the pulp
sucking capacity after the rotor and cover plate are worn. The aeration rate is set
to about 1.23 m3 / (m2 min). Since the transient current of the flotation machine is
difficult to measure and record, only the maximum current value is determined when
the power consumptions are compared. The test results are shown in Table 8.22.
Table 8.22 Test on pulp sucking capacity of XCF-24 flotation machine (m3 /min)
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Test Rotor speed n = Rotor speed n = Rotor speed n = Rotor speed n =
condition 157 r/min 157 r/min 151 r/min 151 r/min
8 mm for the 15 mm for the 8 mm for the 15 mm for the
clearance clearance clearance clearance
between rotor between rotor between rotor between rotor
and cover plate and cover plate and cover plate and cover plate
Pulp 750 19.17 19.92 20.70 19.45
suction
height
850 18.16 15.02 19.81 15.82
950 19.19 17.42 17.71 16.22
1050 17.26 14.77 16.59 15.80
1150 16.62 13.42 15.17 13.18
1250 15.54 12.09 13.70 12.96
1350 13.36 10.59 11.50 11.51
Maximum 86 74 80 70
current/A
The clean water test shows that when the peripheral speed of the rotor of the
XCF-24 flotation machine is 7.5 m/s. When the aeration rate of the flotation machine
reaches 1.2 ~ 1.5 m3 /(m2 min), the aeration dispersion is good, the pulp level is
stable, and the power consumption is within the design scope.
B. Pulp tests
To investigate the separation performance of the flotation machine, a 4-month indus-

trial test investigation was carried out. The first 2 months were for the debugging
stage, the second 2 months were for the production stage and table gives a comparison
of investigation indexes (Tables 8.23 and 8.24).
The debugging index of the XCF/KYF-24 flotation machine presents an upward
trend month by month. As for the indexes in the production stage, the grade of
coarse ores and concentrates was improved by 3.91%, the rougher recovery rate was
improved by 0.9% and the total theoretical recovery rate was improved by 1.07%.
All the indexes met the design requirements.
Table 8.23 Statistics of indexes of XCF/KYF-24 flotation machine

Time Raw ore grade Grade of coarse Raw ore grade Rougher Concentration
% ores and % recovery rate recovery rate
concentrates (%) (%) (%)
April 0.131 7.55 0.0135 89.63 96.38
May 0.133 9.88 0.0137 89.72 97.76
June 0.118 9.48 0.0107 90.95 98.32
July 0.119 9.49 0.0106 91.06 98.36
Total 0.125 9.06 0.0121 90.58 97.71
Table 8.24 Statistics of indexes of A-type flotation machine

Time Raw ore grade Grade of coarse Raw ore grade Rougher Concentration
% ores and % recovery rate recovery rate
concentrates (%) (%) (%)
April 0.133 6.37 0.0141 89.34 98.06
May 0.131 6.74 0.0137 89.59 98.25
June 0.121 6.25 0.0126 89.64 98.27
July 0.119 5.71 0.0112 90.59 98.01
Total 0.125 6.34 0.0128 89.79 98.15
8.2.3.3 Performance of the XCF-50 Flotation Machine
A. Dynamic test
The XCF-50 flotation machine is taken as the testing object and tested in terms of
its flotation dynamics in clean water, mainly including the determination of related
parameters such as aeration rate, degree of air dispersion and power. The results of
the dynamic test on the XCF-50 pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine
are shown in Table 8.25.
The degree of air dispersion of the XCF-50 flotation machine is greater than 2.0 at
131 r/min, which meets the requirement of air dispersion. The aeration rate reaches
1.17 m3 /(m2 min)−1 , which meets the aeration rate required for conventional mineral
separation, and the power consumption is relatively low.
B. Investigation of pulp sucking capacity
To investigate the pulp sucking capacity of the XCF-50 flotation machine, it is essen-
tial to examine and evaluate the volume of pulp sucked into the flotation machine
per unit time.
When continuous and stable feeding and discharging volumes are maintained,
the liquid level Hf of the feed box will be lower than the liquid level Hc in the
tank of the flotation machine since the XCF-50 flotation machine has certain pulp
sucking capacity, so there is a height difference Hc-Hf inside the flotation machine
and the feed box. If the flotation machine is connected with the feed box, the pulp
in the flotation machine will flow into the feed box at a certain flow rate under the
action of the pressure difference Hc-Hf. This flow rate may be manually adjusted to
maintain the pulp level in the feed box to be always in a constant state, and then the
pulp sucking capacity of the flotation machine is equal to the feed plus the volume
returned by the flotation machine to the feed box.
The pulp sucking capacity of the XCF-50 flotation machine was actually examined
and evaluated according to this scheme which indicated that the pulp sucking capacity
of the XCF-50 flotation machine was greater than 12.8 m3 /min. The flotation machine
has a stable liquid level and the good phenomenon of bubble scraping under this
condition.
Table 8.25 Dynamics test results of XCF-50 flotation machine

Speed of flotation Mean aeration rate/m3 Air dispersion Current of flotation
machine/r min−1 (m2 min) −1 machine/A
1 136 1.22 1.63 143
2 131 1.17 2.07 152
3 126 1.15 1.71 150
Fig. 8.47 XCF-70

automatic suction air-forced
flotation machine
The XCF-70 flotation machine is an automatic suction pneumatic mechanical agita-

tion flotation machine with the largest volume in the world, which has been indus-
trially applied in the Wunugetushan Concentrator, Phase II Project, China National
Gold Group Co., Ltd., as shown in Fig. 8.47. The flotation machine runs smoothly,
with stable liquid level and good air dispersion effect, and there is no fluctuation of
the pulp level on the liquid surface. In addition, the flotation machine has sufficient
pulp sucking capacity, which meets the requirements of concentrator transformation
and realizes the smooth flotation flow and qualified process indexes on the premise
of no large-scale transformation of capital construction.
References
1. Zhengchang S (1996) Development of flotation machines in China in the past 15 years. Met Ore
2. Zhengchang S, Shuaixing S, Shijie L, Huilin L (2004) Development survey of flotation
equipments, nonferrous metallurgical equipment. Supplements 21–26
3. Liang Dianyin Wu, Jianming SZ, Shijie Lu (2002) New development of mineral processing
equipment. Min Metall 7:12–15
4. Jonettis AJ (2001) Design, development, application and operation superiority of Outokumpu
100 m3 tankcell flotation machine. Met Ore Dressing Abroad 5:30–34
5. Oravaiyinia X (2002) Research and development of Outokumpu flotation machine. Met Ore
6. Outokumpumintee (1994) Theory research and practice of Outokumpu flotation. Nonferrous
Mines (5):31–35
Chapter 9
BGRIMM Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation
Machine
With the large-scale mining of mineral resources, the change of resource endowments
is one of the most important challenges in the mineral processing field, wherein the
size distribution and size change of ores are one of new problems [1–3]. General
minerals and wide-size-fraction minerals are shown in Fig. 9.1. The size fraction
distribution of general minerals basically conforms to normal distribution condi-
tions. Conventional-size-fraction minerals have high ratio, while coarse and fine
minerals have low ratio. The design idea of traditional flotation equipment is mainly
for recovery of conventional-size-fraction minerals. Since the recovery of coarse and
fine (especially micro-fine) minerals is difficult, and the ratio is low, the recovery
effect of traditional equipment is relatively poor, but not affecting the whole flotation
indicators. As the ratio of coarse and fine minerals difficult to separate is significantly
increased, and the ratio of conventional-size-fraction minerals is relatively reduced,
the wide-size-fraction distribution is presented. Figure 9.2 shows pyrites distributed
in wide-size-fraction under the microscope, wherein both coarse pyrites and sporad-
ically distributed fine pyrites are very obvious. In the size fraction distribution of
minerals, the separation performance of traditional flotation equipment is reduced
and even fails to separate when coarse and fine minerals are increased. Therefore, it
is necessary to research new equipment technology according to changes of mineral
size fraction composition to realize efficient separation of resources. The separation
demands for wide-size-fraction minerals are increased and are also consistent with
the general background for comprehensive utilization of resources around the world.
For example, in the re-concentration field of tailings, their mineral size fraction
composition is different from primary ores. The wide-range comprehensive utiliza-
tion of artificial minerals like refining furnace slag also proposes higher technical
requirements for the separation technology of wide-size-fraction minerals.
The difference of separation of coarse and fine mineral particles is visually shown
in Fig. 9.3. The mineralization process of coarse minerals needs lower turbulence
intensity in the flotation equipment so that bubbles are difficult to puncture and then
fail to adhere in the collision process. Coarse minerals easily fall off after adhesion.
In the transport area, it is hoped that the ascending distance of mineralized bubbles

318 9 BGRIMM Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
Fig. 9.1 Schematic diagram of general minerals and wide-size-fraction distribution of minerals
Fig. 9.2 Wide-size-fraction distribution of pyrite (microscope X260)
is small. In the separation area, it is hoped that the flow field works stably. However,
compared with coarse minerals, in many aspects, the dynamics environment required
for fine minerals needs higher kinetic energy to overcome the energy barrier in the
adhesion process, and the agitation intensity in the agitating and mixing area needs
to be higher. Because of the difficult falloff after adhesion, in order to make gangue
minerals fall off, it is hoped that the transport distance of mineralized bubbles is
lengthened properly and the turbulence intensity in the separation area is higher.
In a manner of speaking, the dynamics environments required for coarse and fine
minerals are opposite. It is very difficult to meanwhile realize efficient recovery.
9.1 Technology of Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine 319
Fig. 9.3 The separation difference of coarse and fine particles
9.1 Technology of Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
9.1.1 Design Principle of Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation

Machine
The design principle of general flotation machines can be summarized as follows [4,
5]:
(1) Ensure enough air supply in the flotation tank, and evenly disperse the air in the
tank. Acquire moderate bubble size, and increase the collision and adhesion
probability between mineral particles and bubbles.
(2) Ensure sufficient suspension of pulp.
(3) The agitation intensity in the agitating area shall be high, and the pulp circu-
lation volume shall be large properly, so that the mineral particles can be
suspended and the collision probability between bubbles and mineral particles
can be increased.
(4) Build a relatively stable separation area and a steady froth area to reduce the
falloff probability of mineral particles.
However, for separation and flotation equipment for coarse minerals, the following
design principle shall be complied with:
(1) Larger air volume is required and larger bubbles shall be formed to bear larger
floatation of mineral particles.
(2) The input power shall be low, the agitation force of rotor to pulp shall be
weak and the pulp turbulence intensity shall be low, to facilitate the collision
mineralization and floatation between coarse minerals and bubbles.
(3) Ensure uniform air dispersion and sufficient particle suspension under low
agitation force.
(4) The flotation machine shall be designed to shallow tank type to reduce the
ascending distance of the mineralized bubbles of coarse minerals, and the
separation area and froth area shall be more stable to reduce falloff.
As mentioned earlier, there are contradictions between design principles of the
flotation machines for minerals with different size fractions. In order to solve the
above problem, on the basis of researching the mineralization behaviours of minerals
with different size fractions, the idea of “differentiated separation” is proposed to
solve the problem of simultaneous recovery of coarse and fine minerals, namely,
building different dynamic zones in the same system to satisfy the mineralization of
minerals with different size fractions.
The conceptual design of wide-size-fraction flotation machine is shown in Fig. 9.4.
For the separation problem of coarse minerals, establishing gas–liquid–solid three-
phase fluidization in the flotation machine and forming a separation area for coarse
minerals characterized in low turbulence have been proposed in order to improve
the recovery effect of coarse minerals. The rotor passes through the steady flow grid
plate after agitation, and coarse particles will not fall back at a higher flow velocity
Fig. 9.4 The design philosophy of wide-size-fraction flotation machine

inside the clearance of the grid plate and a higher upward flow velocity of coarse
minerals, based on Bernoulli’s equation. Because of the choked flow of the grid
plate, the turbulence intensity above the grid plate is greatly reduced, forming a low
turbulent condition, which is easy for collision and adhesion between coarse minerals
and bubbles. For the separation problem of fine minerals, the density gradient in the
flotation machine is established, the selective circulation of mineral particles as per
size fraction and mineralization is realized and a separation area for fine minerals
characterized in high turbulence is formed. Circulation flow is formed due to internal
and external dual design of the tank body, low density for large internal gas content,
high density for small external gas content and pumping of the rotor. For fine minerals,
the collision and adhesion probability is increased through multiple circulation flow
in the rotor agitating area.
9.1.2 Working Principle and Structure of Wide-Size-Fraction

Flotation Machine
When the rotor of the flotation machine rotates, the low-pressure air (aeration or self-
aerated) enters the spaces between rotor blades via the hole around the distributor.
Meanwhile, the pulp below the false bottom is sucked into the spaces between rotor
blades from the lower part of the rotor, fully mixed with air between rotor blades and
discharged from the upper part of the rotor. Then, the discharged pulp–air mixture
passes through the steady flow grid plate after stator current stabilization and enters
the upper area in the tank. At this time, a large number of bubbles are contained in
the pulp in the internal area in the flotation machine, while no bubbles (or very few
bubbles) are contained in the pulp in the outer circulation channel so that a density
difference is formed between the internal and external pulps. Under the actions of
this density difference and rotor suction, the pulp and bubbles in the internal area
rise, pass through the steady flow grid plate and bring unconventional-size-fraction
minerals to the part above the steady flow grid plate at the set flow velocity, forming a
suspended layer of coarse and heavy minerals. The mineralized bubbles and the pulp
containing fine mineral particles continue to rise. The mineralized bubbles rise to the
liquid surface so that a froth layer is formed, while the pulp containing fine mineral
particles enters the rotor area via the circulation channel after passing through the
baffle plate for recirculation [6].
9.1.2.1 Tank Body
A. Structure and characteristics of the tank body
The tank body design of wide-size-fraction flotation machine is shown in Fig. 9.5.
The tank body consists of internal and external circulation channels, internal area
and false bottom. The internal area is divided into upper and lower areas through the
Fig. 9.5 Tank design (1. External circulation channel; 2. Small area in the tank; 3. Upper area in
the tank; 4. Internal circulation channel; 5. Steady flow grid plate; 6. Short-circuit circulation hole;
7. False bottom)
grid plate. The internal and external circulation channels and the false bottom form
the internal and external pulp circulation circuits, and short-circuit circulation holes
are, respectively, designed between the lower area in the tank and the internal and
external circulation channels.
The tank body design can satisfy the requirements for wide-size-fraction flotation.
(1) The tank body includes aeration area (internal area) and non-aeration area (internal
and external circulation channels), wherein the density difference between such two
areas can be used to increase the pulp circulation in the tank to ensure the suspension
of coarse minerals and reduce the agitation intensity of rotor. (2) Larger ascending
flow consistent with the ascending direction of mineralized bubbles is produced in the
internal area, reducing falloff, shortening the ascending time of mineralized bubbles
and ensuring fast discharge of mineralized bubbles. (3) The flow velocity passing
through the steady flow grid plate is increased due to the design of the steady flow
grid plate, thus forming a coarse particle fluidization above the steady flow grid plate,
keeping the coarse minerals at the shallow tank state, and producing a fluid dynamics
condition suitable for flotation of coarse minerals in the upper area in the tank. (4)
Fine particles are returned to the rotor area through the pulp circulation circuits of the
circulation channels and the false bottom. The pulp turbulence intensity in the rotor
agitating area is high, and the collision probability between bubbles and particles is
high, which are beneficial to the flotation of conventional-size-fraction minerals and
fine minerals. (5) The design of the short-circuit circulation holes of pulp can adjust
the pulp circulation volume and ascending velocity of the steady flow grid plate so
that mineral particles in the suspended layer can be regulated, meanwhile preventing
the ore sand from blocking off the circulation channels during driving.
B. Parameter design of the tank body

Design parameters of tank body mainly include volume, length of tank, width of
tank, area of circulation channels, height of false bottom, etc.
(1) Length, width and depth design of tank
The length of flotation tank may be initially determined through the following
formula. The width size of tank is obtained by adding the length of tank to the
width of the internal and external circulation channels. The depth of tank may be
easily determined through geometric volume.

V
L= n
(9.1)
K
where
L length of tank (m);
V effective volume of tank;
K coefficient, 1.12 generally;
n length index of tank, between 2 and 3 generally, taking 2.7.
(2) Sectional area of circulation channels
Sectional area of circulation channels may be determined according to the pulp flow
velocity in the channels and the pulp volume passing through the channels.
Q
S= (9.2)
V
where
S sectional area of circulation channels (m3 );

Q pulp volume passing through the channels (m3 );
V pulp flow velocity in the circulation channels (m/s).
(3) Height of false bottom

The false bottom is a part of the whole pulp circulation circuits. The minimum flow
velocity in the false bottom shall not be less than the settling velocity of maximum
particles, but shall not be too large either. Otherwise, it will result in severe wear.
The sum between the pulp volume passing through the false bottom and that passing
through the short-circuit circulation holes is the pulp circulation volume of rotor. The
height of false bottom may be calculated through the following formula:
Q 0+
H= (9.3)
2 × 60L V
where
Q circulating pulp volume of rotor, as 2–3 times as the tank body volume generally
(m3 /min);
V pulp flow velocity in the false bottom, greater than the settling velocity of
maximum particles generally, and less than 1.5 (m/s);
L length of tank, (m).
9.1.2.2 Steady Flow Grid Plate
A. Function and structure of the steady flow grid plate
The structure of steady flow grid plate was adopted in the fluidization flotation
machine developed by the former Soviet Union at the earliest, and its function is
as follows: (1) The ascending velocity of the pulp near the steady flow grid plate is
greater than the specified settling velocity of maximum particles to form a suspended
layer of coarse particles. Bubbles are connected and pass through the suspended
layer of coarse particles. Multiple collisions are produced between coarse minerals
and bubbles. Because of the consistent ascending direction between coarse minerals
and bubbles, the collision and contact time between coarse minerals and bubbles
is lengthened, and the adhesion probability is increased. Since mineralized bubbles
have been close to the froth area when rising to the suspended layer, the ascending
distance is short and the coarse particles are at the shallow tank flotation state. (2)
The steady flow grid plate can reduce the turbulence in the upper area in the tank,
build a more stable separation area and froth area, and reduce the falloff probability.
(3) Since coarse particles are in the suspended layer, the pulp density returned to the
rotor area is low and the size is fine, the equipment wear may be reduced and the
aeration performance may be improved, which creates favourable conditions for the
flotation of conventional-size-fraction minerals.
B. Selection and calculation of structural parameters of the steady flow grid plate
There are mainly two structural parameters of steady flow grid plate: channel width
between grid plates and total area of channels. Generally, the channel width between
grid plates need to ensure no blocking of sundries such as chips and rubber during
mineral separation, and the channel width is designed as 30–35 mm industrially.
The total area design of steady flow grid plate is a relatively complex problem,
involving industrial parameters, operation parameters, etc. If the velocity of the pulp
and air mixture passing through the clearance between grid plates is V 1 , the settling
velocity of coarse minerals with upper limit size in the processed minerals is V 1 , the
velocity of the pulp and air mixture passing through the cross section of the upper
area in the tank is V 2 and the settling velocity of lower limit particles of the coarse
machine in the processed minerals is V 2 , then the condition required for forming
suspended layer on the grid plate is
V1 > V1 (9.4)

V2 < V2 (9.5)
9.1.2.3 Rotor
Rotor is a core of the flotation machine. For the wide-size-fraction flotation machine,
the rotor shall have larger pulp circulation capacity, stronger air dispersion capacity
and appropriate agitation intensity. According to the design theory of centrifugal
pump, the backward-inclined rotor of the centrifugal pump has characteristics of low
head and large discharge. In aspect of rotor form, in the low specific speed, medium
specific speed and high specific speed, the characteristics such as large discharge and
low head of high and low specific speed rotors are suitable for wide-size-fraction
flotation machine. The structure form of rotor is shown in Fig. 9.6. Rotor parameters
mainly include rotor diameter, pulp inlet diameter, blade height, blade inclination,
etc. Specific parameter design of the rotor is a complicated process. It may be finally
determined only after going through laboratory test research, simulation research,
commercial test verification and other complete set of development process.
BGRIMM developed the CLF air-forced wide-size-fraction flotation equipment
and CGF self-aerated and pulp-induced wide-size-fraction flotation equipment on
the basis of conceptual design of wide-size-fraction flotation, and both of them have
been widely applied.
9.2 CLF Air-Forced Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
The CLF flotation machine is a pneumatic wide-size-fraction flotation machine devel-

oped by BGRIMM [7]. Based on the research on flotation dynamics theory, for
Fig. 9.6 The structure of rotor

working conditions such as large ratio, high selected pulp density and easy sedi-
ment, through massive exploration about special fluid dynamics environment in the
tank required for separation, this machine has performed deep research on the colli-
sion, adhesion, falloff and other process between coarse and heavy minerals in the
flotation tank and bubbles and on the reasons affecting these processes, and deter-
mined the fluid dynamics environment requirement of improving the recovery rate
of coarse and heavy minerals.
9.2.1 Working Principle and Key Structures
The CLF flotation machine adopts the new rotor, stator system and brand new pulp
circulation mode, wherein it adopts the rotor with backward leaning blades featuring
the high specific speed, the lower blade shape is designed to be consistent with the
flow line of pulp passing through the rotor blades, the agitation force is weak and
it ensures that pulp internally circulates along the specified channel at a lower rotor
speed. The upper pulp downward flows to the lower part of the false bottom via the
circulation channel, enters the rotor area under the actions of the density difference
produced between aeration area and non-aeration area and the rotor suction, then
passes through the grid plate and forms a suspended layer above the steady flow
grid plate. Coarse minerals can be suspended above the steady flow grid plate. The
steady flow grid plate shortens the ascending distance of the mineralized bubbles
of coarse minerals, makes coarse minerals in the shallow tank flotation state and
reduces the turbulence of pulp in the upper area in the tank. A stable separation area
and a froth layer are built. This kind of pulp circulation mode creates good fluid
dynamic conditions for mineralized bubbles ascended and transported to the froth
layer; improves the load capacity of mineralized bubbles and the size of floated fine
mineral particles and ensures lower pulp density, fine size and low power consumption
returned to the rotor area.
For the collision, adhesion and falloff processes between coarse and heavy mineral
particles and bubbles in the flotation machine, combining with the characteristics
of high flotation density, large ratio and concentrated distribution at both ends of
coarse and fine particles, a closed stator system with medium specific speed and
high gradient rotor and lower disc is studied, a strong orientated circulating flow
can be formed in the tank, the circulation volume is large, the aeration rate of the
flotation machine is large and the suspension capacity of mineral particles is strong.
The innovative tank body structure design with multiple circulation channels and
steady flow grid plate forms a suspended layer of coarse and heavy minerals on the
middle and upper parts of the flotation machine, adds the opportunity of effective
adhesion of mineralized bubbles in coarse and heavy minerals, and stabilizes the
froth layer without fluctuation and sediment.
9.2 CLF Air-Forced Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine 327
It is characterized in that
1. Steady flow grid plate can form a suspended layer of coarse and heavy minerals
on the middle and upper parts of the flotation machine, so that coarse and heavy
mineral particles are in a relatively shallow tank state.
2. Multiple circulation channels can form strong orientated circulating flow in the
tank, and the circulation volume is large, adding the opportunities of minerals
adhered and mineralized to bubbles.
3. Short-circuit circulation holes that may be adjusted according to material
properties are designed, strengthening the applicability.
4. Rotor is designed to medium specific speed, stator is lower disc closed type and
the suspension capacity of mineral particles is strong.
(1) Design of tank body
The tank body design of wide-size-fraction flotation machine is shown in Fig. 9.7.
This tank body consists of internal and external circulation channels and false bottom.
The internal area is divided into upper and lower areas through the steady flow grid
plate. The internal and external circulation channels and the false bottom form two
pulp circulation circuits, short-circuit circulation holes are, respectively, designed
between the lower area in the tank and the internal and external circulation channels,
and short-circuit circulation holes can be adjusted. An appropriate circulation hole
is arranged on the tank side plate.
1. The tank body is divided into aeration area and non-aeration area, wherein the
pressure difference produced between pulp in such two areas can be used to
increase the pulp circulation volume in the tank to ensure sufficient suspension
of large ratio minerals, achieve reduced agitation intensity of rotor and solve
the contradiction between weak agitation intensity and easy sediment required
by large ratio minerals.
Baffle
Steady
Circulation
Circulation
Fig. 9.7 The tank of wide-size-fraction flotation machine

2. An ascending flow consistent with the ascending direction of mineralized

bubbles can be produced in the internal area to reduce the falloff force of
coarse and heavy minerals adhered to bubbles and shorten the ascending time
of mineralized bubbles.
3. A part of fine particles are returned to the rotor area through multiple circulation
channels. Because of the pulp circulation circuit of the false bottom, the pulp
turbulence intensity in the rotor agitating area is high, and the collision prob-
ability between bubbles and mineral particles of this part of particles is high,
which are beneficial to the improvement for the flotation effect of conventional
minerals.
4. The design of the short-circuit circulation holes of pulp can adjust the pulp
volume and ascending velocity passing through the steady flow grid plate, so that
the ratio and size range of minerals in the suspended layer can be adjusted, and
the scope of application of the flotation machine can be expanded. Meanwhile,
short-circuit circulation holes can prevent the ore sedimentation from blocking
off the circulation channel during driving and starting.
(2) Rotor–stator system
Rotor is the most important component of mechanical agitation flotation machine;

it bears the functions of pulp agitation, pulp calculation and air dispersion, and its
structure is shown in Fig. 9.8. The following problems are mainly considered in the
rotor design of flotation machine:
1. The agitation intensity shall be moderate, while shall not cause larger velocity
head in the tank. It is because a large velocity head will result in instable
separation area and fluctuated liquid level, affecting bubble mineralization,
reducing recovery of useful minerals, meanwhile adding unnecessary power
consumption.
2. The rotor with backward leaning blades featuring the medium specific speed
shall be adopted, with large discharge and low head. The circulation volume of
Rotor
Stator
Air
Fig. 9.8 The rotor and stator of the CLF wide-size-fraction flotation machine
pulp passing through the rotor shall be large, which is beneficial to the suspension
of mineral particles, air dispersion and improvement for separation indicator.
3. The flow streamline of pulp in the rotor shall be reasonable, and the wear shall
be slight and uniform.
4. The structure shall be reasonable, structure shall be simple and power consump-
tion shall be low.
5. The velocity gradient and the combined effect between rotor and stator shall
produce radial high gradient velocity field, which is beneficial to bubble
dispersion and recovery of fine particles.
(3) Design of steady flow grid plate
The steady flow grid plate is used in the wide-size-fraction flotation machine. As
shown in Fig. 9.9, a similar device has been adopted in the fluidization flotation
machine developed by the former Soviet Union. The steady flow grid plate mainly
has the following functions:
1. Increase the velocity of the ascending ore current passing through the steady
flow grid plate. In other words, the ascending velocity of the pulp near the steady
flow grid plate is greater than the set settling velocity of the coarsest and heaviest
particles to ensure that a suspended layer of coarse and heavy minerals is formed
on the steady flow grid plate. Bubbles collide against coarse and heavy minerals
repeatedly when continuously passing through the suspended layer of coarse
and heavy minerals. Since the ascending direction of coarse and heavy minerals
is consistent with bubbles, the collision and contact time between coarse and
heavy minerals and bubbles is lengthened so that it is close to the induction
time, thus adding the effective adhesion probability between coarse and heavy
minerals and bubbles. However, because mineralized bubbles have been close
to the froth area when rising to the suspended layer, the distance of the bubbles
adhered with coarse and heavy minerals ascending to the froth area is short, so
that coarse and heavy minerals are at the shallow tank flotation state.
2. Steady flow grid plate can reduce the turbulence in the upper area in the tank,
form a suspended layer of coarse and heavy minerals, keep coarse and heavy
Steady flow
grid plate
Fig. 9.9 The steady flow grid plate

minerals in shallow tank state, shorten the ascending distance of mineralized

bubbles and build a stable separation area and froth layer, reducing the possibility
of mineral particles falling off from bubbles.
3. Since coarse and heavy minerals stay in the suspended layer, the pulp density
returned to the rotor area is low and the size is fine, which does not reduce the
wear of rotor and stator, reduce power consumption, but also create favourable
conditions for the flotation of conventional minerals.
Steady flow grid plate of wide-size-fraction flotation machine is made of steel

angles that are separated uniformly and arranged horizontally, and is detachable
to facilitate maintenance and replacement of the rotor, stator and other parts and
components.
At present, the CLF flotation machine has many specifications such as 2, 4, 8, 16
and 40 m3 , and its technical parameters are shown in Table 9.1.
9.2.2 Performance of CLF-8 Flotation Machine
The flotation kinetics test of the CLF-8 flotation machine is carried out in the pulp,
in which relevant parameters such as the aeration rate, air dispersion degree, speed,
power, air holdup, etc. are mainly determined. See Table 9.2 for the test results of
flotation machine dynamics. In addition, because the aeration rate used for flotation
machine cannot represent the maximum aeration rate of the flotation machine during
production, the results of the maximum aeration rate test of the flotation machine
that is performed in clean water before factory shall be listed in Table 9.3.
Table 9.1 Technical parameters of CLF flotation machine

Specification Effective volume Installed power Minimum inlet air Aeration rate
(m3 ) (kW) pressure (kPa) (m3 /m2 min−1 )
CLF-2 2 7.5/5.5 >14.7 0.05–1.4
CLF-4 4 15/11 >19.6 0.05–1.4
CLF-8 8 22/15 >23.5 0.05–1.4
CLF-16 16 45/37 >35 0.05–1.4
CLF-40 40 75/55 >42 0.05–1.4
Table 9.2 Test results of dynamics in the pulp of the flotation machine with volume of 8 m3
Flotation machine operation Concentration III—2 Concentration II—2 Concentration I—2
Aeration rate (m3 /m2 min−1 ) 0.59 0.62 0.68
Air dispersion 4.14 4.53 4.86
Motor power (kW) 9.5 10 9.5
Air holdup 13.33 15.03 16.95
Table 9.3 Test results of flotation machine dynamics in clean water

Type of flotation machine Flotation machine with volume of 8 m3
Air dispersion 4.16 4.27 3.68 2.89
Test results of dynamics are shown in Figs. 9.10 and 9.11, and show that with the
increased aeration rate, the air dispersion is increased and then reduced. If the air
dispersion of the CLF-8 flotation machine is also above 4, and the maximum aeration
rate is about 1.8 m3 /m2 min−1 , it will certify that the aeration rate of this machine
is large, the air dispersion is uniform and the aeration performance is superior to the
common flotation machines, meeting the flotation requirement of refining furnace
slag and other coarse and heavy particles.
In order to investigate the suspension capacity of pulp, the distribution and density
of mineral particles of different depths in the flotation machine are determined. The
distance of the steady flow grid plate of the CLF-8 flotation machine from the overflow
weir is 1.25 m. Take a point below and nearby the steady flow grid plate, respectively,
to measure whether a suspended layer is formed above the steady flow grid plate.
Therefore, the CLF-8 flotation machine shall be sampled on 4 pulp layers with 0.5,
0.8, 1.1 and 1.4 m away from the lower part of the overflow weir, and subject to
screening and grade analysis. See Table 9.4 for analysis results.
Most metals are distributed at two sizes, −200 to +325 and −400, up to above
70%. The content of such two sizes is less at 0.5 and 1.4 m, while is more at 0.8
and 1.1 m. However, for general flotation machines, the content of each size shall be
linearly decreased from the tank bottom to the top. This certifies that a suspended layer
is formed above the steady flow grid plate of flotation machine, which is beneficial
5.0
4.9
4.8
air desparsion degrade
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70
air flow rate( m3 /m2.min)
Fig. 9.10 The relationship between air dispersion degrade and air superficial velocity in 8 m3
flotation machine
17.0
16.5
air holdup(%) 16.0
15.5
15.0
14.5
14.0
13.5
13.0
0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70
Fig. 9.11 The relationship between air holdup degrade and air superficial velocity in 8 m3 flotation
machine
to the flotation of minerals with large ratio and high density. The density of different
depths in the tank also reflects this point.
9.2.3 Performance of CLF-40 Flotation Machine
9.2.3.1 Dynamics Performance
The flotation kinetics test of the 40 m3 CLF flotation machine is carried out in the
pulp, in which relevant parameters such as the aeration rate, air dispersion degree,
speed, power, air holdup, etc. are mainly determined. See Table 9.5 for the test results
of flotation machine dynamics. In addition, because the aeration rate used for flotation
machine cannot represent the maximum aeration rate of the flotation machine during
production, the results of the maximum aeration rate test of the flotation machine
that is performed in clean water before factory shall be listed in Table 9.6.
Test results of dynamics are shown in Figs. 9.12 and 9.13, and show that with the
increased aeration rate, the air dispersion is increased and then reduced. When the
aeration rate of the CLF-40 flotation machine with ores is up to 1.64 m3 /m2 min−1 ,
if the air dispersion is also 3.51 and the maximum aeration rate is about 1.8 m3 /m2
min−1 , it will certify that the aeration rate of this machine is large, the air dispersion
is uniform and the aeration performance is superior to general flotation machines,
meeting the flotation requirement of refining furnace slag and other coarse and heavy
particles.
Table 9.4 Test results of pulp suspension capacity of the flotation machine with volume of 8 m3
Depth (m) Density (%) Size fraction (mm)
+200 −200 to +325 −325 to +400 −400
Weight percent Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal
distribution percent distribution percent distribution percent distribution
rate rate rate rate
0.5 44.45 5 6.21 21 32.74 9.5 30.62 65.5 30.43
0.8 49.77 6.5 8.44 24.5 39.55 8.5 19.62 60.5 32.38
9.2 CLF Air-Forced Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
1.1 63.81 8 10.61 26.5 39.1 5.5 10.02 60 40.27

1.4 59.06 16 15.13 23.5 30.42 18 26.38 52.5 28.07
333
Table 9.5 Test results of dynamics in the pulp of the flotation machine with volume of 40 m3
Flotation machine Scavenging III—1 Scavenging II—1 Roughing II—1 Roughing I
operation
Aeration rate (m3 /m2 1.03 1.19 1.52 1.64
min−1 )
Air dispersion 5.83 6.25 4.58 3.51
Motor power (kw) 45.5 51.5 51 45
Air holdup 12.40 15.20 17.13 16.35
Table 9.6 Test results of flotation machine dynamics in clean water

Type of flotation machine Flotation machine with volume of 40 m3
Air dispersion 4.67 5.61 3.61 2.72
6.5
6.0
air despersion degrade
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Fig. 9.12 The relationship between air dispersion degrade and air superficial velocity in 40 m3
flotation machine
Under different aeration rate conditions, the power consumptions of the flotation
machine have no larger difference, which does not conform to the rule that the power
consumption of flotation machine is reduced with the increased aeration rate in the
previous clean test. The reason is that the selected densities of different flotation
operations are varied. With the flotation process, all the flotation densities of the next
operation are lower than the previous flotation operations, and the required aeration
rate is also lower than the previous flotation operations, while the power consumption
of flotation machine is reduced with the reduced flotation density.
18
17
16
airholdup(%)
15
14
13
12
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Fig. 9.13 The relationship between air holdup and air superficial velocity in 40 m3 flotation machine
In order to investigate the suspension capacity of pulp, the distribution and density
of mineral particles of different depths in the flotation machine are determined. The
distance of the grid plate of the 40 m3 flotation machine from the overflow weir
is 2.15 m. Take a point below and nearby the steady flow grid plate, respectively,
to measure whether a suspended layer is formed above the steady flow grid plate.
Therefore, the CLF-40 flotation machine shall be sampled on 5 pulp layers with 0.5,
1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.4 m away from the lower part of the overflow weir, and subject to
screening and grade analysis. See Table 9.7 for analysis results.
It can be seen that most metals are distributed at two sizes, −200 to +325 and −
400, up to above 70%. The content of such two sizes is less at 0.5 and 2.4 m, while is
more at 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 m. However, for general flotation machines, the content of
each size shall be slightly decreased from the tank bottom to the top. This certifies
that a suspended layer is formed above the grid plate of flotation machine, which is
beneficial to the flotation of minerals with large ratio and high density. The density
of different depths in the tank also reflects this point.
9.2.3.2 Process Indicators
The CLF-40 flotation machine has gone into operation since November 2005 and
entered the production test stage after the process debugging and equipment debug-
ging stages. In Table 9.8, the indicators of production test stage are accumulated and
compared with the expectations. Results show that the obtained concentrate is higher
than 2.31%, the tailing grade is higher than 0.16% and the recovery rate is higher
than 0.79% under the equivalent raw ore grade.
336
Table 9.7 Test results of pulp suspension capacity of the flotation machine with volume of 40 m3
Depth (m) Density (%) Size fraction (mm)
+200 −200 to +325 −325 to +400 −400
Weight percent Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal
distribution percent distribution percent distribution percent distribution
rate rate rate rate
0.5 54.01 2.5 4.26 21 29.63 6 19.22 70.5 46.88
1.0 52.73 5.5 8.58 20 32.29 8.5 15.70 66 43.43
1.5 59.06 6 8.04 25.5 37.99 6.5 11.96 62 42.02
2.0 75.89 7.5 11.83 24.5 35.66 8.0 10.67 60.0 41.84
2.4 70.39 17.5 25.98 19 22.18 13 19.05 50.5 32.80
9 BGRIMM Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
9.3 CGF Automatic Suction Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine 337
Table 9.8 Indicator comparison

Raw ore grade (%) Concentrate grade Tailings grade (%) Recovery (%)
(%)
Accumulated 2.32 27.18 0.4 83.93
indicators of
production test
Expectations 2.04 24.87 0.37 83.14
Production 0.28 2.31 0.16 0.79
test—expectations
9.3 CGF Automatic Suction Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation

Machine
The CGF mechanical agitation flotation machine is a high-efficiency, energy-saving,

self-aerated and pulp-induced flotation machine developed by BGRIMM, and can
be widely used for separation of precious metals, non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals
and non-metallic coarse and heavy minerals.
9.3.1 Key Structure and Working Principle
The CGF flotation machine mainly consists of a tank body, a rotor, a stator, a central
cylinder, a suction pipe, a steady flow grid plate, etc. The tank body consists of internal
and external circulation channels, a steady flow grid plate and a false bottom. The
multiple circulation channels allow fine minerals to collide with bubbles repeatedly,
realizing the wide-size-fraction recovery. The central cylinder and suction pipe are
important components which can self-suck air and pulp of the CGF wide-size-fraction
flotation machine.
9.3.1.1 Working Principle
The CGF flotation machine adopts the rotor comprising a separating plate, an upper
blade and a lower blade, which can ensure sufficient suspension of mineral particles
and sufficient separation of bubbles in all the pulp while sucking air, meanwhile
adopting the stator with angle blade. The radial clearance between the stator and
the rotor is larger. The pulp circulation area around the lower area of the stator is
large, which can eliminate the unnecessary interference of the parts in lower tank and
reduce the power consumption. The pulp–air mixture thrown out from the rotor can
smoothly enter the pulp so that the air can be dispersed well, as shown in Fig. 9.14.
Fig. 9.14 The self-aerated

CGF wide-size-fraction
flotation machine
A. Key structures
(1) Structure of tank body
In order to meet the separation requirement of wide-size-fraction minerals, on the
basis of fully researching the advantages and disadvantages of the existing flotation
machine tank body, the tank body of CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine is
designed as shown in Fig. 9.15, basically consistent with the CLF flotation machine.
The tank body consists of internal and external circulation channels, internal area
and false bottom. The internal area is divided into upper and lower areas through
the grid plate. The internal and external circulation channels and the false bottom
Fig. 9.15 The tank of the

CGF flotation cell (1. False
bottom; 2. Lower area in the
tank; 3. External circulation
4 5
channel; 4. Steady flow grid
plate; 5. Upper area in the
tank; 6. Internal circulation 3 6
channel; 7. Circulation hole;
8. Short-circuit circulation 7
hole) 2
1
form two pulp circulation circuits, short-circuit circulation holes are, respectively,
designed between the lower area in the tank and the internal and external circulation
channels, and short-circuit circulation holes can be adjusted. The tilting plate above
the external circulation channel can play the role of pushing the froth board to drive
the froth to move to the overflow weir. An appropriate circulation hole is arranged
on the tank side plate.
(2) Rotor stator system
In most mechanical agitation flotation machines, the bubbles adhered with mineral
particles account for 30–55% only of total, which is caused due to height turbulence
of pulp in the tank. All of these directly lead to reduced unit volume production
capacity of the flotation machine and difficult flotation of large-particle minerals.
Therefore, the CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine is required to suck air and
circulate pump. For this purpose, the rotor comprising a separating plate, an upper
blade and a lower blade is adopted, as shown in Fig. 9.16. It can ensure sufficient
suspension of mineral particles and sufficient separation of bubbles in all the pulp
while sucking air, so that there is higher flotation probability in the flotation tank,
meeting the process requirement of wide-size-fraction flotation.
The CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine is provided with a stator with corner
blades. The radial clearance between the stator and rotor is large; the pulp at the
periphery of the lower part of the stator can flow over a large area in order to elimi-
nate the unnecessary disturbance against pulp by the lower parts, reduce the power
consumption and enhance the circulation and suspension of solid particles in the
lower circulation area of the tank. The mixture of pulp and air that is thrown out
from the rotor may enter the pulp smoothly to make the air disperse properly. The
rotor–stator equipment of CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine is shown in
Fig. 9.17.
(3) Central cylinder and suction pipe
The central cylinder is a key component of the CGF wide-size-fraction flotation
machine to achieve the function of self-suction and pulp suction. In the flotation
process, both the feeding and middling are sucked into the upper rotor chamber
Fig. 9.16 The rotor of the

CGF flotation cell
Fig. 9.17 The rotor and

stator of the CGF flotation
cell
Fig. 9.18 The central

cylinder of the CGF flotation
cell
through the feeding pipe and middling pipe on the central cylinder; diameters of
the feeding pipe and middling pipe can meet the requirements for the processing
capacity of the flotation machine, as shown in Fig. 9.18.
The suction pipe is the passage for air to enter into the rotor of the flotation
machine; the inner diameter of the suction pipe not only affects the suction rate of the
flotation machine, but also affects the power consumption of the flotation machine.
A variety of factors should be analysed comprehensively in order to determine the
inner diameter of the suction pipe, including the vacuum degree to be achieved by
the rotor of the flotation machine, air amount required in the flotation process, etc. In
the serialization process of CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine, the vacuum
degree that can be achieved by the flotation machine is basically consistent; it is
assumed that the velocity of the air is the same in the suction pipe and the inner
diameter of the suction pipe is calculated based on the required suction rate, upon
the consideration of installing a butterfly valve on the upper end of the suction pipe
to control the air amount of the flotation machine in the industrial production, the
Fig. 9.19 The suction pipe

of the CGF flotation cell
inner diameter of the suction pipe should be amplified appropriately. The suction
pipe of CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine is shown in Fig. 9.19.
(4) Steady flow grid plate
Steady flow grid plate is used in the CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine, similar
to the steady flow grid plate adopted in the CLF flotation machine. The similar device
has been adopted in the fluidization flotation machine developed by the former Soviet
Union. Steady flow grid plate of CGF wide-size-fraction flotation machine is made
of steel angles, which are separated uniformly and arranged horizontally, and is
detachable to facilitate maintenance and replacement of the rotor, stator, feeding
pipe, middlings pipe and other parts and components.
At present, the CGF flotation machine has many specifications of 1–40 m3 , and
its technical parameters are shown in Table 9.9.
9.3.2 Dynamic Performance of CGF Flotation Machine
9.3.2.1 Dynamic Performance
To investigate the performance of the CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation machine,

the dynamic parameters of the flotation machine were measured under the clean water
condition, mainly including the suction rate, the degree of air dispersion, power, air
holdup, bubble diameter, etc. See Table 9.10 for test results.
Table 9.9 Technical parameters of CGF flotation machine

Specification Effective volume (m3 ) Installed power (kW) Suction rate (m3 /m2 min−1 )
CGF-1 1 5.5 1.0
CGF-2 2 7.5 1.0
CGF-4 4 22 1.0
CGF-8 8 30 1.0
CGF-10 10 37 1.0
CGF-16 16 55 1.0
CGF-40 40 90/110 1.0
Table 9.10 Measurement results of dynamic parameters of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation

machine
Serial Suction rate Air dispersion Motor Air holdup Bubble Bubble
No. (m3 /m2 min−1 ) power (%) diameter surface
(kW) (mm) area flux
(s−1 )
1 0.32 2.36 6.5 10.75 3.92 19.43
2 0.67 2.06 6.15 16.12 6.72 23.73
3 0.83 2.47 5.81 18.31 7.26 27.21
4 0.88 2.08 6.42 19.12 8.91 23.51
5 0.89 2.46 5.86 19.12 9.57 22.13
6 1.00 2.96 6.14 19.21 9.88 24.33
The relation between suction rate and air dispersion is shown in Fig. 9.20, the
relation between suction rate and power consumption is shown in Fig. 9.21, the
Fig. 9.20 The relationship between self-aerated volume and air dispersion
Fig. 9.21 The relationship between self-aerated volume and power consumption
relation between suction rate and air holdup is shown in Fig. 9.22 and the relation
between suction rate and bubble diameter is shown in Fig. 9.23.
As seen from Table 9.10 and Figs. 9.20, 9.21, 9.22 and 9.23, the air volume
of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation machine can be adjusted between 0.3 and
1.0 m3 /m2 min−1 , meeting the requirement of different flotation processes for air
volume. All the air dispersion is greater than 2, which is good. The actual power
consumption of the motor is about 85% and it is good. The minimum air holdup is
10.75%, meeting the requirement of flotation process for air volume. Under clean
water conditions, the bubble diameter of the flotation machine is less than 10 mm,
Fig. 9.22 The relationship between self-aerated volume and air holdup
Fig. 9.23 The relationship between self-aerated volume and air bubble diameters
and the bubble surface area flux is about 23.20/s. All the measured data show that the
flotation dynamic parameters of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation machine achieve
the design requirement.
In order to investigate the suspension capacity of pulp, the pulp density and the
size distribution of different depths in the flotation machine are determined. Since
the distance of the steady flow grid plate of the CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation
machine from the overflow weir is 0.42 m, take a point below and nearby the steady
flow grid plate, respectively, to measure whether a suspended layer of coarse particles
is formed above the steady flow grid plate. Therefore, sample at 5 heights, i.e. 0.35,
0.50, 0.65, 0.80 and 0.95 m from the tank bottom of the flotation machine, and
conduct size fraction and grade analysis.
The sampling analysis results of deep tank of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation
machine are shown in Table 9.11, the variation curve of +0.212 mm particle content
with the height from the tank bottom is shown in Fig. 9.24 and the variation curve
of pump density with the height from the tank bottom is shown in Fig. 9.25.
As seen from Fig. 9.24, the content of +0.212 mm particles above the steady flow
grid plate has a sudden rise, the content below the steady flow grid plate is 48.58%,
the content above the steady flow grid plate is increased to 51.51% and the up content
is reduced to 50.30%. These characteristics show that a suspended layer of coarse
particles is formed above the steady flow grid plate of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction
flotation machine, which is beneficial to the flotation of coarse minerals.
Table 9.11 Test results of pulp suspension capacity of CGF-2 flotation machine
Height Pulp Size fraction (mm)
from the concentration +0.5 −0.5 to +0.212 −0.212 to +0.1 −0.1 to +0.075 −0.075
tank (%)
bottom Weight Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal Weight Metal
(m) percent distribution percent distribution percent distribution percent distribution percent distribution
rate rate rate rate rate
0.95 21.88 3.07 10.42 25.61 50.25 59.43 35.34 9.22 2.98 2.66 1.00
0.80 31.93 14.14 26.85 35.35 46.22 32.32 20.45 3.03 1.19 15.15 5.30
0.65 31.88 14.08 27.94 36.22 46.95 37.22 20.40 4.02 1.54 8.45 3.16
0.50 31.70 15.15 27.89 36.36 45.56 41.41 23.26 2.02 0.98 5.05 2.31
0.35 30.65 14.31 28.79 34.27 44.09 42.33 22.84 5.56 2.31 3.53 1.97
9.3 CGF Automatic Suction Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
345
Fig. 9.24 The variation of the content of +0.212 mm with the distance away from tank bottom
Fig. 9.25 The variation of concentrator with the distance away from tank bottom
As seen from Fig. 9.25, the pump density in the flotation machine has a slight
rise process above the steady flow grid plate. For the common flotation machines,
the pulp density is gradually and slightly decreased from the tank bottom to the top,
which further shows the existence of a suspended layer of coarse particles above the
steady flow grid plate of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation machine.
As seen from Figs. 9.24 and 9.25, the CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation machine
is free of sediment, most coarse particles focus on the middle part of the tank above
the steady flow grid plate, while the pulp density is low and the size is fine in the rotor
area. Therefore, it can be seen that the CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation machine
adopts the steady flow grid plate, coordinates with general circulation of pulp and
forms a suspended layer above the steady flow grid plate, meeting the separation of
coarse and fine particles at the same time, and achieving the expected requirement
of design.
9.3.2.2 Process Indicators
In order to investigate the flotation indicators of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation

machine, statistics about production indicators of flotation operations in 4 months
are conducted, as shown in Table 9.12.
As seen from Table 9.12, after the flotation machine parameter and reagent system
are optimized and adjusted, and after experiment, under the condition in which the
raw ore grade of flotation is 1.37%, the concentrate grade of the CGF flotation cell
is 3.78%, the tailing grade is 0.71% and the recovery rate of flotation operations is
up to 59%.
In order to investigate the separation of CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flotation
machine for lepidolite better, the raw ores, concentrates and tailings of the overall
process are subject to sampling analysis, and the size distribution and metal content
distribution of each product are investigated. Results are shown in Table 9.13. It can
be seen that the lithium in the concentrates and tailings is the same with that in the
raw ore, mainly distributed in three size fractions, +0.5 mm, −0.5 to +0.212 mm
and −0.212 to +0.1 mm. As seen from the recovery rate of each size fraction,
all the recovery rates at size fractions of −0.5 to +0.212 mm, −0.212 to +0.1 mm
and −0.1 to +0.075 mm are high, among which the recovery rate at −0.1+0.075 mm
is the highest, up to 85.52%, and the total recovery rate is up to 73.61%, higher than
69.2% of the expected indicator. This shows that the CGF-2 wide-size-fraction flota-
tion machine improves the separation of coarse minerals while ensuring the flotation
of conventional size fraction.
The wide-size-fraction flotation machine is developed to satisfy the change of
mineral resource endowments, especially the flotation equipment technology devel-
oped with the increased ratio of coarse and fine particles. For different separation
requirements for coarse and fine minerals, the wide-size-fraction flotation machine
forms a unique design idea and technical solution, provides differentiated flotation
dynamic environments for the recovery of coarse and fine minerals, obtains a good
application effect in the engineering practice and has wide application prospects.
Table 9.12 Statistics about production indicators

Month Raw ore grade (%) Concentrate grade Tailings grade (%) Recovery (%)
(%)
1 (debugging) 1.43 3.85 0.97 42.70
2 (debugging) 1.39 3.81 0.91 45.60
3 (debugging) 1.41 3.94 0.94 44.40
4 (industrial test) 1.37 3.78 0.71 59.00
348
Table 9.13 Size and grade analysis of raw ores, concentrates and tailings (lepidolite)
Size fraction Raw ore Concentrate Tailings Recovery
(mm) Grade Weight Metal Metal Grade (%) Weight Metal Metal Grade Weight Metal Metal (%)
(%) percent content distribution percent content distribution (%) percent content distribution
(%) (g) rate (%) (%) (g) rate (%) (%) (g) rate (%)
+0.5 2.1 15.66 1.64 25.72 4.47 12.53 2.77 13.16 1.98 16.36 1.60 50.10 10.26
−0.5 to +0.212 1.65 34.14 2.81 44.04 4.94 48.08 11.76 55.83 0.66 33.33 1.09 34.02 69.25
−0.212 to +0.1 0.96 26.10 1.25 19.59 4.56 22.22 5.02 23.82 0.24 31.31 0.37 11.62 79.17
−0.1 to +0.075 0.65 7.03 0.23 3.57 2.58 6.46 0.83 3.92 0.12 7.07 0.04 1.31 85.52
−0.075 0.53 17.07 0.45 7.07 1.3 10.71 0.69 3.27 0.16 11.92 0.09 2.95 79.61
Accumulative 1.39 100.00 6.92 100.00 4.34 100.00 21.48 100.00 0.48 100.00 2.38 100.00 73.61
9 BGRIMM Wide-Size-Fraction Flotation Machine
References 349
References
1. Zhengchang S (2012) Principle and technology of flotation machine. Metallurgical Industry

Press, Beijing
2. Dianyin L, Jianming W, Zhengchang S et al (2002) New progress in mineral processing
equipment. Min Metall 7:12–15
3. Zhengchang S, Shuaixing S, Shijie L et al (2004) Development survey of flotation equipment.
Non-Ferrous Metall Equip S1:21–26
4. Shuaixing S, Yuejun Z, Dengfeng H et al (2013) The discuss of the sever problems of the
configuration of the large flotation cell. Nonferrous Met S1:199–201
5. Qiang Z (2009) Overview of mineral processing. Metallurgical Industry Press, Beijing
6. Zhenchang S, Guizhi L, Shijie L et al (1999) The application and characteristics of the BGRIMM
flotation cell. Nonferrous Met 6:31–33
Chapter 10
Process Control System of Flotation
Machines
10.1 Development and Current Situation of Flotation

Machine Control System
The process control of flotation machines refers to a continuous monitoring and auto-
matic control technology that is used to meet the production demands of concen-
trators, mainly including production safety, production benefit, product quality,
environmental protection, etc. The method of implementing process control is
achieved by participation and coordination of designers or field operators with suit-
able controllers, detection instruments and execution units as hardware basis [1].
The flotation process control is an important method used to improve the flotation
efficiency.
Since the 1940s, the process control technology of flotation machines has rapidly
developed, substantially changing the adverse situation of traditional mineral sepa-
ration technology lagging. According to the traditional mineral separation process,
operators manually regulate the mineral separation variables depending on their expe-
riences. The control on technological process is neither accurate nor timely, which
causes production difficult to achieve ideal indicator and causes poor work environ-
ment [2]. The automatic detection technology can timely and effectively indicate the
changes of mineral separation process parameters; it can timely, accurately and auto-
matically adjust the flotation parameters according to the feedbacks. The application
of such two technologies not only improves the mineral separation indicators, but
also reduces the energy consumption, effectively improving the labour condition.
According to statistics [3], the automation technology can improve equipment effi-
ciency by 10–15% after being applied in concentrators, improve labour efficiency
by 25–50% and reduce the production cost by 3–5%.

352 10 Process Control System of Flotation Machines
10.1.1 Early Development of Flotation Machine Process

Control Technology at Home and Abroad
In 1915, Professor Louis Ricketts in Princeton University has started using large
mechanical equipment when designing Inspiration concentrator with daily capacity
of 15,000 t/d, including feeder, belt conveyor, ball mill, flotation machine, hydro-
cyclone, sampler, etc. [4]. With improved technology, the adjustment to xanthates
can adjust the content of copper sulphide in tailings when the amount of alkali in
Inspiration concentrator is controlled within a certain range. However, when the type
and grade of ores changes, the equipment cannot automatically give an alarm, they
can be observed depending on field operators only. The process control system of
Inspiration concentrator is conducive to stabilization of technological process and
reduction of external disturbance, which is very important for the development of
control system in flotation. Both detection and control levels of Inspiration concen-
trator were up to such a degree at that time. It seems incredible after 50 years. It brings
far-reaching influence on development of automatic control technology of flotation.
The process control system of flotation machines has been installed in many
concentrators between 1918 and 1928, such as R&D project and laboratories in
colleges and universities [5]. These projects gradually develop the flotation control
performance from lagging to high efficiency, predictability and controllability.
However, the on-line analyzer cannot rapidly indicate grade and recovery rate at
that time, while the experienced operators can visually observe the advantages and
disadvantages of flotation indicators. When indicators become poor, operators will
timely change the dosage, height of liquid level or aeration rate to improve indicators.
The National Mining Association, Steel Manufacturers Association and American
Petroleum Institute organized a conference [6] about flotation development in Salt
Lake City in 1927, and discussed this issue again in 1928. However, the economic
crisis made flotation technology sluggish. For control, the immature flow detection
technology was also a factor restricting its development at that time.
During World War II, the development of control technology also drove the metal-
lurgical industry, and some new sensors emerged. Such as pressure sensor, it not only
can detect the liquid level of pulp, but also can calculate the density of pulp [7]. The
electromagnetic flowmeter and density pressure gauge can measure the flow of pulp,
and their main function is to detect the extracted ore tonnage of the mill, such as
Duval Sierrita concentrator in Arizona.
It is always a challenge to rapidly analyze the grade of raw ore or concentrate after
sampling, until an X-ray fluorescence analyzer [8] was invented in Broken concen-
trator in 1956, greatly reducing the sampling analysis time. The original laboratory
analysis time of 4 h is changed to half an hour, but this stage is just a transitional
period for now minutes of current-carrying analysis technology.
The Chinese mineral separation automation started after the late 1950s. It is also a
process from simple to complicated [9]. Between the late 1950s and the mid-1970s,
restricted by the on-line detection instrument and control technology at that time,
the concentrators have mainly achieved single-loop and single parameter control or
10.1 Development and Current Situation of Flotation Machine … 353
multi-loop control for process of flotation machines by means of analog meter. For
example, in the 1960s, the feed control, pH value control and overflow concentration
control developed by BGRIMM in the silver concentrator were the single-loop and
single parameter control.
Up to the 1970s, the emergence of large integrated circuits drove the develop-
ment of flotation electrical equipment. Especially for current-carrying analyzer, large
integrated circuits provide hardware help for it. The OSA system has encountered
some physical and mechanical difficulties at the preliminary stage of development.
However, these problems have been solved with the development of science and
technology [10].
In 1970, all the on-line analyzer of concentrate, digital computer control system
and other modern equipment appeared in concentrators, can control the flotation
process better [11]. For design of some new concentrators, it is very common to
first make an automatic control plan. Outokumpu in Finland develops rapidly in the
automatic control field, and develops a current-carrying analyzer when exploiting low
grade of iron pyrites in the Keretti mine [12]. The accuracy of the current-carrying
analyzer is verified in Outokumpu’s other five concentrators, and then sold externally.
The X-ray fluorescence current-carrying analysis system was successfully developed
in Outokumpu’s laboratory in 1970, accelerating the development of the automatic
control system in the flotation process.
The centralized control room of concentrators emerged in the mid-1970s. Moni-
tors can obtain the operation information of equipment in concentrators at far end,
and can guide field operators remotely [13]. At that time, the computer configuration
was very low with memory of 8 kB only, but it was sufficient to process the electric
signal fed back from the equipment. The designers of flotation control program had
a deeper understanding of flotation process while developing codes that can meet
the control requirements, laying a solid foundation for the design of more efficient
codes.
From the late 1970s, the Chinese concentrators have started controlling some
parameters of mineral separation by means of single board computers, e.g. BGRIMM
cooperated with Bajiazi Lead–Zinc Ore to control the mineral separation process of
flotation machines by means of TP2801 single board computer; Kunming Metal-
lurgy Institute successfully adopted TP2801 single board computer for control in the
Yimen copper mine concentrator. BGRIMM, Central South University of Technology
and other units carried out direct digital control in the grinding grading process by
means of domestic JS210 small computer. Anhui Tongling Dongguashan concen-
trator adopted Finland’s Pmscon20/200 computer control system, Jiangxi Yongping
Copper Mine introduced a computer control system from U.S., and all of them played
facilitation function on the development of flotation process automation [14].
10.1.2 Process Control Situation of Flotation Machines

at Home and Abroad
Now the automation integration degree of concentrators also becomes higher and
higher, wherein the control system of flotation machines is also divided into three
different levels according to complexity, hardware requirement and performance, as
shown below successively: (1) Stable control; (2) Supervisory control; (3) Optimal
control.
1. Stable control
The control loops of flotation machines mainly include pulp level control, aeration
rate control and reagent addition volume control of flotation machines, etc. For each
single-loop control, operators can keep automatic variables at set values as long as
inputting individual set values only. All programs of control loops are executed in one
process controller, and the PID control algorithm is used in each control loop [15].
The early automatic flotation control includes one or two PID control loops, while
the current DCS system may include hundreds of PID loops. A good adjustable
controller can stabilize the pulp at the set position. For example, the liquid level
will rise when the flow of pulp is increased suddenly, at this time, the valve of this
operation will open wide to keep the set liquid level, which will cause increased
feeding quantity of next operation. Since this kind of interference will spread from
one tank wave to the other tank, the stability adjustment of the whole system will
take a while. For accurate pulp level control, now the supervisory control system or
other more flexible and efficient modern control strategies can be adopted.
The Century concentrator in Australia has the largest flotation process control
system [16] at that time, including 79 flotation machines with the volume of 200 m3
and 45 level control systems. In view of linkage relations between operations, single-
loop PID control may be insufficient. Therefore, a new control algorithm is required
to achieve pulp level control.
2. Supervisory control
The supervisory control system means that the stable control loop can automatically
adjust the set values so that all control loops act simultaneously to achieve optimal
flotation loop performance [17]. These set values will be adjusted after compared
with some performance indexes or control objectives according to the measured
flotation efficiency.
The supervisory control system as a higher level of control system can reduce
many repeated operations of operators. For example, operators can observe the
sampling result of lower tailings every five minutes by means of X-ray fluores-
cence analyzer, and set the current flotation parameters based on parameters such
as dosage, aeration rate and liquid level of good indicators, in order to obtain better
mineral separation indicators. Although this ensures the recovery rate, low grade of
concentrate may be caused. The supervisory control fails to coordinate the associated
influence between such two indicators. In order to solve this problem, the control
10.1 Development and Current Situation of Flotation Machine … 355
experts have used many methods to coordinate the influence between technological
processes. The typical method is optimal control.
3. Optimal control
The optimal control system adopts the optimization technology to control the flotation
condition within a suitable range according to objectives such as grade or recovery
rate. One method is as follows: Record as many data as possible in the monitoring
system of concentrators, and extract data with good indicators for training to find the
optimal flotation process parameter combination.
The directional logic and rule-based control algorithm have been used on flotation
parameter setting. Such a system is like an operator with rich experiences. The param-
eter settings are always adjusted towards the optimal direction, and are called expert
control system later. It is developed by AI experts, and can simulate experienced
experts to solve some problems.
Now the common flotation process control system in the industrial production
includes pulp level control, aeration rate control and froth image analysis, etc. of
flotation machines.
10.2 Pulp Level Control of Flotation Machines
The pulp level control of flotation machines is the most important part of the process
control of flotation machines. Stable pulp level in tank is not only an important
precondition of normal operation of flotation equipment and technological process,
but also can effectively reduce the potential safety hazards, and more it also has direct
influence on improvement of production indicators. Especially for large flotation
machines, the volume is large and the tank is deep. Keeping stable pulp level in the
flotation tank is beneficial to stabilization of concentrate grade and improvement of
recovery rate. In the flotation process, the high-quality froth includes upper, middle
and lower layers. The concentrate grade of the top froth is the highest, and the lower
the layer, the lower the concentrate grade. The height of liquid level directly affects the
grade and recovery rate of the final product. Especially in the concentration operation,
the improvement of pulp level can improve the recovery rate, while the concentrate
grade will be reduced. The reduction of pulp level can improve concentrate grade,
while the recovery rate will be reduced. Therefore, it is a key factor to keep the
liquid level of the flotation machine at a suitable height to improve the technical and
economic indicators of flotation operation.
In the mineral separation production process, the height of liquid level of the flota-
tion machine is easily affected by multi-aspect disturbance factors such as instable
grinding loop, ore concentration and valve opening. The liquid control technology
of the flotation machine is to combine with modern detection instruments, and keep
stable height of pulp level by using timely and effective regulating measures before
or after periodic and non-controllable disturbance quantity takes effect.
At present, many flotation machine manufacturers have developed matched level

control systems of the flotation machine, such as Outotec’s EXACT, FLSmidth’s ECS
and BGRIMM’s BFLC. Although different manufacturers’ level control systems are
slightly different in specific form and technical detail, they basically consist of three
main units: level detection unit, actuator unit and control strategy unit. This section
introduces the level control system of the flotation machine in detail with BGRIMM’s
BFLC level control system as an example.
The level control system of the flotation machine consists of three parts, namely,
a level measurement device, local control cabinet and actuator. Its working principle
is: First, the level measurement device converts the detected liquid level to standard
current signal of 4–20 mADC, after the master controller in the local control cabinet
executes A/D conversion on the incoming current signal, the D/A outputs the drive
current signal to the pneumatic actuator after performing a series of operations by
means of a special control algorithm for flotation level, and the pneumatic actuator
linearly regulates the opening of the ore discharge valve according to the magnitude
of current, in order to finally achieve the purpose of controlling the liquid level.
Figure 10.1 is the schematic of level control system of BFLC flotation machine. The
level control system of BFLC flotation machine can achieve automatic control of
the flotation operation level of multiple tanks, ensure stable flotation process, and
effectively stabilize the grade and recovery rate of concentrates in order to meet the
requirements of process indicators. This system has been widely applied in China’s
many concentrators and obtained the industry praise with accurate and stable control,
simple operation and maintenance, and stable and reliable operation.
Fig. 10.1 BFLC pulp level control strategy of flotation machine

10.2 Pulp Level Control of Flotation Machines 357
10.2.1 Level Detection Device
In the flotation process, the pulp in the flotation tank will generate intense agitation
due to rotation of the rotor. At the same time, lots of bubbles will be generated in
the flotation tank due to influence of aeration and dosage. The hydrophobic mineral
particles will adhere to bubbles, and will be brought into the pulp level by bubbles
and then accumulate to mineralized froth layer, and the hydrophilic gangue particles
will stay in the pulp. This process is carried out on a three-phase boundary, namely
solid (mineral particles), liquid (water) and air (bubbles). Thicker froth layers are
accumulated above the liquid level, intense agitation is generated in the flotation
tank, and the pulp has adhesion and corrosivity, which brings difficulty for the liquid
level measurement of the flotation machine. It is necessary to focus on how to solve
the liquid level measurement problem of the flotation machine [18].
Many liquid level detection methods of the flotation machine have once appeared,
such as capacitance detection, static pressure detection, blowing detection and
constant buoyancy detection. However, either the detection accuracy is poor or the
maintenance quantity is large and the life is short due to a complex detection envi-
ronment in the flotation tank. The level detection device of BFLC flotation machine
solves this problem better, namely, using the laser-float-type level measurement
instrument and applying the principle of laser ranging. This device consists of a
laser sensor, an isolation tube, a level bracket and a float component, as shown in
Fig. 10.2. All the level bracket, isolation tube and float component are made of
stainless steel materials, and have advantages of elaborate design, durable service
Laser sensor
Flushing water
Reflective disk
Connecting rod
Isolation tube
Floating ball
Fig. 10.2 BFLC level detection device of flotation machine

and easy removal. The laser range finder has advantages of easy installation, wide
measurement range, accurate and stable signal and high level of protection. The level
bracket integrates a set of flushing devices, having the function of eliminating the
froth generated in the isolation tube, in order to reduce the adhesion of flotation froth
to float component surface, and avoid the measurement accuracy from being affected
by the adhesion of froth. In addition, the isolation tube can isolate the violent shock
from the rotor of the flotation machine during agitation, and can effectively reduce
the flotation froth in the tube in order to ensure the real liquid level which can be
detected. The float component consists of a floating ball, a floating ball rod and a
reflective disc.
The floating ball is arranged inside the isolation tube; the reflective disc connected
with the floating ball will make up and down movement vertically with the fluctuation
of the pulp level by means of cantilever construction; and the laser range finder will
constantly measure the distance with the reflective disc and then output a signal of 4–
20 mADC to the master controller, and determine the liquid level through conversion.
As shown in Fig. 10.3, when the pulp level arrives at the overflow weir, the distance
between the laser sensor and the reflective disc is H 0 , and the froth layer thickness
is calibrated as 0 mm at this time. When the deepest liquid level is detected by the
floating ball, the distance between the sensor and the reflective disc is H 2 . Calibrate
the maximum froth layer thickness at this time by Hmax = H2 − H0 . Generally,
500 mm ≤ Hmax ≤ 1000 mm. The formula of froth layer thickness is
Hthe maximum froth layer thickness = H1 − H0 (10.1)
Fig. 10.3 Liquid level measurement principle

The industry practice shows that it is relatively reasonable to select laser sensor
for distance measuring sensor if used indoors; however, the ultrasonic sensor shall
be used outdoors in view of influence of light.
10.2.2 Actuators
In the level control system, the output action of the actuators controls the opening
of the ore discharge valve, and the performance of the actuators directly affects the
pulp level control effects. The actuators of the level control system of BFLC flotation
machine include two types, namely, electric actuator and pneumatic actuator. The
pneumatic actuator receives current signal to realize automatic control, as shown in
Fig. 10.4; while the electric actuator plays the function of auxiliary regulation only.
It can be manually operated only.
The pneumatic actuator is provided with intelligent positioner, having character-
istics of good linearity, high regulation accuracy and sensitive control. It is vertically
installed on the mounting bracket above the tailing box in the flotation machine,
Fig. 10.4 BFLC pneumatic actuator and dart valve of flotation machine
connected with the valve rods in the flotation equipment and tailing box, outputs
vertical displacement, and drives the valve rods and bodies to move up and down
along the vertical direction, in order to change the flow area of the pulp in the middle
tailing box, namely, change the ore discharge flow in the middle tailing box to achieve
the purpose of regulating the liquid level of the flotation machine. The pneumatic
actuator must be concentrically installed with the valve rods and bodies. In addition,
it shall be provided with hand wheel mechanism, which can be used to manually regu-
late the cylinder stroke in case the instrument air is off. In case of air off, blackout
and signal failure, the pneumatic actuator can also realize the function of locking.
The key component of the pneumatic actuator is the valve positioner, with the
control principle as follows: Powered by compressed air, it receives the DC electric
signal of 4–20 mA given by the regulating unit or that given manually, and converts
into linear displacement corresponding to the input signal to regulate the medium
flow. When the positioner has input signal, its output pressure will drive the piston
and piston rod to do rectilinear movement, and the piston rod will drive the sliding
plate and swing arm to move, and feedback to the positioner; when the piston moves
to the position corresponding to the input signal, the positioner will close the output
pressure.
According to different handling capacities of the flotation machine, different level
control loops are provided with different quantities of pneumatic actuator. Large
flotation machines are usually provided with dual pneumatic actuators, namely, both
actuators participate in regulation; however, for small flotation machines with a lower
processing capacity, one actuator can meet the regulation requirement. In addition,
the matched electric actuator will be served as an assistant to prevent the normal
production from being affected when the pneumatic actuator goes wrong.
Compared with the electric actuator, the pneumatic actuator has the following
advantages:
1. It is allowed to frequently regulate the valve within short time. Its durability is
superior to the electric actuator.
2. The tailing dart valve of the flotation machine is linearly designed, and good
linearity of the pneumatic actuator is exactly an important precondition for both
of them to realize stable pulp level control by coordination.
3. The pneumatic actuator has low energy consumption.
4. The output of the pneumatic actuator is flexibility with high safety factor. Do
not worry about motor overload to the pneumatic actuator in case of excessive
valve pressing or valve rod decentration.
The test certifies that the single pneumatic actuator and dual pneumatic actuator cut
both ways under the condition of meeting control effects: When a single pneumatic
actuator is used, due to low adjustable ore discharge, the opening variation of the valve
is always about 10% to ensure a steady liquid level, while when a dual pneumatic
actuator is used, due to large adjustable ore discharge, the opening variation of the
valve is about 3% when the liquid level is kept steady; moreover, the regulation is
more sensitive; the regulation time is short; and the overshoot is low. For the whole
flotation process, the amplitude and frequency of opening change of the ore discharge
valve decide the control effects of subsequent operation levels. The test shows that
the pulp level control effect of the dual pneumatic actuator is better for large flotation
machines with large handling capacity.
10.2.3 Pulp Level Control Strategies
10.2.3.1 Single-Loop PID Control Strategy
The single-loop control system usually means that all the detecting element, trans-
mitter, controller, actuator and controlled object are a closed-loop control system
that realizes control based on deviations. It is a simple control system, and also a
single parameter control system. It is used widely, accounting for about 80% of total
control loop quantity.
The pulp level control is an important branch of industrial control, and its tech-
nology is also relatively mature. The PID control algorithm is widely applied in pulp
level control with advantages of simple structure, easy realization, easy adjustment,
etc. [19].
Served as a linear controller, the PID controller forms control deviations according
to the given values yd (t) and the actual output values y(t):
error(t) = yd (t) − y(t) (10.2)
The control rule of PID is

⎡ ⎤
t
1 kd derror(t) ⎦
u(t) = kp ⎣error(t) + error(t)dt + (10.3)
ki dt
0
Or write the form of transfer function:

U (S) 1
G(s) = = KP 1 + + Kds (10.4)
E(S) Kis
where
KP proportionality coefficient;
Ki Integral time constant;
Kd Derivative time constant.
In view of stability, response speed, overshoot and steady-state accuracy, etc. of
the system, the functions of K P , K i , and K d are as follows [20]:
(1) The function of proportionality coefficient K P is to quicken the response speed
of the system and improve the regulation accuracy of the system. The bigger
the value, the faster the response speed, and the higher the regulation accuracy,
but it easily generates overshoot or instability. If the value K P is too small, the
regulation accuracy will be reduced, the response speed will be slow, and the
static and dynamic characteristics of the system will deteriorate.
(2) The function of integral action coefficient K i is to eliminate the steady-state
error. The bigger the value K i , the faster the elimination for steady-state error.
However, if the value K i is too big, the phenomenon of integral windup will be
generated at the preliminary stage of response process, causing larger overshoot
to response process. If the value K i is too small, it will be difficult to eliminate
the steady-state error, affecting the regulation accuracy of the system.
(3) The function of differential action coefficient K d is to improve the dynamic
characteristics of the system, and mainly to restrain any directional change
of deviations in the response process, and predict the deviation change in
advance. However, if the value K d is too big, the response process will restrain
in advance, lengthening the regulation time and reducing the anti-interference
performance of the system.
The general PID control technology is mature and usually used to control the
liquid level of small flotation machines, while the general PID control fails to meet
the actual requirement for pulp level control of large flotation machines. The main
problems are as follows:
1. The instability of grinding loop will bring larger disturbance for liquid level of
the flotation machine, the response time of general PID control is long, and the
regulation is slow and easily overshoots. The phenomenon of unstable control
is more obvious, especially in case of initial feeding or feeding stop due to
equipment failure.
2. The level control system of large flotation machines has large hysteresis factor
due to large tank volume. It is difficult to adjust the P, I and D control parameters.
3. The flotation machine has characteristics of large capacity, large handling
capacity and short service time. By taking the Jiangtongdashan concentrator
test as an example, the dual tank operation is adopted, wherein it takes 6 min
only for pulp to enter a 200 m3 flotation machine to enter the next flotation
operation, while its time staying in each tank is 3 min only. Therefore, the pulp
level control and regulation shall be sensitive. Otherwise, the accident of ore
overflow will be easy to occur.
4. The flotation machine has large ore discharge volume. In practical application,
the large flotation machines not only adopt the ore discharge valve with a larger
flow area, but also discharge ore by means of dual valve. Therefore, in the
liquid level regulation process, it shall also pay attention to the stabilization of
ore discharge volume in addition to the stabilization of liquid level, in order
to avoid causing liquid level fluctuation of this flotation tank, and meanwhile
avoid influence on liquid levels in subsequent operations. The action of the ore
discharge valve shall not be too frequent, and the opening variation shall not be
too large.
Since the pulp level of the flotation machine has such characteristics as nonlin-
earity, large hysteresis and multivariable mutual coupling, it must find an improved
algorithm specially for pulp level control in the general control algorithms. In the
pulp level control experiment, various improved algorithms are subject to compar-
ative research, and finally a special pulp level control algorithm is determined, as
shown in Fig. 10.5.
Served as an effective way used to solve the above problems, the adaptive fuzzy
PID control combines the fuzzy theory with PID algorithm, having characteristics
of quick adjustment and strong robustness. With the deviation of E and deviation
change rate of EC as inputs, it self-adjusts the PID online by means of fuzzy inference
rule to meet the requirements of E and EC for PID parameters at different moments.
The output value can also quickly recover to the set value in case of large disturbance
to the system.
In the level control system, generally the liquid level can be stabilized as long as
the proportionality coefficient of P and integral coefficient I are adjusted. Therefore,
this fuzzy control model includes two inputs (deviation E and deviation change rate
EC) and two outputs (k p and k i ). All the fuzzy language variables are divided into
{NL, NM, NS, ZO, PS, PM and PL}, and the elements in subset represent {negative
big, negative medium, negative small, zero, positive small, positive medium and
positive large}, respectively.
The fuzzy reasoning is the core of fuzzy control. Establishing fuzzy control rule
base becomes a key problem [21]. It is based on control theory and practical expe-
riences of operators generally. In the flotation level system: (1) In case the deviation
of E is bigger, the value of k p shall be increased and that of k i shall be reduced
to quickly restrain the deviation and improve the response speed. In case the devi-
ation of E is smaller, the value of k p shall be reduced and that of k i shall also
be reduced to continue eliminating the influence of E and prevent large overshoot
and oscillation. In case the deviation of E is very small, the value of k p shall be
continued to get smaller and that of k i can be slightly bigger or remain unchanged
aimed to eliminate the steady-state error. (2) The deviation change of EC is the rate
of deviation change. When its value is bigger, the value of k p shall be reduced and
that of k i shall be increased. On the contrary, when EC becomes small, the value
of k p shall be increased and that of k i shall be reduced.
Fig. 10.5 Pulp level control system strategy of flotation machine

According to the adjustment rule of adaptive fuzzy PID parameters, combining

with the actual situation of liquid level of the flotation machine, establish fuzzy rule
tables about k p and k i , as shown in Tables 10.1 and 10.2.
The pulp level control strategy of BFLC flotation machine focuses on fuzzy
PID control, meanwhile conducts optimal design based on this algorithm, and adds
peripheral programs such as filtering and dead-section.
For aeration flotation machines, although the isolation tube has played the role of
isolating the impact force generated from intense agitation of the rotor, the floating
ball will still fluctuate slightly, so it is necessary to filtrate the liquid level signal in
the software. The influence of interference is reduced through regulation for filter
coefficient to keep liquid level more stable.
For PID control algorithm, it is a deviation-based control. There is a control
signal output as long as there is a deviation. Therefore, the fluctuation of liquid level
will often cause frequent action of the actuators, which greatly reduces the life of
the actuators, and meanwhile causes disturbance to the liquid levels in subsequent
operations. However, the setting of dead-section not only can avoid frequent action
of the actuators, protect the actuators and lengthen their service life, and meanwhile
can prevent the occasional large opening of the tailing valve and adverse cases such
Table 10.1 k p fuzzy rule table

k p E
NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB
EC NB PB PB PM PM PS ZO ZO
NM PB PB PM PS PS ZO NS
NS PM PM PM PS ZO NS NS
ZO PM PM PS ZO NS NM NM
PS PS PS ZO NS NS NM NM
PM PS ZO NS NM NM NM NB
PB ZO ZO NM NM NM NB NB
Table 10.2 k i fuzzy rule table

k i E
NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB
EC NB NB NB NM NM NS ZO ZO
NM NB NB NM NS ZO PS PS
NS NB NM NS NS ZO PS PS
ZO NM NM NS ZO PS PM PM
PS NM NS ZO PS PS PM PB
PM ZO ZO PS PS PM PB PB
PB ZO ZO PS PM PM PB PB
as blocking or intensive liquid level shock caused due to external signal interference,
and ensures stable liquid levels in subsequent operations.
10.2.3.2 Multi-operation Cooperative Control Strategy
According to the flotation process, each series of the flotation machine is connected
with multiple pulp level controls, the pulp is delivered from one operation to the
next operation, and operations couple and impact each other due to existence of
multiple interference sources and distribution in series of flotation operation. If only
the traditional single-loop PID is used for control, the liquid level fluctuation will
become larger in the subsequent process. Since the single-loop control is used, and
all liquid levels pay attention to their changes only, the PID will work only when the
interferences cause a liquid level fluctuation so that the deviation between liquid level
and set value exists, which is hysteretic for interference regulation. Therefore, it is
difficult to control the whole flotation process macroscopically by using the single-
loop PID, and the stability coefficient of the whole operation is low. The interference
sources of the flotation tank are mainly from inlet flow, flow of the circulating pump
and opening change of the regulating valve, while the flotation level fluctuation
caused by these interferences is delivered with the flotation operation, and has an
amplification trend, leading into gradual increase of the liquid level fluctuation in
subsequent operations, deteriorating the control effects.
The level control system of BFLC flotation machine uploads the real-time data
of the liquid level to the DCS via the field bus, which provides possibility for the
integral control for the whole series of flotation process, i.e. multi-operation level
cooperative control of the flotation machine. See Fig. 10.6 for its functional block
diagram of specific control.
The multi-operation level cooperative control technology of the flotation machine
manages the whole flotation process at the same time. It is capable of taking effective
compensation measures before the interferences affect the flotation level in order to
restrain the disturbance. In addition, this technology is based on the whole flota-
tion process and manages the liquid level change in the whole flotation process;
despite flotation machine or flotation column, the integral control idea is adopted for
continuous pulp process; in case of interferences, the liquid level interferences and
fluctuations can be perceived in advance through model estimation, and the interfer-
ences can be restrained in the process by regulating the valve opening before affecting
the liquid level, thus ensuring a stable liquid level. Therefore, this technology can
effectively prevent interferences and restrain liquid level fluctuations.
Fig. 10.6 Multi-operation cooperative control technology of flotation machine
10.2.4 Industrial Application of the Level Control System

of BFLC Flotation Machine
For level control system, regardless of external aeration flotation machine or mechan-
ical agitation flotation machine, their level detection devices, actuators and control
strategies are basically same. The use and data analysis are introduced below with
application of the level control system of BFLC flotation machine in the industrial
tests of KYF-200 flotation machine as an example.
10.2.4.1 Analysis for Open-Loop Test Result of the System
The open-loop characteristics of the system are as shown in Fig. 10.7. The liquid
level will be reduced whenever the cylinder opening rises by 5%. The transient time
is 246 s and the liquid level drawdown distance is 25 mm.
10.2.4.2 Manual Pulp Level Control
At the preliminary stage of test, adopt the manual control, namely, both dual cylinders
that work at manual mode, and operators set the valve opening and regulate the liquid
level. The manual control effects are as shown in Fig. 10.8.
It can be seen from Fig. 10.8 that the liquid level fluctuation is larger and there is
a liquid level equilibrium state offset in manual control. The main reason is that the
Fig. 10.7 Open-loop control characteristic curve
Fig. 10.8 Full manual control curve

feeding quantity fluctuation cannot be timely and effectively regulated, namely, the
manual control has no immunity from interference.
10.2.4.3 Automatic Control of Single Cylinder
For automatic control of single cylinders, namely, one cylinder is set at the set manual
opening value, and the other cylinder receives the automatic control signal from the
controller for automatic control.
The control effect curve is shown in Fig. 10.9.
As seen from the control curve, the automatic control curve of liquid level always
has a small range of fluctuation near the set value, with steady-state error kept within
10 mm.
It can be seen from the comparison with manual control that automatic control
is capable of automatically adjusting the feeding quantity change, while manual
control fails to timely and effectively adjust. This shows that automatic control has
an anti-disturbance function while manual control has no disturbance resistance.
During the stable operation of the system, change the set value, give a unit step
input to the system, and research the dynamic following performance indicator of
the system.
As seen from Fig. 10.10, the delay time of the system is 1 s, the regulation time
is ts = 54 s, and the maximum overshoot is 1.6%. It can be seen from the dynamic
characteristic curve that the dynamic following performance of the system is good
Fig. 10.9 Automatic control curve of single cylinder

Fig. 10.10 Level control curve of set value is up
and the accuracy is higher if the response is quick, the regulation time is short and
the overshoot is low in case the set value is changed.
10.2.4.4 Automatic Control of Dual Cylinder
For automatic control of dual cylinders, namely, both cylinders receive the automatic
control signal from the controller for automatic control.
The control effect curve is shown in Fig. 10.11.
As seen from the control curve, the automatic control curve of liquid level always
has a small range of fluctuation near the set value, with steady-state error kept within
10 mm.
As also seen from the control curve chart, dual cylinders have two advantages
compared with automatic control of single cylinders: First, the regulation is more
sensitive and the response is quicker; second, the fluctuation of valve opening is
lower, having small influence on subsequent operations. It can be seen that the pulp
level control of dual cylinders is stable and the control effects are good.
During the stable operation of the system, change the set value, give a unit step
input to the system, and research the dynamic following performance indicator of
the system.
As seen from Fig. 10.12, the delay time of the system is 0.5 s, the regulation time
is ts = 43 s, and the maximum overshoot is 1.4%. It can be seen that the system
can quickly change with the set value, the regulation time is short and the overshoot
is low. Compared with the dynamic performance of single cylinders, the automatic
Fig. 10.11 Pulp level control curve of double cylinder
Fig. 10.12 The characteristic curve of the pulp level under the set value
control of dual cylinders is more sensitive, the regulation time is shorter and the
overshoot is lower, namely, the dynamic performance of dual cylinders is superior
to single cylinders.
10.3 Aeration Rate Control of Flotation Machines
Considered as the most flexible and the most sensitive parameter in the control of the
flotation machine, the aeration rate forms lots of bubbles in the process of effectively
mixing pulp with flotation reagents, increases the surface tension of pulp, and brings
the valuable elements captured by the collecting agent into the froth layer. The aim of
controlling the aeration rate is to improve the bubble load rate so that various graded
minerals can be fully recovered in different operations. When the aeration rate is
excessive, the pulp level in the flotation machine will “fluctuate”, the bubble layer
will be damaged, and the valuable mineral particles will fall off from the bubbles;
When the aeration rate is too small, the bubble load rate will be slow, and minerals
will fail to be fully recovered in different operations. Maintaining stability of aeration
rate of the flotation machine not only plays an important role in the separation process
of flotation, but also can effectively improve the flotation indicators. Therefore, the
aeration rate control of flotation is the cost-optimal effective control method.
10.3.1 Aeration Rate Detection Device and Control Device
The aeration rate of the flotation machine is characterized in low pressure, low wind
speed and large air volume. Generally, the wind pressure is between 11 and 65 kPa,
and the wind speed is between 0.5 and 1.7 m/s. At present, the common methods
used for detecting aeration rate include three types. They have respective advantages
in aspects of price, detection principle and maintenance cost, and are widely applied
in many industrial fields including the flotation machine [22].
10.3.1.1 Hot Gas Mass Flowmeter
The principle of hot measurement is realized by monitoring the cooling effect of the
airflow passing through the heat exchanger (thermal resistance: PT100). The airflow
via the sensing area shall pass through two temperature sensors (thermal resistance:
PT100). One is used for temperature measurement, and the other is used for heating.
The former monitors the actual process temperature value; the later maintains the
steady temperature value to keep it always higher than the actual process temperature
and keep steady temperature difference with this process temperature. The larger the
gas mass flow rate, the greater the cooling effect, and the larger the energy required
for maintaining differential temperature. Therefore, it can obtain the mass flow rate
of the gas to be measured by measuring the energy of the heater. It measures the gas
mass flow rate in standard unit without temperature and pressure compensation. The
measurable wind speed is between 0 and 163 m/s, and the measurement accuracy
is ±1%FS. The hot gas flowmeter adopts plug-in mounting with negligible very
low pressure loss and measurement pipe diameter between 80 and 500 mm. It is
characterized in simple installation and easy maintenance, but its cost is high. The
measurement schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 10.13.
10.3.1.2 Venturi Differential Pressure Gas Flowmeter
The gradually narrowed venturi plays a role of restricting the gas flow rate, and
calculates the gas flow rate by measuring the pressure drop generated by the gas. Its
principle is shown in Fig. 10.14. This detection method is stable and reliable with
low pressure drop and accurate measurement, but it also has disadvantages of large
space usage and high cost, etc.
10.3.1.3 Uniform-Velocity-Tube Differential Pressure Gas Flowmeter
Both pilot tube and uniform-velocity-tube differential pressure gas flowmeters calcu-
late the gas flow rate by comparing the differential pressure between the internal pipe
pressure and static gas pressure. Their difference is that the pilot tube differential
pressure gas flowmeter has one detection point only, while the uniform-velocity-tube
differential pressure gas flowmeter adopts the multi-point measurement method and
regards the calculated mean as the gas rate. Such two methods have advantages of
high accuracy and low pressure drop. Its principle is shown in Fig. 10.15.
Fig. 10.13 Measuring principle of hot gas mass flowmeter

10.3 Aeration Rate Control of Flotation Machines 373
Fig. 10.14 Measuring principle of venturi differential pressure gas flowmeter
Fig. 10.15 Measuring principle of uniform-velocity-tube differential pressure gas flowmeter
The problem of the differential pressure gas flowmeter is that larger space is
required for installation and a very long straight pipe is required to ensure the accuracy
of measurement. In such a case, the current solution is to reduce the pipe diameter
to shorten the length of the required straight pipe.
For aeration rate regulating valve, the automatic control butterfly valve is usually
used, because the butterfly valve is low in price and can completely meet the accuracy
requirement of aeration rate control of the flotation machine. It is characterized in
that (1) small and light, easy to remove, install and repair, and can be installed at any
position; (2) simple and compact structure, quick rotation start/stop, up to hundreds
of thousands of start/stop times, and long life; (3) low flow resistance, large flow
capacity, inherent flow characteristics approximate to equal percent characteristics,
and good regulation performance; (4) multiple accessories can be installed, namely,
they can be used as a switch and can also realize continuous regulation by installing
positioner.
10.3.2 Automatic Control Strategy for Aeration Rate
The automatic control for flotation aeration rate plays a very important role in flotation
process. The flotation effect is usually more sensitive to the change of aeration rate
than to the froth thickness. Compared with reagent addition volume, the air can be
called “the cheapest reagent”, and would not leave any residual concentrate even
when the aeration rate is larger. Therefore, the aeration rate can play a more efficient
regulation function.
Served as an important link of flotation process control, the aeration rate control
system often combines with the flotation level control and dosing control system, e.g.
the cascade control of the long process flotation machine is realized by regulating
the liquid level and aeration rate at the same time.
In general, the automatic control for flotation aeration rate is easier compared with
other process control of flotation. A simple feed-forward/feedback PI control loop is
sufficient to realize the regulation for aeration rate. The automatic control schematic
diagram of aeration rate is shown in Fig. 10.16. The automatic control program of
aeration rate is to measure the aeration rate of the flotation machine, send aeration
rate signal to the control instrument, the control instrument will receive aeration rate
signal and output control signal to the aeration rate regulating valve according to the
set aeration rate value, and this automatically regulates the opening of the valve to
stabilize the aeration rate at the set value.
The regulation for valve size has a critical influence on the control effect. If the
valve caliber to be used is too large, although it can effectively reduce the pressure
loss, the control accuracy is very limited, and will rapidly have great influence on
flotation effect and liquid level fluctuation. If the flotation machine is horizontally
arranged, and one operation is air-supplied by one pipe, the flotation machine inlet
butterfly valve will be manually regulated on the field to adjust the air input of each
flotation machine. The mechanical agitation flotation machine is usually provided
with no automatic control system of aeration rate, because this kind of flotation
machine can suck limited total air volume only, especially prominent in high alti-
tude places. This restricts the application of flotation process control system and
implementation of advanced control strategy in a way.
Fig. 10.16 Automatic control strategy for aeration rate

10.3 Aeration Rate Control of Flotation Machines 375
10.3.3 Industrial Application of the Aeration Rate Control

System of BFLC Flotation Machine
The application and data analysis of the aeration rate control system of BFLC flotation
machine in industrial tests of KYF-200 flotation machine are introduced below.
10.3.3.1 Manual Control for Aeration Rate
Manual control means that operators set the opening of the butterfly valve for aeration
rate regulation. Its control curve chart is shown in Fig. 10.17.
As seen in Fig. 10.17, the aeration rate is not stable and there is steady-state offset
in manual control, and the reason is that manual control has no anti-interference
performance.
10.3.3.2 Automatic Control of Aeration Rate
The automatic control for aeration rate means that operators set the aeration rate
value, the controller performs operation processing after acquiring air flow signal,
and outputs control signal to the butterfly valve for automatic regulation for aeration
rate. The automatic control effect chart is shown in Fig. 10.18.
Fig. 10.17 Manual control curve for aeration rate

Fig. 10.18 Automatic control curve of aeration rate
As seen from the control curve chart, the aeration rate is controlled stably, the
opening fluctuation of the butterfly valve is small and the maximum dynamic error
is 50 m3 /h.
The automatic control system of aeration rate has stable control and small
fluctuation, completely meeting the requirement of flotation equipment for gas
volume.
10.4 Froth Image Analysis of Flotation Machines
In recent years, with the rapid development of computer technology, software tech-
nology, digital image technology and image capture equipment, the digital image
technology has gradually permeated into all aspects of scientific research, indus-
trial production and daily life, and played a more and more important role. With
“computer vision” instead of human vision, strengthen the application research of
digital image technology in mineral separation process, and promote the develop-
ment in flotation froth image technology by means of modern latest digital image
technology achievements, which has a very important significance in realization of
intelligent control for concentrators. Froth image is shown in Fig. 10.19.
Flotation froth consists of many different sizes, shapes and colours of mineralized
bubbles, including much information related to flotation process variables and flota-
tion results. Wherein the froth speed, size and colour are three very key parameters
for flotation control strategy: movement speed of froth can represent froth scraping
10.4 Froth Image Analysis of Flotation Machines 377
Fig. 10.19 Froth image
quantity of the flotation machine; size and texture of froth can represent whether the
dosage of administration is appropriate; color and brightness of froth can describe
grade and recovery rate of concentrates [23].
Froth image is obtained from the HD camera fixed above the flotation machine that
acquires the digital image of froth surface. The application of froth image processing
technology in flotation process control significantly improves the process indicators
and degree of automation. Understand the system composition of flotation froth
image processing and the algorithm of froth physical parameters, and the applica-
tion and characteristics of image processing technology in flotation process control,
which has an important significance in mastering and use of froth image processing
technology.
10.4.1 Flotation Froth Image Equipment

and Implementation Method
In 1998, Professor Nguyen in Australia invented the first froth image analysis system
applied to industry by means of powerful computing power of computers [24].
This system uses multiple high-precision CCD cameras, and then sends pictures
to computers via the optical fibre. This system can compute the froth speed, deduce
the froth area, etc. The JKFrothCamera system was installed in a flotation column
for coal preparation for the first time, and also successfully installed in a copper
concentrator later. Since 1998, the system designed by Nguyen has been purchased
and applied by many companies.
The froth image capture equipment designed by BGRIMM is shown in Fig. 10.20.
The image capture equipment is installed on the minimum position nearest to the froth
layer where the froth fails to splash. The intensity of light is vital for the algorithm of
Fig. 10.20 Froth image capture equipment
image analysis. Therefore, the sun shield, LED lamp and other auxiliary equipment
are installed near the CCD cameras.
The image capture equipment mounted above the froth layer is shown in
Fig. 10.20. CCD cameras capture 25 frame of picture every minute and transfer
it to computers via the optical fibre or coaxial cable. Cameras can rotate, zoom in
and zoom out to capture the most valuable pictures for image analysis. There is a
picture that recorded the froth located in the coordinates of X-axis and Y-axis on the
upper right of the image, and the picture below delimited the outline of each piece
of froth. This system has very high requirement for real-time performance in order
to measure the froth speed, size, viscosity and colour.
In China, the BFVS flotation froth image processing system designed by
BGRIMM is at the leading level. This system consists of software and hardware
platforms, wherein the hardware platform mainly consists of camera subsystem,
lighting subsystem, mechanical architecture subsystem, image processing worksta-
tion, etc.; the software platform is mainly developed based on VS2005.NET plat-
form, including image acquisition module, image characteristic parameter extraction
module, optimal control module, etc. [25].
10.4.2 Static and Dynamic Characteristic Detection

Technology of Flotation Froth
The froth image characteristic parameters are represented in two aspects: on one hand,
the froth parameters based on single frame image are known as static parameters,
such as froth colour, bubble size and textural features; on the other hand, the froth
image characteristic parameters based on image sequence are known as dynamic
characteristics, generally including froth flow rate, stability, etc. [26]. The relation
Table 10.3 Qualitative relation between froth image features and important parameters of flotation
Important parameters Froth image features
Pulp level ↑ The faster the foam speed, the lighter the color, the more serious
hydration, and easy to turn flowers
Pulp level ↓ The slower the foam flow, the darker the color, the more viscous
the foam
Aeration ↑ The faster the foam velocity, the bigger the bubble, the lower
mineralization degree and easy to turn flowers
Aeration ↓ The slower the bubble velocity, bubble is smaller
Foaming agent ↑ Foam fast flow, small size, surface reflection, bubble sticky, not
easy to break
Foaming agent ↓ The bubble velocity is slow, the thickness is thin, the foam is large,
and it is easy to crack
Pulp consistency ↑ The foam is slow in flow rate, thick in bubbles and highly
mineralized
Pulp consistency ↓ Foam hydration is serious and easy to crack
between froth image features and important parameters of flotation is summarized

in Table 10.3. It can be seen that the flotation froth characteristics can reflect this
change in case the process parameters are changed. Therefore, it is very necessary
to extract the static and dynamic characteristics of flotation froth as the original data
for subsequent analytical prediction and even control.
10.4.2.1 Detection of Froth Flow Rate
The calculation of froth velocity needs to depend on at least two frames of images.
It is difficult to obtain correct froth movement characteristics by means of routine
movement estimation algorithms such as grey-level template matching and Fourier
phase correlation method, due to froth collapse or illumination variation. However,
adopting the light stream constraint equation and Kalman movement estimation based
on minimum energy for calculation can effectively restrain the adverse impact on
movement measurement that is caused due to froth collapse, illumination variation
and other noise, and finally estimate the optimal rate.
The brightness mode generated on the image will move with movement of froths.
The movement information of froths can be reflected in a two-dimensional image
space under uniform light conditions, and the time interval between the adjacent
frames is very short. It is with regard its movement as rigid translation for processing
after selecting a suitable region of interest. The schematic diagram of image move-
ment is shown in Fig. 10.21. The points in the three-dimensional space left a move-
ment locus in the two-dimensional image space. If it is capable of keeping the camera
image plane and the movement locus plane of the measured points in parallel, then the
optimal value will be obtained upon prediction and correction, by implementing pixel
Fig. 10.21 Image motion diagram
matching on the consecutive frame of images, calculating the movement distance of

the interest points in the image space and providing data for the observed value of
Kalman filtering.
In the image space, the grey value of the point used to define the coordinates
as (x, y) is I(x, y). After a very short time, the points in the image are moved to
(x + x, y + y). Since the movement time is very short, it may assume that the
grey values of two points remain unchanged, namely, I (x + x, y + y, t + t) =
I (x, y, t).
Conduct Taylor expansion on the above formula and omit second-order errors and
above.
∂ I x ∂ I y ∂I
+ + =0
∂ x t ∂ y t ∂t
Since it is difficult to ensure light conditions unchanged in practical applica-

tion, and the movements of some points in the image region are difficult to have
complete consistency, the following two constraints are added based on consideration
of algorithm robustness.
The image brightness gradient remains unchanged with time and position, and
under ideal condition can be written as
∇ I (x + x, y + y, t + t) = ∇ I (x, y, t)

T
where ∇ f = ∂∂ xf , ∂∂ yf . Finally, in view of strong consistency between pixel point
movements in image, i.e. the displacement of different points in a range shall be kept
as same as possible, which under ideal condition can be written as
∇(x)(x, y) = ∇(y)(x, y) = 0
Based on the above three ideal conditions, adopt the constraint energy function for
minimization processing. In order to simplify the expression, specify: x =(x, y)T ,
v =(x, y)T , obtain:
¨

E(v) = F |I (x + v, t + t) − I (x, t)|2

+ ∂|∇ I (x + v, t + t) − ∇ I (x, t)|2 dx
¨
2
+β F |∇vx (x)|2 + ∇v y (x) dx

where F(x 2 ) = (x 2 + ε2 ) and ε is a tiny positive number. The F operator is
introduced in order to provide convenience in the following minimization process,
∂ and β are adjustable parameters, which can change the influence degree of three
factors on the function.
The state estimation of Kalman filtering can effectively reduce the noise jamming
to obtain the optimal state estimation vector. Upon completion of calculation
v =(x, y)T , the observation vector of translation of the interest region in time
in the front and back two frames of images is obtained. The translation vector has
uncertainty due to image noise. The state equation can be represented as xk =
Axk−1 + wk−1 , and the observation equation can be represented as zk = Hxk + vk ,
where wk−1 and vk forecast process noise and observation noise, which meet the
white Gaussian noise requirement of mean value as zero. The state vector is a
four-dimensional column vector: xk = [xk , yk , vxk , vyk ]T , x k and yk are the centre
coordinates in object region and the velocity of the centre coordinates on x and y,
respectively.
Since the image capture frame rate used in this text is 30 fps, and the time interval
between the consecutive frames is t = 30 ms, it can be considered that the object
does uniform motion
⎡ in short⎤time. Therefore, the state transition matrix of A is
1 0 t 0
⎢ 0 1 0 t ⎥
obtained as A = ⎢ ⎣ 0 0 1 0 ⎦.
⎥
00 0 1
zk = [x, y] , thus the measurement matrix is obtained
T
Observation
vector
0 0 t 0
as H = , the P(wk ) = N (0, Q) and P(vk ) = N (0, R) covariance
0 0 0 t
matrix met by noise is
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0

⎢0 1 0 0⎥
Q=⎢ ⎥, R = 1 0
⎣0 0 1 0⎦ 01
0 0 0 1
The initialization of model parameter is performed below. The coordinates of

the centre point in interest region in the image is selected as the initial value of
position (x0 , y0 )T , then a smaller velocity component is selected as the initial velocity,
and herein set as (vx0 , vy0 )T = (0, 0)T . Thus the initial value of state vector is
x̂ 0 = (x0 , y0 , 0, 0)T . If the state before k moment is known, then x̂k ∈ R 4 will be
defined as the prior state estimation at k moment; after the observed value z k at k
moment is obtained, it will be the posterior state estimation. The prior and posterior
estimation errors are
ek· = xk − x̂k· , ek· = xk − x̂k·
Thus the covariance matrix of prior estimation error and that of posterior
estimation error are obtained:

Pk· = E ek· ek , Pk· = E ek· ek·
T T
·
The posterior state estimation, i.e. Kalman Filtering Formula, is calculated below:
x̂k· = x̂k· + K (z k· − H x̂k· )
where K is an important parameter called Kalman gain. It is capable of weighing

the weight between the predicted value and the observed value of time renewal state,
and minimizing the covariance matrix of posterior estimation error. However, the
later controlled part is the measurement renewal, namely, representing the differ-
ence between the measured value and the predicted value of prior state. Through
calculation it can obtain:
Pk H T
K =
H Pk H T + R
The iteration renewal process of Kalman filtering is shown in Fig. 10.22.
10.4.2.2 Textural Features
Extraction of textural features of froths: Textural features reflect the surface rough-
ness of froths, while the roughness will reflect the variety, dosage and other working
conditions of the reagent to be added. Use the Grey-Level Co-occurrence Matrix to
extract the global textural features of image as well as the energy parameter (fineness
degree), inertia moment parameter and uniformity parameter of image.
Textures are a representation of the grey-level correlation of the adjacent pixels.
There are spatial co-occurrence matrix method, grey-level journey matrix method and
neighbourhood grey-level correlation matrix method, wherein the spatial correlation
matrix method is in common use.
The spatial grey-level co-occurrence matrix p(u, v, d, θ ) is used to conduct statistics
about occurrence times of two pixels with gray values of u and v, adjacent distance of
d and position angle of in a digital image with grey level of G. The spatial grey-level
co-occurrence matrix of P is an L * L matrix, wherein L is the grey level. For an
Fig. 10.22 Iterative schematic of Kalman filtering
image with grey level of 28 = 256, namely, when the grey level of each pixel is
represented with 8-bit binary system, the spatial grey-level co-occurrence matrix of
P is a 256 * 256 matrix. The selection of d is related to the textural fineness. The value
of d shall be smaller if the texture is finer. In the spatial grey-level co-occurrence
matrix, calculate the statistical parameter as the textural descriptor, which is used
to quantitatively describe the textural features. The common textural features are as
follows:
1. Energy of E

L−1
L−1
E= [P(u, v)]2
u=0 v=0
Energy reflects the image grey-level distribution uniformity coefficient and textural
fineness. The more uneven the distribution, the larger the difference, and the greater
the energy; energy is the quadratic sum of grey-level co-occurrence matrix elements.
The greater the energy, the thicker the texture, and vice versa.
2. Entropy of ENTS

L−1
L−1
S=− P(u, v)lgP(u, v)
u=0 v=0
Entropy is a parameter used to represent the complexity of image texture. The more
complex the image texture, the larger the entropy, and vice versa.
3. Contrast (inertia moment)

L−1
L−1

I= (u − v)2 P(u, v)
u=0 v=0
Contrast reflects the definition of image and the degree of textural groove depth.
The deeper the textural groove, the greater the contrast, and vice versa. From the
earlier stage to the later stage of flotation, the texture becomes thicker and thicker,
the energy of froth image becomes greater and greater, and the entropy and inertia
moment become smaller and smaller.
10.4.2.3 Colour Features
Extraction of colour features of froths: since there are many harsh environment inter-
ference factors in the production field and inaccurate data may be caused if only the
methods based on RGB, HSI and LAB are used, the froth colour feature extraction
method of multi-colour space information fusion was adopted, thus effectively elimi-
nating the interferences of field light and other adverse factors on colour information.
The main implementation method is to perform in the RGB space and HSI space.
1. RGB space
Served as a currently common colour information expression space, RGB space
quantitatively represents colour with the brightness of three primary colours, i.e. red,
green and blue. This model is also called additive colour and colour mixture model,
which is used to realize colour mixture by means of RGB overlapping, as shown in
Figs. 10.23 and 10.24.
As seen from the original image, there will be bright spots at the top of froths, and
these bright spot regions will generate interferences on colour space values, resulting
in inaccurate RGB component resulting in the direct colour channel. Therefore, it is
necessary to first consider removing the bright spots. In Fig. 10.25, the higher the
brightness, the bigger the grey level of this point, and vice versa.
2. HSI space
HSI (Hue–Saturation–Intensity) model describes the colour characteristics with “H”,
“S” and “I” parameters. “H” defines the wavelength of colour, called hue; “S” repre-
sents the depth of colour, called saturation; “I” represents the intensity or brightness.
HSI model is widely used in image processing and recognition, because the “I”
component is irrelevant to the colour information of image, while the “H” and “S”
components are closely related to the way of human feeling colour. HIS cone space
is shown in Fig. 10.26, and the relation between HIS and grey-level distribution is
shown in Figs. 10.27, 10.28 and 10.29.
As seen from the analysis result of HSI spatial image features, not like GRB
space, human eyes have no intuitive feelings to the decomposed HSI space, and fail
Fig. 10.23 RGB space colour diagram
Fig. 10.24 Original froth image
Fig. 10.25 Removing exposure point image

Fig. 10.26 HSI cone space
Fig. 10.27 H-space image and gray value distribution
Fig. 10.28 S-space image and gray value distribution
to differentiate the froths from bright spots with grey level. Therefore, the grey-level
range of RGB space was used to remove the bright spot region so that the H\S\I value
can represent the froth features without bright spots only, and then the corresponding
bright spot regions were removed in the H, S and I spaces to obtain the spatial model
without bright spots, as shown in Figs. 10.30, 10.31 and 10.32.
Fig. 10.29 V-space image and gray value distribution
Fig. 10.30 H-space of removing exposure points
Fig. 10.31 S-space of removing exposure points

Fig. 10.32 I-space of removing exposure points
10.4.3 Application of Froth Image Analysis in the Flotation

Process Control System
The froth image analyzer developed by BFVS is installed and used in lots of concen-
trators. Its application effectively guides the field production and improves the flota-
tion efficiency. The structure chart of optimal control system of froth image is shown
in Fig. 10.33.
With Hebei Fengning Xinyuan as an example, its concentrator focuses on recovery
of molybdenum concentrates, and adopts 8 BGRIMM KYF-160 external aeration
flotation machines as roughing and scavenging, six U-tank KYF-10 external aeration
flotation machines as preconcentration, and four KYZB flotation columns as concen-
tration, wherein its daily processing capacity is 20,000 t, selected average grade is
0.076% and selected concentration is between 43 and 46%.
The froth image analyzer is installed on two KYF-160 flotation machine platforms
before roughing, wherein such two devices are adjacent and located in the same ladder
plane. Adopt the BFVS flotation froth image analyzer to detect the static and dynamic
characteristics of froths in real time, and detect the froth overflow height by means of
its built-in laser sensor, wherein, the aeration rate value (Nm3 /min) of each flotation
machine is from hot mass flowmeter mounted on the field air hose.
The flotation machine is designed to internal and external dual froth tank structure,
and the image analyzer is installed on the pedal platform above the external froth
tank overflow weir of two flotation machines, as shown in Fig. 10.34. The image
interest region is selected in a region (60 × 60 mm) near the overflow weir, and is
always kept at fixed position in order to ensure consistency and repeatability of all
test data.
In order to research the use effect of the optimal control system, the optimal
control system has been used in the day shift for one consecutive month compared
Fig. 10.33 Froth image optimization control system architecture diagram
Fig. 10.34 Installation location of froth image analyzer

Table 10.4 Comparison between optimal control and manual operation

Operation mode Raw ore grade Concentrate Tailings grade Comprehensive
(%) grade (%) (%) recovery rate (%)
Optimal control 0.0610 47.69 0.0102 83.14
Manual operation 0.0626 47.74 0.0110 82.94
with the swing shift and graveyard shift on that day and the day shift of manual oper-
ation 1 month ago, respectively. The comparison results are as shown in Table 10.4.
Both original concentrate grade and comprehensive recovery rate in the table are the
accumulated mean in a month.
It can be seen that after the shift of implementing the optimal control of froth
image was compared with other manual operation shifts; in the case where the raw ore
grade was approximate, the minimum comprehensive recovery rate of molybdenum
metal was increased by 0.2% and the maximum was increased by 1.67%, and the
concentrate grades basically held the line and met the requirement (not lower than
45%) of concentrators for molybdenum concentrate powder grade.
10.5 Process Control Problems and Development Trend

10.5.1 Process Control Problems of Flotation Machines
Although the process control of flotation machines has been rapidly developed in
recent 10 years, its development is still relatively slow compared with other industries.
The main factors affecting its development are as follows:
(1) Automation-related instruments have no breakthrough progress, and some
pulp-related detection instruments still have old problems of poor reliability,
low measurement accuracy, short service life, etc. [27], e.g., there is still no
mature product in the current sensor market that can detect the froth layer
thickness of flotation machines. All of these are important factors affecting the
application level of mineral separation process control.
(2) Now simple PID control is still mostly used in the flotation process control algo-
rithms. Although the flotation control field combines with many optimization
algorithms such as fuzzy control, neural network, genetic algorithm, most of
these algorithms are in the theoretical research and discussion stage, and high
performance control algorithms that are practically applied in concentrators
are few.
10.5 Process Control Problems and Development Trend … 391
(3) With the upsizing development of flotation machines, the requirement for
automation integration degree is higher and higher. For example, it is neces-
sary to install all the pulp flow detection, gas volume and froth layer thickness
control, froth image analysis system, X-ray fluorescence analyzer and other
grade detection devices. However, the data detected by the system can reflect
partial flotation process characteristics only. Some flotation parameters still
need to be detected depending on more advanced control technology.
(4) Most concentrators have shortages in aspects of field equipment and system
maintenance. Since professional technical backbone is lacking for system
maintenance and adjustment in the field, although the control devices are in a
good condition in a short time after production, it is difficult for field technicians
to solve in case the devices are faulty, and especially for electric automatization,
it will affect normal production of concentrators if the solving is late.
10.5.2 Development Trend
10.5.2.1 Intelligence, Digitization and Virtualization of Sensor

Technology
In recent years, the sensor technology has been rapidly developed, and many new
sensors have emerged in industries, but the requirement for product quality also has
become higher and higher, such as stability, accuracy, timeliness and repeatability
of sensor, which are extremely useful for providing reliable data for process control.
Intelligence and digitization of a sensor provide conditions for the realization of
network connection with control devices, successfully realize multi-direction and
multivariable data transfer depending on field bus technology, and replace the old
univariate and unidirectional direct input and output devices one by one. Virtual-
ization technology realizes the specific hardware functions of a sensor completely
depending on software technology, based on general hardware platform. All of these
are essential for shortening product development cycle and reducing cost.
10.5.2.2 Improvement of Automatic Control Theory and Method

and Its Optimization
Flotation process is not a simple industrial process, because it includes many diffi-
cult and complicated automation technology difficulties, such as nonlinearity, time
varying, easy overshoot, multivariate, random jamming and other characteristics
that easily occur in the control system. Therefore, the control unit is required to
have strong robustness and adaptation. With constant development of the intelli-
gent control technology, more and better control strategies will be applied in the
flotation production process. The following several control strategies will guide the
development direction of process control technology [28]:
1. Model prediction control, which is mainly introduced according to difficultly

accurate building of some mineral separation process models. The model-
based analytical method can be further divided into two subclasses, namely,
experience model and phenomenology model. Experience model consists of
various statistical approaches that correlate the measured input and output
data, concerning two or more independent variable and dependent variable
of multivariate models, and can be used for predictive control. In addition,
by constantly analyzing the flotation loop data, and constantly correcting and
adjusting the model-based prediction controller, it may adapt it with constantly
changing conditions (i.e. self-adaptive control). Self-adaptive control appears
to be particularly important for such nonlinearity and complicated process of
flotation control. Many flotation prediction control systems often include self-
adaptive control aspect. At present, although there are many literatures used to
specially discuss about model-based multivariable control system, their applica-
tion quantity is still relatively less in industries. The first-order flotation kinetic
model belongs to one kind of phenomenology model. It is built under such
assumed condition: the quantity of pulp particles is the first element deciding
the velocity of particles against bubbles, and the bubble concentration shall be
kept constant. We can use the chemical reaction analogy method to model the
flotation machine, namely, the process that the solid particles are removed from
the pulp can be defined by the first-order rate equation. The experimental result of
the above model is ideal, especially embodied in robustness and stability. There-
fore, it will become a very important control strategy in the future automatic
control field of mineral separation.
2. Optimal control. Its most basic function is to ensure concentrators obtain the
biggest economic benefits by means of the fewest resource costs, and to opti-
mize its flotation indicators by finding the optimal process parameter combina-
tion. The applied technology mainly includes artificial neural network, induc-
tive machine learning and other intelligent control algorithms. In some mining
enterprises at home and abroad, the Distributed Control System (DCS) has been
widely applied, but the optimization based on flotation process parameters in
the DCS will become a development direction in future.
10.5.2.3 Stepping into “Intelligent Mine”
With the constant development of computer technology, network technology and

automation technology, the informatization of the mine industry should develop
towards the directions of integration, digitization and multifunction fields. From the
practical industry, it shall regard the digital mine focused on network information
technology as the direction and objective of information development [29]. The
mine informatization is mainly reflected in production process control, building of
business management system and monitoring of production safety; the problem of
“Information Island” can be effectively solved, as long as the overall planning is
strengthened, and the information flow between each function and between each
10.5 Process Control Problems and Development Trend … 393
system of concentrators is gradually improved. In addition, the development for

relevant software shall be enhanced, in order to expedite the key cultivation for
high-tech IT talents in the mine field and increase their introduction intensity.
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Chapter 11
Model Selection and Design of Flotation
Machines
There are many influencing factors for model selection and design of flotation
machines. Not only the conditions such as the ore properties, throughput, flotation
size, concentration and reagent system shall be considered but also the factors such
as the flotation machine type, equipment configuration, investment cost and main-
tenance operations shall be considered. For design and model selection of flotation
machines, the following shall be mainly determined: (1) types of flotation machines;
(2) specifications of flotation machines; (3) configuration of flotation machines; (4)
selection of supporting equipment. This chapter compares the technical characteris-
tics of Chinese typical flotation machines, and then introduces the type, specification,
configuration and supporting equipment model selection of the flotation machine.
Finally, it introduces the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method of the flotation
machine section and the rapid model selection method of flotation machines of CBR.
11.1 Technical Characteristics of Flotation Machines
Now, the most common flotation machines include KYF, XCF, BF, JJF, GF, CLF,
CGF, XJK, etc., in China. They have been described in detail in the above chapters.
This section mainly compares them with the aspects of functional difference, aeration
mode, power consumption, equipment configuration, adaptation to the separation of
ores, etc.
(1) Functional difference
Both KYF and CLF belong to the scope of pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation
machine. They cannot automatically suck the pulp, and their impellers are used to
disperse air and agitate the pulp only. The XCF pneumatic mechanical agitation flota-
tion machine can automatically suck the pulp while being aerated for special struc-
tural design. BF, GF and other mechanical agitation flotation machines can realize

396 11 Model Selection and Design of Flotation Machines
automatic suction feeding or middlings. These flotation machines with multiple

functions provide great flexibility for their model selection and configuration.
(2) Air inflation method
Air is the cheapest and the most useful reagent for flotation machines, and different
aeration conditions are required for different processing materials of the flota-
tion system. BF, GF and JJF flotation machines are mechanical agitation flotation
machines with a suction rate of 0.8–1.0 m3 /(m2 min). KYF, XCF and CLF flota-
tion machines are pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machines of which the
aeration rate can be adjusted as required. For the ore properties with larger or lower
requirements for gas volume, it is reasonable to select the pneumatic flotation machine
with a wide gas volume adjustment range and accurate adjustment. However, the
automatic suction flotation machine is applicable to the separation of minerals with
wide requirements for the gas volume range, wherein, its suction rate depends on the
structure and operating parameter, its gas volume adjustment range is narrower and
its adjustment is inaccurate.
(3) Power consumption
Large volume flotation machine has small power intensity. For example, the unit
volume installed power of JJF-16 m3 is 1.9 kW/m3 , and that of JJF-200 m3 is
1.1 kW/m3 only; The unit volume installed power of KYF-16 m3 is 1.35 kW/m3 , and
that of KYF-320 m3 is 0.65 kW/m3 only. From this perspective, the large volume
type shall be selected in the case that the processing capacity of concentrators is
definite.
(4) Equipment configuration
Since the flotation machines abroad have no function of automatic pulp suction, they
are basically configured in a stepwise way and equipped with a middlings return
pump. Chinese flotation machines have diversified functions and configurations.
KYF and JJF flotation machines need to be configured in a stepwise way if used
separately, and middlings need to be returned through the froth pump; GF, BF, CGF
and XCF flotation machines can be configured in a horizontal way, and their process
configuration is simple without the need of froth pump. From the perspective of
volume, most flotation machines with the volume of 70 m3 and below are configured
in a horizontal way, while all the flotation machines with the volume of above 70 m3
are configured in a stepwise way. For flotation machines with a volume of 70 m3
and below, the horizontal configuration is suggested due to small middling and pulp
quantity, which can reduce the height of plant and arrange the flotation machines
orderly and beautifully; For flotation machines with a larger volume, the stepwise
configuration is suggested due to larger pulp and middling quantity and restricted
pulp suction capacity of the pulp suction tank.
11.1 Technical Characteristics of Flotation Machines 397
(5) Adaptation to the separation of ores
KYF, JJF and BF flotation machines are applicable to the separation of conventionally
non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals and non-metallic minerals, while for the minerals
with coarser or large density particles, CLF, GF or CGF flotation machines may be
selected. It is necessary to select special flotation machine because the flotation of
saline minerals and oxidized ores has its particularity.
11.2 Preliminary Determination of Flotation Machine Type

and Specification
The selection of flotation machine type is related to the factors such as raw ore prop-
erties (ore density, size, silt content, grade, floatability, etc.), equipment performance,
scale of concentrator, process structure and system division. In the model selection,
pay attention to the following four problems:
(1) Ore properties and requirements for separation operation
For the ores with coarse size or large density, generally, the high concentration
flotation method is adopted to reduce the settling velocity of particles and reduce the
sedimentation of mineral particles. In order to adapt to this characteristic, the flotation
machine with shallow tank or the flotation machine special for coarse particles (such
as CLF flotation machine) shall be selected in design; For the sulphide ore with
larger demand for the gas volume and the oxidized ore sensitive to the aeration rate,
generally, the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine is selected, easy for
effective control of gas volume. For the minerals with moderate requirements for the
aeration rate, both mechanical agitation flotation machine and pneumatic mechanical
agitation flotation machine apply.
The rougher and scavenger banks lie in improving the recovery rate, and generally
need a longer overflow weir with a fast froth discharge rate; the cleaner bank mainly
lies in improving the concentrate grade, wherein, the flotation froth layer will be
thicker and the flotation aeration rate is smaller. Therefore, the selection and operation
of the flotation machine of cleaner bank shall be different from those of the flotation
machine of rougher and scavenger banks.
(2) Reasonably selecting the specification of flotation machine according to the
pulp flow
In order to ensure separation effect, it must ensure that the pulp in each flotation tank
has a certain residence time. Longer or shorter time will cause loss of useful minerals
and reduce the recovery rate of operations. Therefore, the specification of flotation
machine must adapt to the scale of concentrator.
The flotation system shall be reduced where possible to play the superiority of a
large flotation machine. For some easily floatable ores, in conditions permitting, even
take single series production into consideration. Considering according to the current
domestic largest flotation machine (volume of 680 m3 ), each series can be up to
above 50,000 t/d. The specification and quantity of flotation machine are determined
through technical and economic comparison.
In the solution comparison, generally, it shall conduct comprehensive compar-
ison in aspects of separation indicator, operating expense, operation management,
maintenance and overhaul, etc., to ensure unified model and specification of equip-
ment. However, for concentrators, the separation indicator shall be regarded as a
dominating factor and given enough attention.
(3) Paying attention to the manufacturing quality of equipment and supply of
spares
Served as the necessary conditions for ensuring the production of concentrator, good
equipment quality and sufficient spares supply sources should not be neglected in
model selection.
11.3 Selection for the Specification of Flotation Machines
11.3.1 Calculation of Flotation Pulp Volume

K 1 Q R + ρ1
W = (11.1)
60
where
W Calculated pulp volume rate, in m3 /min;
Q Design operation process amount (including return amount), in t/h;
R Ratio between the liquid and solid mass of the operation pulp;
ρ Density of ores;
K1 Fluctuation coefficient of the pulp. When it is ball milling before flotation,
K 1 = 1.15; When it is semi-automatic milling or automatic milling before
flotation, K 1 = 1.2.
11.3.2 Determination of Flotation Time of Operations
The flotation time greatly affects the flotation tank volume and flotation indicators,
so it must be selected carefully. Generally, the flotation time of an operation is
determined according to the test results and with reference to the production case of
similar ore concentrators. The flotation time is determined by means of small closed-
circuit test time, hunting test time, pilot-scale test time and actual flotation time of
concentrator of this type, and the common flotation time takes small closed-circuit
11.3 Selection for the Specification of Flotation Machines 399
test time and hunting test time as the model selection basis. Generally, the above two
times are shorter than the industrial production time. In design, the test flotation time
shall be lengthened and is multiplied by the adjustment coefficient of K rt generally.
The formula is as follows:
1/2
t = t0 q 0 q + t (11.2)
where
t Design flotation time, in min;
t0 Small flotation test time in the laboratory, in min;
K rt Adjustment coefficient of flotation time.
The short circuit of the flotation machine is inevitably increased. In order to
compensate for the shortage of flotation time, the adjustment coefficient of K rt of
flotation time must be adjusted with the volume of flotation machine.

1.5−3, V0 ≤ 40
K1 = (11.3)
2.0−3.5, V0 < 40
where
V0 Volume of flotation machine, in m3 .
The residence time of the pulp is generally deemed as the average detention time
of the pulp in the tank body of the flotation machine, from entering the operation
feed inlet to discharging from the outlet. At home, the residence time of the pulp
in the tank body of the flotation machine is deemed as approximate to the flotation
time.
In case the froth productivity of the flotation machine is not large or the volume
of the flotation machine is small, one operation shall be considered and calculated
overall and the overflow volume of froth shall not be considered. In case the froth
productivity of the flotation machine is large or the volume of the flotation machine
is large, the overflow volume of froth shall be particularly considered.
11.3.3 Calculation and Determination of Tank Quantity

In view of two calculations of the residence time of tr of the flotation machine, the
calculation of tank quantity of the flotation machine is determined based on the above
two cases.
(1) In case the froth productivity of the flotation machine is not large or the volume
of the flotation machine is small, the t r shall be kept equal to the value of t.
The tank quantity of the flotation machine is calculated as follows:
WF t
n = (11.4)
→ Ve
where
n Calculated quantity of tanks of the flotation machine;
WF Calculated pulp volume, in m3 /min;
t Flotation time, in min;
Ve Effective volume of the selected flotation machine, in m3 ;
where V e = VK 2 .
V Geometric volume of the flotation machine, in m3 ;
K2 Ratio between effective volume and geometric volume of the flotation tank. In
case of separation of non-ferrous metal ores, take K 2 = 0.8 − 0.85; In case of
separation of iron ores, take K 2 = 0.65 − 0.75. When the froth layer is thick,
take a small value.
(2) In case the froth productivity of the flotation machine is small or the volume
of the flotation machine is large, the t r shall be kept equal to the value of t. The
tank quantity of the flotation machine is calculated as follows:
n=i (11.5)
Conditions of satisfaction: t = Ve /WF1 + Ve /WF2 + · · · + Ve /WFi .

The total quantity of tanks of the flotation machine can be worked out once as per
Formulas 11.4 and 11.5, and then divided into several series, and can also be first
divided into several series, and then the quantity of tanks of the flotation machine
required for each series can be worked out. Principles of determining the series
number of flotation operations:
(1) As same as the grinder series. This method is easy for automatic pulp flow but
against the stabilization for interchange between the pulp flow and the series
and against the production testing;
(2) Different from the grinder series. This method is easy for stabilization for
interchange between the pulp flow and the series and for production testing, and
more favourable to the realization of requirement for large flotation machine
but always difficult to realize the automatic flow transport of the main ore. This
method is chiefly used in large concentrators with a higher requirement for the
automatic control level.
The phenomenon of “short circuit” shall be avoided when the quantity of flotation
machine is calculated and determined. In the small test, all mineral particles in the
tank have the same residence time and the equal flotation opportunity. However, in
the continuous flotation process of industrial production, the residence time of the
mineral particles in the flotation tank is unbalanced, there is a distribution problem
of residence time, wherein, the rate of partial pulps (or mineral particles) passing
11.3 Selection for the Specification of Flotation Machines 401
through the flotation circuit is faster than the average rate or the rate calculated as
per the nominal residence time, and this part of partial pulps may flow into the
tailings soon without sufficient recovery, causing the phenomenon of “short circuit”.
Therefore, in order to reduce the possibility of “short circuit”, the quantity of tanks
of rougher–scavenger banks of each series shall not be too little, and shall not be less
than 6 generally.
With the application of large flotation machine and the improvement of the flota-
tion unit reactor technology, the concept of tank quantity of the flotation machine also
changes. At present, there have been many examples of large concentrators with less
than six rougher–scavenger flotation tanks. Even the single flotation machine as the
design concept of an operation has been gradually adopted by the engineering tech-
nicians. Therefore, when the quantity of tanks of flotation machine of each series is
determined, the flotation machine shall be selected with reference to similar example
enterprises according to different factors such as the specification and flotation time
of the flotation machine.
The selection of intermediate boxes shall also be paid attention to in the selection
of flotation machine. Generally, the medium and small flotation machines shall be
arranged with an intermediate box every 2–5 tanks so that each separated section
can separately control the pulp and froth level, thus achieving the optimal overall
recovery rate; The configuration of an intermediate box of the large flotation machine
with a volume of above 50 m3 depends on the process conditions and 2–4 tanks are
appropriate generally. Generally, the ultra-large flotation machine with a volume
of above 200 m3 is arranged with an intermediate box every 1–2 tanks, and this
intermediate box can be designed to external and internal types according to process.
In addition, for the convenience of maintenance, management and configuration,
it is better to select the same model and specification of equipment for operations
other than cleaner bank. The cleaner bank shall depend on the concentrate produc-
tivity and operation concentration. If the concentrate productivity is larger, the flota-
tion machine having the same model with the rougher and scavenger can also be
considered, without affecting the separation effect.
11.3.4 Calculation Example
With a Cu–Mo concentrator as the example, the initial conditions are as follows:
semi-automatic milling for grinding circuit; daily processing capacity: 150,000 t/d;
for the large demand for the aeration rate of sulphide ore, the pneumatic mechanical
agitation flotation machine is selected. For small froth produn.ctivity of each oper-
ation, Formulas 11.1–11.5 are adopted for calculation. See Table 11.1 for relevant
process parameters and calculation results.
Table 11.1 Model selection calculation results of the flotation equipment in a Cu–Mo concentrator
402
Operation Dry ore Concentration Pulp Small Amplification Selection Fluctuation Volumetric Total Specification Calculation Selection Single Number
name quantity (%) volume flotation coefficient, flotation coefficient, coefficient volume of flotation of flotation of series of series
(t/h) 3
(m /min) time K rt time K1 of machine machine flotation
(min) (min) flotation (m3 ) quantity machine
machine (quantity) quantity
(m3 ) (quantity)
1 Cu–Mo and 6579 32.1 273.63 3 3 9 1.2 0.85 3219 300 11.59 12 3 4
other
floatable
rougher
2 Cu–Mo and 6464 32.2 267.81 2 3 6 1.2 0.85 2520 300 7.56 8 2
other
floatable
scavenger 1
3 Cu–Mo and 6308 32.5 258.33 2 3 6 1.2 0.85 1519 300 7.29 8 2
other
floatable
scavenger 2
4 Copper 6314 32.4 259.57 4 3 12 1.2 0.85 3664 300 14.66 16 4 4
rougher
5 Copper 6226 32.2 257.95 2 3 6 1.2 0.85 2427 300 7.28 8 2
scavenger 1
6 Copper 6095 32.5 249.61 2 3 6 1.2 0.85 2349 300 7.05 8 2
scavenger 2 ara>
7 Cu–Mo and 307.5 21 21.23 5 2 10 1.1 0.8 265 30 9.73 8 2 4
other
floatable
concentration
1
(continued)
11 Model Selection and Design of Flotation Machines
Operation Dry ore Concentration Pulp Small Amplification Selection Fluctuation Volumetric Total Specification Calculation Selection Single Number
name quantity (%) volume flotation coefficient, flotation coefficient, coefficient volume of flotation of flotation of series of series
(t/h) 3
(m /min) time K rt time K1 of machine machine flotation
(min) (min) flotation (m3 ) quantity machine
machine (quantity) quantity
(m3 ) (quantity)
8 Cu–Mo and 160.62 21 11.09 4 2 8 1.1 0.8 110 30 4.07 8 2
other
floatable
concentration
2
9 Cu–Mo and 93.75 21 6.47 4 2 8 1.1 0.8 64.72 30 2.37 8 2
other
floatable
concentration
3
10 Cu–Mo 86.375 20 6.31 7.5 2 15 1.5 0.8 118.23 30 5.91 6 3 2
separate
rougher
11 Cu–Mo 86.375 20 6.31 5 2 10 1.5 0.8 78.82 30 3.94 4 2
separate
11.3 Selection for the Specification of Flotation Machines
scavenger 1
12 Cu–Mo 86.375 20 6.31 5 2 10 1.5 0.8 78.82 30 3.94 4 2
separate
scavenger 2
403
11.4 Configuration of Flotation Machines
After the specification and model of the flotation machine are determined, the config-
uration method of the flotation machine shall be considered. Under the condition of
meeting the flotation process, the selection for flotation machine or flotation machine
unit decides the horizontal configuration or stepwise configuration, involving flow
mode of the pulp and return mode of the middling froth. However, the configuration
method decides the design of flotation plant and flotation machine foundation. A good
configuration method of the flotation machine can simplify the design of flotation
machine foundation, reduce the plant height and reduce the basic investment.
11.4.1 Horizontal Configuration
The horizontal configuration means that the flotation machines of different opera-
tions are installed on the same horizontal plane, and the middlings can be completed
by means of automatic suction of the flotation machine in the workshop. The hori-
zontal configuration saves the pulp pump, froth pump and other auxiliary equipment,
reduces the energy consumption of concentrator and equipment maintenance cost,
simplifies the concentrator design and reduces the plant height. See Fig. 11.1 for
horizontal configuration.
The flotation machines or flotation machine units that can be configured in a
horizontal way include BF flotation machine, GF flotation machine, BF/JJF flota-
tion machine unit, GF/JJF flotation machine unit, XCF/KYF flotation machine unit,
GF/KYF flotation machine unit, CLF flotation machine unit with pulp suction tank
and free-flow tank, etc. These flotation machines or units are briefly introduced below
and typical application examples are cited for reference.
(1) BF and GF flotation machines
Both BF and GF flotation machines are the mechanical agitation flotation machines
developed by BFVS: they have four functions, i.e. automatic air suction, automatic
pulp suction, automatic middling froth suction and flotation, they can automatically
form flotation circuit, without the need of auxiliary equipment such as blower and
pump, they are configured in a horizontal way in the workshop, they can be served as
the pulp suction tank and free-flow tank and they are convenient for flotation process
Fig. 11.1 Horizontal configuration

11.4 Configuration of Flotation Machines 405
Table 11.2 Typical concentrators of BF and GF flotation machines

S. No. Mine name Ore type Model
1 Gongchangling Mining Company of Ansteel Iron ore BF-20
2 Xinjiang Ashele Copper Co., Ltd Copper-zinc ore BF-20 and BF-10
3 Yunnan Chihong Zn & Ge Co., Ltd. (Huize Pb–Zn deposit BF-16 and BF-8
Pb–Zn Deposit)
4 CHALCO Shandong Co., Ltd Bauxite BF-16 and BF-8
5 Qinghai Yuantong Potash Fertilizer Co., Ltd Potassic salt ore BF-20
6 Jilin Ji’en Nickel Industry Co., Ltd Nickel ore BF-8 and GF-4
7 Xinjiang Axi Gold Mine Gold ore BF-8 and BF-2.8
8 Dahongshan Copper Mine Copper ore GF-1.1
9 Changqing Tungsten and Molybdenum Co., Molybdenum ore GF-4 and GF-2
Ltd
10 Chengde Yanshan Silver Industry Co., Ltd Silver ore GF-2
11 Songxian Miaoling Gold Mine Gold ore GF-1.1
12 Liaoning Haicheng Houying Group Magnesium ore BF-40 and 24
change. GF flotation machine places extra emphasis on solving the flotation problem
of precious metal minerals containing gold, silver, etc., and is mostly applied in the
gold and silver concentrator when used separately.
Such two flotation machines are widely applied in Chinese medium and small
concentrators, with a single tank volume of 0.15–50 m3 . See Table 11.2 for typical
concentrators.
(2) BF/JJF and GF/JJF flotation machine integral units
JJF flotation machine is a kind of mechanical agitation flotation equipment: the

capacity of automatic air suction is available, but the capacity of automatic pulp and
middling froth suction is unavailable, the flotation machine shall be configured in a
stepwise way if used separately and the pulp and middling froth shall be returned
through a pump. In order to realize the horizontal configuration of the flotation
machine, BF/JJF or GF/JJF flotation machine unit is often used, wherein, BF or GF
flotation machine is served as the pulp suction tank and JJF flotation machine is
served as the free-flow tank.
The single tank volume of BF/JJF and GF/JJF flotation machine units is 1–50 m3 ,
meeting the requirement of most medium and small concentrators at home and
abroad. See Table 11.3 for the typical users of BF/JJF and GF/JJF flotation machine
units.
(3) XCF/KYF flotation machine unit
The KYF flotation machine is a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine: it

needs to complete flotation by means of the air supplied by the blower, the capability
of automatic pulp and middling froth suction is unavailable, the flotation machine
406
Table 11.3 Typical users of BF/JJF and GF/JJF flotation machine units
1 Xilin Pb–Zn Deposit Pb–Zn BF/JJF-8
2 Anqian Mining Company Iron ore BF/JJF-20
3 Shanxi Daxigou Mining Company Iron ore BF/JJF-20
4 Jinchuan Nickel Industrial Company Nickel ore GF/JJF-24
5 Luanchuan Sanqiang Tungsten and Molybdenum Co., Ltd Molybdenum ore GF/JJF-16
6 Dahongshan Iron Mine Iron ore GF/JJF-20
7 Sizhou Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited Copper ore GF/JJF-28
8 Jinchuan Group Nickel ore GF/JJF-28 and 24
needs to be configured in a stepwise way if used separately and pulp and middling
froth need to be returned through a pump. XCF flotation machine is a pneumatic
mechanical agitation flotation machine with the capacity of automatic pulp and
middling froth suction: it needs to pump the air by means of blower, and conquered
the technical problem of unavailable automatic pulp and middling froth suction of
the pneumatic flotation machine for the first time in the world, becoming exclusive
in China. XCF flotation machine is served as the pulp suction tank, KYF flota-
tion machine is served as the free-flow tank, XCF/KYF flotation machine unit can
realize horizontal configuration of the flotation machine better and the use of pump
is canceled.
With the maximum single tank volume of 70 m3 , XCF/KYF flotation machine
unit is currently a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine unit having the
widest application range and the largest application amount in China. See Table 11.4
for typical cases in recent years.
(4) GF/KYF flotation machine unit
The GF/KYF flotation machine unit uses the GF flotation machine as the pulp suction
tank and uses the KYF flotation machine as the free-flow tank. This kind of flotation
machine unit is applied widely in the concentrator with large middling return volume
and can give full play of the characteristic of the large pulp suction capacity of the GF
flotation machine. The maximum single tank volume of GF/KYF flotation machine
unit is 50 m3 .
In the reverse flotation of iron ore and bauxite and other mineral separation
processes, the middling froth return volume is large, the froth is adhesive, the mobility
is poor and the aeration rate is sensitive, thus GF/KYF flotation machine unit is often
selected. See Table 11.5 for typical cases.
(5) CLF flotation machine unit with pulp suction tank and free-flow tank
The CLF flotation machine is a kind of widely graded pneumatic mechanical agitation
flotation machine developed based on the new concept of flotation dynamics. It is
characterized in special tank body structure and new pulp circulation mode so that no
sediment in the tank occurs in case of processing of coarsely graded materials when
the pulp circulates; A grid plate is arranged in the tank to form a suspended layer of
coarse minerals above it, thus achieving the flotation aim of coarse minerals, and a
circulation channel is arranged inside, meeting the mineralization and separation of
fine minerals. The maximum single tank volume of CLF flotation machine unit can
be up to 40 m3 . See Table 11.6 for the typical concentrators selecting this kind of
flotation machine unit.
408
Table 11.4 Typical users of XCF/KYF Flotation machine unit

1 Mongolia T-D Zinc Mine Zinc ore XCF/KYF-8
2 Jilin Huichun Gold Mine Gold ore XCF/KYF-40 and 24
3 Qinghai Wister Co., Ltd Copper ore XCF/KYF-16
4 JISCO Iron ore XCF/KYF-50
5 Wusteel Daye Iron Mine Iron ore XCF/KYF-50
6 Yunnan Phosphate Chemical Group Co., Ltd Phosphorite XCF/KYF-50 and 30
7 Fengning Xinyuan Molybdenum Industry Co., Ltd Molybdenum ore XCF/KYF-50
8 CHALCO Zhongzhou Co., Ltd Bauxite XCF/KYF-40
9 SDIC Lop Nor Leopoldite Co., Ltd Leopoldite XCF/KYF-50
10 China Gold Inner Mongolia Mining Co., Ltd Copper concentration XCF/KYF-70
Table 11.5 Typical users of GF/KYF flotation machine unit

1 Baogang concentrator Iron ore GF/KYF-50
2 CHALCO Zhongzhou Co., Ltd Bauxite GF/KYF-40
3 Nicolae copper concentrator of Kazakhmys PLC Copper ore GF/KYF-40
Table 11.6 Typical concentrators of CLF flotation machine unit or flotation machine
1 Guixi Smelter of Jiangxi Copper Slag CLF-8
Corporation Limited
2 Tongliao Silica Mining Company Quartz sand CLF-8
3 Fengning Sanying Mining Company Phosphorus CLF-8
4 Shuangluan Jianlong Mining Titanium and phosphorus CLF-8
Company
5 Shandong Yanggu Xiangguang Slag CLF-8
Copper Co., Ltd
6 Taihe Iron Mine of Chongqing Iron Titanium and iron CLF-16
and Steel Group
11.4.2 Stepwise Configuration
Stepwise configuration means that the flotation machines of different operations are
not installed on the same horizontal plane, and there is a height difference between
flotation workshops. Generally, there are two methods: One method is that the pulp
in the last operation flows to the next operation by gravity and the middling froth
is returned by froth pump; the other method is that the middling froth is returned
by automatic flow and the underflow pulp is transported by pump. When stepwise
configuration is adopted, the foundation between workshops of the flotation machine
shall have a height difference for the convenience of automatic pulp flow or automatic
froth return. Therefore, the plant height and investment cost will be increased in case
the process is complex. However, in the stepwise configuration, the pulp throughput
or the froth return are not restricted by the pulp suction capacity of the flotation
machine, which is the most remarkable advantage of stepwise configuration. The
stepwise configuration is shown in Fig. 11.2a and b, respectively.
The calculation of height difference between steps is very important after step-
wise configuration is selected. The first form needs to comprehensively consider the
volume of underflow pulp, the size fraction of particles, the ratio of particles, the froth
layer thickness and the aeration rate of the previous and next operations, nominal
opening of level control valve and other factors. The formula is as follows:
2
W
H s = 0.5 · · g −1 · K F · Kρ · K s (11.6)
Ss · K 00
Fig. 11.2 a Stepwise configuration allows gravity flow of slurry, b Stepwise configuration allows
gravity flow of froth
where
Hs Height difference between steps, in m;
W Pulp flow, in m3 /s;
K 00 Influence coefficient of the flotation machine structure to the height differ-
ence, 0.65–0.8 generally;
Ss Flowable valve area of the pulp in the nominal opening of the valve, in m2 ;
g Gravitational acceleration, in 9.8 m/s2 ;
KF Influence coefficient of froth layer thickness;
Kρ Influence coefficient of particle ratio;
KS Influence coefficient of particle size.
For the second form, the height difference of Hf needs to consider the froth
volume, the size and ratio in the froth and the collision coefficient and viscosity of
froth and calculated with reference to the froth tank gradient in the mineral separation
practice. A detailed calculation process will not be given.
The common flotation machine used for stepwise configuration includes KYF,
JJF and CLF types.
(1) KYF flotation machine
The KYF flotation machine is a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine:

this machine features the inverted-cone impeller with backward-inclined blade,
the porous cylindrical air distributor and the low damping suspended stator. In
recent 10 years, flotation equipment has been developed towards upsizing, high effi-
ciency and high degree of automation. The advantages of flotation equipment with
large volume lie in that the space required for concentrator can be reduced, or the
processing capacity can be improved provided that the existing concentrator space is
not changed; the design layout of the flotation section is simplified; the complexity of
the control device is simplified and the operating flexibility of the flotation section is
improved; the maintenance cost is significantly reduced; and the total cost of power
consumption and production of processing each ton of ore is reduced, etc.
At present, the large and ultra-large KYF flotation machines have been popularized
on a large scale at home and abroad, obtaining good economic and social benefits.
See Table 11.7 for the typical users of large and ultra-large KYF flotation machines.
(2) JJF flotation machine
JJF flotation machine is a self-inspiring type mechanical agitation flotation machine

that is designed with a large lower circulation for the pulp in the tank. Since the
capacity of automatic pulp suction is unavailable, JJF flotation machine shall be
configured in a stepwise way if used separately and the middlings shall be returned
through the froth pump. JJF flotation machine is widely applied to flotation operations
of non-ferrous metals, ferrous metals, non-metallic and chemical materials with very
strong adaptation. At present, more than 1000 different specifications of JJF flotation
machines have been served in various concentrators, and have obtained satisfying
technical and economic indicators.
Table 11.7 Typical users of large KYF flotation machines

1 China Gold Wunugetushan Mine Cu–Mo ore KYF-320 and 160
2 Dexing, Copper Deposit of Jiangxi Copper ore KYF-200, 160, 130 and 70
Copper Corporation Limited
3 KISC Dahongshan Iron Mine Copper ore KYF-200
4 Jinchuan Group Co., Ltd Nickel ore KYF-160 and 50
5 Guizhou Jinfeng Gold Mine Gold ore KYF-100, 50 and 40
6 Luoyang Molybdenum Co., Ltd Molybdenum ore KYF-100 and 50
7 Jinduicheng Molybdenum Group Molybdenum ore KYF-50 and KYF-260
Co., Ltd
Since the small JJF flotation machine is often used with other flotation machine
units with the pulp suction capacity as integral units, there are a few concentrators
separately using JJF flotation machine. The typical concentrators are listed in Table
11.8.
(3) CLF flotation machine
CLF flotation machine is often configured in a stepwise way when used for operations
with large processing capacity and simple process. The raw ore of Slag Workshop of
Guixi Smelter of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited is the slag, the copper in the
slag is recovered through flotation, the separation process of two-time rougher–two-
time scavenger–three-time concentration is adopted, 15 CLF-40 flotation machines
are used for rougher and scavenger banks, the pulp does not have to be returned
due to single minerals and simple process, and the CLF-40 flotation machines
are configured in a stepwise way. Chengde Shuangluan Jianlong Mining Company
adopts the process of one-time rougher–one-time scavenger–three-time concentra-
tion for flotation of phosphorus, equally, the pulp does not have to be returned due
to simple process and large processing capacity, and the CLF-40 flotation machines
are configured in a stepwise way.
See the concentrators listed in Table 11.9 for typical cases.
Table 11.8 Typical concentrators of JJF flotation machine

1 Yinshan Deposit of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited Pb–Zn JJF-4
2 Jinchuan Group Co., Ltd Nickel ore JJF-4
3 Dexing Copper Deposit of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited Copper ore JJF-16
4 Sichuan Lala Copper Deposit Copper ore JJF-16
5 Tongling Non-Ferrous Group Copper ore JJF-130
6 Heilongjiang Duobaoshan Copper Mine Cu–Mo ore JJF-320
Table 11.9 Typical concentrators of JJF flotation machine

1 Guixi Smelter of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Slag CLF-40
Limited
2 Smelter of Jinchuan Group Co., Ltd Slag CLF-40
3 Smelter of Tongling Non-Ferrous Group Slag CLF-40
4 Smelter of Zijin Group Slag CLF-40
5 Smelter of Glencore International AG in the Slag CLF-40
Philippines
6 Shougang Hierro Peru SAA Iron ore CLF-8
7 Fengning Sanying Mining Company Iron phosphorite CLF-40 and CLF-8
11.4.3 Selection of Two Configuration Methods
Such two configuration methods have their respective advantages and disadvantages.
See Table 11.10 for comparison results.
For the selection of configuration methods, generally, the following principles are
complied with:
A. Give preference to horizontal configuration. Horizontal configuration has such
advantages as unnecessary froth pump, easy operation, low maintenance cost
and small investment, in addition, the horizontal configuration process becomes
simpler, and the process becomes easier when the raw ore properties or mineral
separation process is changed.
B. For medium and small concentrators with many separation process sections and
complex process structures, the flotation machine configured in a horizontal
way is selected with easy and flexible configuration. Many froth pumps or pulp
pumps are required for many process sections and complex process, at this
time, the superiority of horizontal configuration will be shown better.
C. For a large concentrator with large processing capacity and simple process,
the stepwise configuration is often adopted. For the sulphide ores with lesser
froth productivity and froth viscosity, the stepwise configuration in which pulp
automatically flows and froth is returned through a pump is adopted gener-
ally; however for some oxidized ores, especially for minerals with large froth
viscosity and difficult to pump, the stepwise configuration in which pulp is
returned by automatic flow and underflow pulp is pumped is adopted generally.
Table 11.10 Comparison between two configuration methods

Item Configuration type
Description of features Horizontal configuration Stepwise configuration
Processing capacity Medium and small concentrator Large concentrator
Process Complex Simple
Height There is no height difference There is a height difference
between workshops and the between workshops and the
height is small height is large
Investment of capital Simple foundation and low cost Complex foundation and high
construction cost
Auxiliary equipment Little, middling pump is Much, middling pump is
unavailable available
Channel above the flotation Easy layout Step ladder is required
machine
Spares Add mechanical agitation Add spares for the pump
flotation machine
Running power consumption Low 10–20% higher than
horizontal configuration
D. The same concentrator can select the stepwise configuration for a part of oper-
ation and select horizontal configuration for the other part of operation, which
can play the advantages of the two configurations. Generally, if the rougher
and scavenger banks have large processing capacity and the selected flotation
machine has a large volume, the stepwise configuration shall be adopted; if the
cleaner bank has small processing capacity and the selected flotation machine
has small volume, the horizontal configuration shall be adopted.
E. Natural conditions of concentrator geography.
In a word, during the configuration of flotation machine, all aspects of factors
shall be comprehensively considered and flexibly mastered from the starting point
of economic and social benefit maximization.
11.4.4 Selection Cases of Configuration Methods
According to the calculation result in Sect. 11.3.4, the configuration method is

determined. See Table 11.11 for the results.
11.5 Selection of Supporting Equipment
The supporting equipment for flotation machine includes flotation process control
system and supporting equipment used for the process.
The flotation process control system belongs to the field of automatic control
instrument, generally including automatic level control system, aeration rate control
system, flotation machine bearing temperature detection system and flotation froth
monitoring system.
The supporting equipment used for the process mainly includes dosing machine,
air compressor, low-pressure blower, etc.
11.5.1 Flotation Process Control System
(1) Scale of concentrator
Small concentrator may not be adopted due to simple process and less equipment. For
large concentrator with larger scale and larger influence of artificial improper factors
on mineral separation indicators, generally, the automatic level control system, aera-
tion rate control system and flotation machine bearing temperature detection system
need to be adopted, ensuring the stability and accuracy of flotation operations and
guaranteeing the normal operation of equipment.
11.5 Selection of Supporting Equipment 415
Table 11.11 Determination results of configuration methods

S. No. Operation Specification Quantity Configuration Configuration Height
name of flotation of type type difference, in
machine flotation m
(m3 ) machines
of single
series
(quantity)
1 Cu–Mo and 300 3 Stepwise (2 + 1) + 1 1.1–1.5
other configuration +1+1+1
floatable
rougher
2 Cu–Mo and 300 2
other
floatable
scavenger 1
3 Cu–Mo and 300 2
other
floatable
scavenger 2
4 Copper 300 4 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 1.1–1.5
rougher
5 Copper 300 2
scavenger 1
6 Copper 300 2
scavenger 2
7 Cu–Mo and 30 2 Horizontal 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 Unnecessary
other configuration
floatable
concentration
1
8 Cu–Mo and 30 2
other
floatable
concentration
2
9 Cu–Mo and 30 2
other
floatable
concentration
3
10 Cu–Mo 30 3 3+2+2 Unnecessary
separate
rougher
11 Cu–Mo 30 2
separate
scavenger 1
(continued)

S. No. Operation Specification Quantity Configuration Configuration Height
name of flotation of type type difference, in
machine flotation m
(m3 ) machines
of single
series
(quantity)
12 Cu–Mo 30 2
separate
scavenger 2
(2) Automation level
The design idea and matching automation level of each concentrator are inconsis-
tent. For a concentrator with a lower requirement for the automation level, generally,
only a single operation level automatic control system is selected. For a concen-
trator with higher requirements for the automation level, it is suggested to adopt the
centralized control system, including the automatic level control system, aeration rate
control system, flotation machine bearing temperature detection system and flotation
froth monitoring system. The flotation machine control system will be reserved with
interfaces to communicate with the DCS system of the whole concentrator.
11.5.2 Supporting Equipment for Process
(1) Model selection of low-pressure blowers
Only the concentrator adopting the pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine
needs to consider the selection of low-pressure blowers.
The low-pressure blower of the concentrator generally includes a centrifugal
blower and roots blower. Centrifugal blower has low noise but has larger fluctua-
tions in exhaust pressure. Roots blower belongs to a positive displacement fan with
larger noise and lower fluctuations in exhaust pressure. In view of the reliability of
the low-pressure blower, generally, a concentrator blower is arranged in an indepen-
dent workshop, adopting the mode of 2-working and 1-standby or 3-working and
1-standby.
If the flotation machine specifications are greatly different in the rough scavenger
and concentration stages, blowers will be configured, respectively.
The calculation of the low-pressure blower involves pressure and flow.
(2) Air volume selection of blower
Generally, the air volume mainly depends on the aeration rate determined in the
flotation process test. The calculation formula of the total air volume of Qair of the
11.5 Selection of Supporting Equipment 417
blower is as follows:
Q air = k × p × s × n (11.7)
where
k Air volume coefficient.
p The aeration rate depends on the flotation process test (m3 /m2 min− 1 ).
s Surface area of flotation machine of each tank (m3 )
n Quantity of flotation machines
(3) Pressure rise of blower
The selection for pressure rise of blower generally needs to consider the minimum
inlet air pressure required for flotation machine, pipe loss between blower and
flotation machine and altitude influence, etc.
(a) Calculation of the minimum inlet air pressure required for flotation machine
Multiply the impeller submergence depth of the flotation machine by the maximum
pulp ratio in all flotation tanks, i.e.:
P1 = H × ρ (11.8)
where
H Impeller submergence depth of the flotation machine.
ρ Maximum pulp ratio in all flotation tanks.
(b) Calculation of pipe pressure loss between the blower and the flotation machine

P2 = ξtotal × r × v2 /2g (11.9)
where ξtotal = ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3 .
ξ1 (straight pipe) a * L/D = a * straight pipe length/diameter
ξ2 (bend) b * quantity of bend
ξ3 (valve) c * quantity of valve
r Medium density
v2 Wind speed square
g 9.807
a Pressure loss coefficient of straight pipe
b Pressure loss coefficient of bend
c Pressure loss coefficient of valve
(c) Altitude influence

The air density varies with the altitudes. When air density is ρ 0 and pressure is P0 at
altitude of 0 m, the pressure rise of Ps of the blower at altitude of S is:
Ps = (ρ0 /ρs ) × P0 (11.10)
where
ρs Air density at altitude of S.
(4) Air compressor
Air compressor is mainly used to provide power for the level control system and
aeration rate detection system, and the airflow and pressure need to be calculated
according to the specification and quantity of the matching control systems of the
flotation machine.
(5) Dosing machine
Addition and regulation of reagents are important process factors in the flotation
process, having a great influence on the improvement of reagent efficiency and flota-
tion indicators. Reasonable addition of reagents aims to ensure the maximum effi-
ciency of reagents in the pulp and maintain the optimal concentration. Therefore,
according to the ore characteristics and the properties and process requirements
of reagents, the dosing place and method can be selected and the optimization and
control of the flotation circuit reagent system can be determined. In order to ensure the
accurate addition of reagents, it is suggested to select an automatic dosing machine.
The dosing machine is mainly configured based on the dosage and dosing point.
11.6 Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation of Flotation

Machine Section
In the model selection process of flotation equipment, enterprises need to reduce

the production cost and improve economic benefits, which requires selecting the
flotation equipment with the highest cost performance, namely, it is necessary to
consider many difficultly quantitative factors such as price, service life, operability
and maintainability of equipment. Therefore, the optimization of flotation equip-
ment is a fuzzy conceptual multi-objective evaluation problem. Therefore, it is an
important basis for enterprises to configure equipment scientifically, economically
and reasonably, by applying the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation to comprehensively
consider all aspects of factors to give mathematical models of fuzzy comprehensive
evaluation and make a reasonable fuzzy evaluation on flotation equipment [1].
11.6 Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation of Flotation Machine Section 419
11.6.1 Process of Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation
The fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method is widely applied in fuzzy mathematics,

and its essence lies in quantizing the fuzzy information for quantitative evaluation by
using the set and fuzzy mathematical method. For the solution of multiple evaluation
objectives, obtain the membership of each evaluation objective, respectively, consider
the weight coefficient, obtain the membership of comprehensive fuzzy evaluation
according to the synthesis law of fuzzy matrix, and then obtain the optimal solution
through comparison [2].
11.6.2 Factor Sets and Factors
In the model selection process of equipment, the evaluation factor set of flotation
equipment includes price, function, operability and maintainability and service life.
They are represented as follows:
U = {u 1 , u 2 , u 3 , u 4 , u 5 } (11.11)
Several sub-factors are included in each factor. They can be represented as:

Ui = {u i1 , u i2 , . . . , u i j , . . . , u im i i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
where
U Evaluation factor set;
Ui Numbered i factor in the factor set;
ui j Sub-factors j in the numbered i factor;
mi Quantity of sub-factors in the factor i.
11.6.3 Determination of Weight Coefficient
Since each element in factor set U is the evaluation indicator, and each element
has different influence degrees on the evaluation result, the weight vector A shall
be used quantitatively to describe the consideration factor set U . When research is
second-order fuzzy comprehensive evaluation, the weight coefficient shall include
the weight coefficient of factors and the weight coefficient of sub-factors.
1. Determination of weight coefficient of factors
Weight coefficient of factors reflects the internal relation between factors, embodying
the importance degree of each factor in the factor set. Since the weight coefficient of
factors has fuzziness, the expert opinion shall be comprehensively considered when
the weight size is determined. Weight set of factors is recorded as follows:
A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 } (11.12)
where
A Fuzzy subset on U .
And the weight

ai corresponding to the numbered i factor Ui in the formula is
specified: ai = 1.
2. Determination of weight of sub-factors
Weight coefficient of sub-factors reflects the internal relation between the sub-factors
within a certain factor, embodying the importance degree of each sub-factor in a
certain factor. Similar to the above weight coefficient of factors, the weight set of
sub-factors is recorded as follows:

Ai = {ai1 , ai2 , k, aim i i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (11.13)
where
Ai Fuzzy subset on u i .
3. Determination of evaluation grade set
Each element in the evaluation set V is the evaluation result, and the quantity of
elements is the divided grade quantity. In the practical application, the evaluation
results of flotation equipment are often divided into four grades: Excellent/very good,
good/well, middle/general and poor. After generalization they are represented as
follows:
V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } (11.14)
11.6.4 Fuzzy Conclusion Set
11.6.4.1 Fuzzy Evaluation Matrix
Fuzzy evaluation matrix describes the relation between factor set and evaluation
set, and each row is corresponding to one consideration factor, and each line is
corresponding to one evaluation result in the evaluation set. The fuzzy subset on V
by fuzzy evaluation of single factors for numbered i factors:
11.6 Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation of Flotation Machine Section 421
R = (R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 ) (11.15)
If the membership ri jk of the expression sub-factor u i j against the grade Vi is

used. ri jk is the ratio between voter turnout and a total number of tested people for
sub-factor u i j on grade Vi by the tested personnel. The fuzzy evaluation matrix for
any sub-factor can be obtained
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Ri1 ri11 ri11 ri11 ri11
⎢ Ri2 ⎥ ⎢ ri11 ri11 ri11 ri11 ⎥
Ri = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎣ ... ⎦ = ⎣ ...
⎥
... ... ... ⎦
Rim i ri11 ri11 ri11 ri11
where

4
Ri Fuzzy matrix on [u i × V ] is called evaluation matrix, ri jk = 1.
k=1
For each factor, its evaluation matrix needs to be determined through a fuzzy
statistical test Ri .
11.6.4.2 Fuzzy Matrix Operations
In the practical fuzzy operations, four kinds of fuzzy operation models may be
used, respectively, are Fuzzy transformation, replacing “take small” with “multiply”,
replacing “take large” with “add” and method of weighted mean [3].
(1) Fuzzy transformation
The fuzzy transformation is calculated according to the principle of “maximum and

minimum” to obtain the evaluation result vector, and the calculation formula is as
follows:
m
bj = ∨ ai ∧ ri j (i = 1, 2, ...) (11.16)
i =1
where
∨ Take large operation;
∧ Take small operation.
(2) Replacing “take large” with “add”
The calculation formula is as follows:

m

bj = ai ∧ ri j (i = 1, 2, ...) (11.17)
i =1
(3) Replacing “take small” with “multiply”
m
bj = ∨ ai ri j (i = 1, 2, ...) (11.19)
i =1
(4) Method of weighted mean
m

bj = ai ri j (i = 1, 2, ...) (11.20)
i =1
11.6.4.3 Fuzzy Conclusion Set
The fuzzy conclusion set is the final result of fuzzy operations, and the grade can be
evaluated based on this result. In the comprehensive evaluation space consisting of
the fuzzy conclusion set of the evaluation object is the fuzzy subset on [4]. (U, V, R)
B V Combining with the practical bidding of flotation equipment, i.e. second-order
fuzzy evaluation matrix and second-order fuzzy set:
B = A · R = (b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ) (11.21)
where
B Evaluation conclusion set;

4
bk = ai · bik Membership of system performance U against grade Vk .
i=1
In conclusion, the process of fuzzy comprehensive evaluation shall first determine

the consideration factor set U and evaluation set V ; and then establish an evalua-
tion matrix; next, conduct operation according to the above fuzzy operation models;
finally, process the evaluation conclusion set B according to the maximum member-
ship principle or transformation C = B · V T to obtain the final result of evaluation
C (Fig. 11.3).
11.7 Model Selection of Flotation Machines of CBR 423
Fig. 11.3 Fuzzy

comprehensive evaluation
method
11.7 Model Selection of Flotation Machines of CBR
For a long time, the model selection of flotation machines has combined with the
historical experiences according to the mineral separation process conditions. The
design and selection of flotation machines would not begin from anything. For a
new mineral separation process condition, designers always find both differences
according to the similar conditions that have occurred in the previous work and
then determine the new design and selection solutions based on that [5]. Under the
same mineral separation process condition, different results will be obtained due
to different experiences of design and selection personnel, resulting in a very large
separation effect gap. As for the above problem, the method of case-based reasoning
is adopted herein to integrate the previously accumulated knowledge and experiences
into a system, and the computer technology is used so that each designer has lots
of professional knowledge and experiences to improve the accuracy of design and
selection. Therefore, the implementation of research on flotation machine design and
selection system for case-based reasoning has an important practical significance.
11.7.1 Design and Selection of CBR
The Case-based Reasoning (CBR) technology has been developed in the field of
artificial intelligence in recent several decades [6], and its core is to solve the current
problem depending on the past solving experiences. The CBR is characterized in that
the complete domain knowledge model is unnecessary, the example acquisition is
relatively simple, the past solving experiences can be directly reused, the reasoning
speed is fast, the solving efficiency is high, the incremental self-learning ability
is available and the system is easy to realize, etc., suitable for solving complex
problems such as process design [7], and it has been widely applied in fields of
commerce and trade, medical diagnosis, legal action, engineering design, system
Fig. 11.4 Sizing calculation method
diagnosis, software engineering, etc., in recent years [8]. The CBR system consists
of four parts, i.e. example expression, example retrieval, example modification and
example storage [9], and the difficulties lie in (1) Example expression, emphatically
solving the logical expression structure of design examples and access modes. (2)
Example retrieval, focusing on research on dynamic retrieval and matching principle
of design examples, to realize the CBR process.
The design and selection of flotation equipment are a complicated design problem
based on previous experiences. It is very suitable to adopt CBR method for solving.
On the basis of summarizing the previously relevant studies, by analysing the design
and selection characteristics of flotation equipment, the planning block diagram of
the dynamic design and selection computing system of the flotation machine of CBR
is determined herein, as shown in Fig. 11.4, and the corresponding process example
library and example retrieval method are designed.
11.7.2 Example Expression and Example Retrieval
11.7.2.1 Example Expression
The example expression is the basis of the CBR system. It shall not only correctly
and comprehensively express the common problem in the expression example but
also shall express the specific background of example occurrence, and meanwhile
shall have enlightenment and guiding significance on the same kind of problems.
Whether the example can be expressed correctly and comprehensively concerns
the practicability of the CBR system. According to the lifecycle of the design and
selection example of flotation equipment, the example can be expressed as follows:
(1) Problem description. There are many influencing factors for the design and
selection of flotation equipment, including ore properties, process, process
conditions, etc.;
Ore properties: Ore category, ore ratio and concentrator place.
Process: Rougher, concentration and scavenger.
Process conditions: Processing capacity, selected concentration, selected size,
flotation time and productivity.
(2) Solution. Select the model of flotation equipment according to the influencing
factors, and determine the model, specification, quantity and configuration of
flotation equipment; at the same time, decide whether it is necessary to and
how to modify the design of flotation equipment, including whether the motor
is to upgrade, whether the speed is to upgrade, etc.
(3) Result. It includes running time, flotation indicators, debugging condition,
running condition (actual power consumption, wear pattern and sediment),
spares condition and fault condition.
Therefore, the design
and selection example of flotation equipment
can be
described as T = P(x, y, z), S(α, β, γ , δ, ε), R(ζ, η, θ, λ, μ, ϕ) , and its
characteristics are as shown in Table 11.12.
11.7.2.2 Example Retrieval
To rapidly and effectively retrieve similar examples from the example library, the
following must be met during retrieval: ➀ The examples retrieved shall be as less
as possible. ➁ The examples retrieved shall be as similar as possible with new
problems. Therefore, the retrieval strategies are especially important [10]. At present,
most retrieval strategies used by the CBR system mainly include nearest neighbour
strategy, inductive retrieval method, knowledge guide method, etc. [11] Firstly, we
adopt the method of characteristic matrix for preliminary screening, and then conduct
fine screening according to the method of item-by-item matching of characteristic
weight sequence, to extract the most similar example from the process example
library.
The characteristic matrix algorithm is subject to similarity matching according
to the characteristics and example characteristics required by design and selection.
There are m examples in the example library, and each example has n characteristic
attributes. The f ij represents the jth characteristic of the ith example, wherein i = 1,
2, …, m; j = 1, 2, …, n. The function of Pc (f ij ) represents the attribute value corre-
sponding to the example characteristic of f ij , the Pr (fj) represents the attribute value
corresponding to the characteristic attribute of f j of a new part, and the f j represents
the jth characteristic of a new part. According to different characteristic value data
Table 11.12 Characteristic parameters

Characteristics Characteristic parameters Description of characteristic
parameters
Problem description, P (x, y, z) Ore properties, x (a, b, c) a—Ore category: Copper,
molybdenum, lead, zinc,
phosphorus, etc
b—Ore ratio
c—Concentrator place
Process, y (d) d—Process: Rougher,
concentration and scavenger
Process conditions, z (e, f , g, e—Processing capacity
h, i) f —Selected concentration
g—Selected size
h—Flotation time
i—Productivity
Solution, S (α, β, γ , δ, ε) Model, α (j) j-Model: XCF, KYF, CLF, JJF,
BF, GF and SF
Specification, β (k) k—Specification
Quantity, γ (l) l—Quantity
Configuration, δ (m) m—Configuration:
Design improvement, ε (n, o, n—Power
p) o—Speed
p—Others
Result, R (ζ, η, θ, λ, μ, ϕ) Running time, ζ (q) q—Running time: Half a year,
1 year, 2 years, 3 years, and
more than 5 years
Flotation indicators, η (r, s) r—Concentrate grade
s—Recovery rate
Debugging condition, θ (t) t—Debugging condition
Running condition, λ (u, v) u—Actual power
consumption
v—Wear pattern
Spares condition, μ (w, x) w—Spares: Impeller, stator,
air distributor, bearing, etc
x—Replacement time: Half a
year, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years,
and more than 5 years
Fault condition, ϕ (y) y—Fault condition
types, the following different methods are adopted to calculate the similarity of S
(f ij ) between the ith example and the jth characteristic of a new part.
(1) Similarity of continuous numeric characteristics (S c ):
min(Pc ( f i j ), Pr ( f j ))
Sc ( f i j ) = (11.22)
max(Pc ( f i j ), Pr ( f j ))
(2) Similarity of discrete numeric characteristics (S d ):

1(P ( f )=P ( f ))
Sd f i j = 0(Pcc ( fii jj )= Prr ( f jj )) (11.23)
(3) Similarity of character string characteristics (S s ):

1(Pc ( f i j )=Pr ( f j )
Ss ( f i j ) = 0(Pc ( f i j )= Pr ( f j ) (11.24)
Therefore, the characteristic matrix of example i is Ci =

(Ci1 , Ci2 , . . . , Ci j , . . . , Cin ), Ci j = S f i j .
After the characteristic matrix is determined, designers manually input the weight
coefficient of W j of each characteristic according to the design and selection
requirements, wherein j = 1, 2, …, n; and

n
Wj = 1 (11.25)
i=1
Then the similarity of example i (S i ) is

n
Si = Ci j W j (11.26)
i=1
The retrieved results are arranged from high to low according to the similarity,
and designers select examples and modify examples according to the design and
selection requirements to finally determine the design and selection result of the
flotation machine.
For the design and selection system of the flotation equipment of CBR, concen-
trator designers rapidly and accurately modify the design of flotation machine
according to the mineral separation process conditions based on lots of design expe-
riences, greatly reducing the design and selection time, and improving the design and
selection accuracy. This system is especially applicable to the separation of minerals
with a mature flotation process but has not large significance on the flotation equip-
ment with immature flotation process or the newly developed flotation equipment,
still needing to adopt the traditional method for model selection and design.
11.8 Model Selection of Flotation Machines Based on JK

Technology
From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, the domestic representative research personnel
of Chen Ziming and Yin Di have abundantly studied the contents of flotation
dynamics and industrial flotation circuit analog computation and published lots of
research achievements, but regrettably, they have not launched any commercialized
analog computation software to apply to industrial practice. In recent years, the
domestic studies and applications about mathematical models of flotation rate and
process simulation have been declined, forming an obvious comparison with the
foreign rapid development.
At present, the foreign flotation process simulation software that has been reported
mainly includes JKSimFloat developed by JKtech, HSC Sim launched by Outotec,
USIM PAC developed by BRGM and Supasim developed by Eurus, etc., and the
flotation process simulation software has increasingly become an important tool for
foreign preparation engineers researching, designing and optimizing the flotation
process.
11.8.1 Flotation Process Simulation Software of JKSimFloat
The JKSimFloat JKSimFloat is a software product used for flotation circuit analog
that was launched by the research institute of JKTech under the University of Queens-
land in Australia. The launch of the software benefits from the long-term funds of
P9 Project of Ausmine Research Association and combines with the latest academic
research achievements of the University of Queensland, McGill University and the
University of Cape Town.
The modelling idea of the software is to divide the mineral particles in the feed
into n units according to different flotation rates and regard the mineral particles with
similar flotation rate as the same category. In this way, each mineral in the selected
materials can be roughly divided into four floatability components, i.e. fast floating
component, medium-speed floating component, slow floating component and non-
floating component. When the flotation circuit analog computation is conducted, it
is assumed that the flotation rate between different flotation banks of the floatable
component of each mineral remains unchanged. Based on the floatable component
model of minerals, the mathematical models of floatability component recovery of
minerals are built [11], as shown in the formula.
Pi Sb τ R f (1 − Rw ) + ENTi Rw
Ri = (11.27)
(1 + Pi Sb τ R f )(1 − Rw ) + ENTi Rw
where
Ri Recovery of the floatable component i;
11.8 Model Selection of Flotation Machines Based on JK Technology 429
Pi Floatability of the floatability component i in a mineral;

Sb Surface area flux of bubbles;
Rf Recovery in froth zone;
Rw Recovery of water in the froth concentrate;
τ Residence time of pulp;
ENTi Froth entrainment.
Based on the above equation, it is believed that the flotation recovery is related
to the mineral properties and flotation equipment performance, wherein, the mineral
properties can be represented by the floatability of minerals, and the flotation
equipment performance is related to the fluid dynamics performance and froth
characteristics.
Actually, the process of applying the JKSimFloat software includes many previous
tests, measurements and other preparations. The general steps of using the numerical
simulation for flotation circuit optimization are as follows:
➀ Data measurement. Acquire the original data about the flotation process circuit
and the working condition of equipment, by means of methods such as
field process investigation sampling analysis, working characteristic parameter
measurement of flotation equipment and small flotation test of the laboratory;
➁ Data analysis. Conduct analytical processing of original data, including calcula-
tion of bubble dispersion characteristic parameters, material balance data coor-
dination, analysis of characteristic parameters of the pulp zone and froth zone
and composition analysis of floatability components, to acquire all parameters
required for numerical simulation calculation.
➂ Draw industrial flotation circuit for design, reasonably add different equipment
and name all equipment and materials, respectively, and then set all parameters.
➃ Analog computation. Apply the JKSimFloat software for numerical simulation
calculation of process, to acquire the separation results of process and unit
operations under all possible circuit structures and working conditions of unit
devices;
➄ Process optimization. Analyse and compare the influence of different varia-
tions of flotation machine performance parameters in the operating unit on the
separation result of process, to find the optimum operating parameter and the
attainable optimum recovery.
➅ Field implementation. According to the analog computation result and process
optimization requirement, guide the optimized direction of implementing the
flotation process in the industrial production, and it may track and analyse the
implementation effect.
In 2012, BGRIMM Technology Group introduced the latest corporate customer-
oriented KSimFloat-V6.2. The user interface of the JKSimFloat software is shown
in the Fig. 11.5.
Generally, the floatability characteristic parameters of ores do not have to be
changed after being set in the simulation process, while the influence of character-
istic parameters of the flotation equipment on the separation result of flotation shall
Fig. 11.5 The diagram of industrial flotation circuit by JKSimFloat soft
be mainly adjusted. At present, JKtech has established a JKFIT floatability index

standard test and analytical method, which can calculate and obtain the floatability
parameters of different minerals in the ore. In addition, because the JKSimFloat soft-
ware fully considers the basic behaviours of mineral particles in the pulp phase and
froth phase, such as recovery rate in froth zone, entrainment, recovery of water in
the froth concentrate, surface area flux of bubbles and other important influencing
factors, the variations in separation indicator of the flotation circuit can be predicted
better by adjusting the flotation process parameters, thus guiding the optimization of
industrial production operation.
In the real flotation process, the surface properties of mineral particles in different
operations are always constantly changed, e.g. the subsequently supplemented
reagent greatly changes the superficial floatability of mineral particles; while the
software can set the floatability and composition only of the feed materials, fails to
set the feed properties of subsequent operations, and still fails to directly and quanti-
tatively calculate the separation result varying with the reagent system. As see from
some specific analog computation examples published by JKMRC, the prediction
on flotation recovery is basically correct compared with the measured indicators but
some predicted values still have larger deviations from the true values.
11.8.2 Flotation Process Simulation Software of HSC Sim
The HSC Sim developed by Outotec is the software originally used to simulate the
chemical reaction course and hydrometallurgical process [12, 13], and later applied to
flotation process simulation after being improved. The earlier research suggests that
the flotation rate constant is the first-order equation, and based on this, the flotation
recovery rate model of laboratory batch run is built, as shown in the formula below.
R = m S(1 − e−k St ) + m F(1 − e−k Ft ) + m N (1 − e−k N t ) (11.28)
where
R the cumulative recovery;
mS the slowing floating fraction in minerals;
kS Flotation rate constant of the slowing floating fraction in minerals;
mF Mass fraction of the rapid floating fraction in minerals;
kF Flotation rate constant of the rapid floating fraction in minerals;
mN Mass fraction of non-floating fraction in minerals;
kN Flotation rate constant of non-floating fraction in minerals;
t the cumulative flotation time.
Since the industrial flotation production is a consecutive circuit, the mineral
recovery rate equation applicable to consecutive flotation circuit is established, as
shown in the formula below.

k St k Ft kNt
R = mS + mF + mN (11.29)
1 + k St 1 + k Ft 1 + kNt
Based on the laboratory batch flotation test results, through the above formula,
the mass fraction of different floatable components in different minerals and the
flotation rate constant can be obtained, respectively. Then, draw industrial flotation
circuit in the HSC Sim steady-state simulator, adopt the dynamic parameters by
a laboratory test, magnify the industrial flotation time according to the engineering
practice experiences, set the feeding quantity, pulp density of each operation and other
parameters and select the mineral recovery rate equation of the consecutive flotation
circuit for analog computation, thus predicting the separation indicator of the whole
flotation process circuit. The industrial flotation circuit that is drawn through the
HSC Sim software is shown in the Fig. 11.6.
11.8.3 Flotation Process Simulation Software of USIM PAC
The USIM PAC is the mineral separation process steady-state simulation software
developed by BRGM [14]: its service industrial process includes many aspects such
as crush, grinding, classification, flotation, gravity separation, magnetic separation,
hydrometallurgy and biological metallurgy. The USIM PAC also allows users to add
their models as required and is equipped with a special development tool (USIM
PAC Development Kit). The USIM PAC software also has the material balance data
Fig. 11.6 The diagram of industrial flotation circuit by HSC Sim SoftThe HSC Sim software
equally believes that the minerals in the selected materials can be divided into three floatable
components to build mathematical models, respectively. This idea is very close to the modelling
idea of JKSimFloat, which may be related to the case that Outotec participated in the sponsorship
of the Australian P9 Project in the early stage
coordination function, model parameter fitting function, equipment dimensions and

model selection function and investment cost analysis function.
Parameters required for analog computation by USIM PAC can be divided into
material parameters and unit model parameters. Material parameters can be described
through different methods according to the selection of software users. For the
material parameters of flotation circuit, the feeding quantity, water supply quan-
tity, composition of the selected material, floatability parameter of ores, etc., can be
set. Unit model parameters are divided into visible parameters and hidden parame-
ters, of which the former can be directly operated by the software user; the latter is
used for model calibration only, and the parameter values shall be obtained through
test data analysis.
The USIM PAC software is applied to flotation process, mainly including three
aspects:
(1) In the preliminary design stage, according to the small test result, recom-
mended process and production objectives, calculate the rate, grade and particle
composition of each material flow in the process through forward simulation
method, then inversely calculate the dimensions of the required major equip-
ment through reverse simulation method, finally calculate the operation result
of the future concentrator through forward simulation method and estimate
the investment cost. Repetitively applying this method can compare different
solutions.
(2) In the detailed design stage, conduct material balance data coordination
according to the pilot plant test data, calibrate the model parameters of pilot
plant test process through reverse simulation method with the coordinated data,
and calculate the dimensions of the actual concentrator equipment according
to the proportional amplification rule. Then, calculate the operation result of
the future concentrator through forward simulation method and estimate the
required investment cost.
(3) Optimization and upgrade of the existing process. Conduct material balance
data coordination according to the data obtained from the existing concentrator
process investigation, calibrate the model parameters of production process
through reverse simulation method with the coordinated data, then calculate all
possible solutions and the operation results of process under process conditions
through forward simulation method, and it may conduct comparative analysis
on technical, economic and environmental influencing indicators.
Adopt the flotation process simulation software for model selection of flotation
equipment and analog computation of flotation circuit, which not only can predict
the separation indicator of flotation circuit, but also can reversely argue the model
selection reasonableness of flotation equipment, and can guide the optimization of
production flotation process of the concentrator. However, it is necessary to specially
note that it must pay attention to comparatively analysing the contrast between the
predicted result and the actual production when applying such software, and for
certain “blindness” of the setting of individual parameters in the simulation process,
it shall not preset objectives, break away from the general actual production and
makeup parameter set values to achieve a purpose, otherwise, such analog computa-
tion will obviously lose its original meaning. Software users can obtain the preferable
analog computation result only depending on rich professional knowledge accumu-
lation, deep understanding of the physical significance of parameters, reasonable test
methods and rigour of data analysis.
References
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Press, Beijing, pp 248–267
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procession. Nonferrous Metals 4:42–45
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Aided Des Comput Graph (6):590–593
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12. Savassi ON, Alexander DJ, Franzidis JP et a (1998) An empirical model for entrainment in
industrial flotation plants. Min Eng 11(3):243–256
13. Grau R, Gronstrand S, Pentti S (2009) Tisco Yuanjiacun iron ore laboratory tests at CRIMM,
pp 17–18
14. HSC Chemistry◯R 7.0 User’s Guide [EB/OL]. https://www.Outotec.com/hsc
Chapter 12
Application Examples of Flotation
Machines
Flotation machines are important equipment for realizing the flotation process and
have been widely applied to the fields of non-ferrous metal ores, ferrous metal ores,
rare and precious metal ores and some nonmetallic ores because of their high relia-
bility and good technical and economic indexes. Flotation machines with a volume
of 0.15 ~ 680 m3 are used. Forced air flotation machines and mechanical flotation
machines are applied. Both horizontal configuration and stepwise configuration are
applied to flotation machines. At present, there are more than 30,000 BGRIMM
flotation machines to be used in China and other countries.
Taking a typical mine as an example, this chapter describes the selection, config-
uration characteristics and application effects of different types and specifications of
the BGRIMM flotation machine for different ore types.
12.1 Applications of Flotation Machines for Non-Ferrous

Metal Ores
About 80% of non-ferrous metal ores in the natural world are treated by flotation. This
section describes the applications of flotation machines in the fields of bauxite, copper
ores, lead–zinc ores, nickel ores, molybdenum ores and other important non-ferrous
metal minerals.
12.1.1 Application of Flotation Machines for Bauxite
The separation of bauxite ores has the characteristics of low aeration rate, sensitivity,
bubble stickiness, high froth yield, difficult froth transportation, long residence time
of pulp in the flotation machine, etc., which has always been the difficulty in research
on flotation equipment for bauxite dressing. At present, flotation equipment such as

436 12 Application Examples of Flotation Machines
flotation machines and flotation columns have been applied successively, and the
flotation machines have been used for the separation of bauxite ores on a large
scale because of high ore adaptability and good mineral separation indexes. Beijing
General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy has successively developed the
complete flotation machine technology by which the KYF flotation machine, GF
flotation machine and XCF flotation machine are integrated with each other overcome
a series of problems such as froth stickiness, small aeration rate and sensitivity in
the separation of bauxite ores and spread the application of more than 200 sets in
Zhongzhou Aluminum Works, Tianzhang Aluminum Industry Co., Ltd.; Changcheng
Aluminum Industry Co., Ltd.; and other concentrators in China.
12.1.1.1 Application of Flotation Machines in Zhongzhou Aluminum

Works
Zhongzhou Aluminum concentrator has a total of seven parallel lines of flotation

circuits, each of which has a throughput of 2000 t/d, totalling up to 14,000 t/d. It
is a bauxite concentrator applying the largest specification of the Bayer process for
mineral separation in China, and 126 sets of flotation machines with a volume of
40 m3 have been used. The direct flotation process is used by Zhongzhou Aluminum
concentrator. The rougher and scavenger circuit consist of one rougher bank and
two scavenger banks, and the cleaner circuit consists of two cleaner banks and one
scavenger bank cleaner–scavenger bank. The tailings from the scavenger bank and
the scavenger bank cleaner–scavenger are merged into the final tailings, and the
concentrates from the second cleaner bank are the final concentrates. The flotation
circuit is shown in Fig. 12.1.
Rougher 1
Rougher 2
Condition KYF-40 GF-40 KYF-40 Scavenger
GF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40
XCF-40 KYF-40
Cleaner 2
Cleaner 1
GF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40 Cleaner Scavenger
GF-40 XCF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40
XCF-40 KYF-40
Final Tail
Final Concentrate
Final Tail
Fig. 12.1 The basic flotation circuit at the Zhongzhou aluminum concentrator
12.1 Applications of Flotation Machines for Non-Ferrous Metal Ores 437
Based on the ore properties of bauxite, the flotation machine configuration has
the following characteristics:
(1) The main flotation equipment is the forced air KYF flotation machine, allowing
precise regulation of the aeration rate of the flotation machine;
(2) The GF and XCF flotation machines with pulp suction tanks are provided
according to the characteristics of different operations. Through the optimal
design of rotors and cover plates, the degree of air dispersion is increased,
the pulp sucking capacity of the flotation machines is greatly improved, and
the capacity of transporting viscous froth at a high flow rate is improved, thus
facilitating the improvement of flotation performance;
(3) The horizontal configuration is adopted in the different flotation banks. The
selection of the GF and XCF flotation machines with pulp suction tanks realizes
the middlings return function and saves the froth pump;
(4) The first flotation machine for the rougher banker is the KYF flotation machine
to avoid the phenomena of excessive froth yield and difficult grade control in
the first flotation tank.
(5) With a high-precision float ball-laser liquid level measuring device and a
specially designed froth isolation device, the pulp level tends to be stable and
faster with smaller fluctuation, providing a good environment for the direct
flotation process of bauxite.
According to the above characteristics, the flotation machine configuration is shown

in Fig. 12.2.
The field application status is shown in Fig. 12.3.
Since the commencement of operation of the concentrator in 2004, the flotation
performance has been improved continuously through optimization and improvement
Rougher 1
Rougher 2
Condition XCF-40 GF-40 KYF-40 Scavenger
GF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40
XCF-40 KYF-40
Cleaner 2
Cleaner 1
GF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40 Cleaner Scavenger
GF-40 XCF-40 KYF-40 KYF-40
XCF-40 KYF-40
Final Tail
Final Concentrate
Final Tail
Fig. 12.2 The flotation machine configuration at Zhongzhou aluminum concentrator

Fig. 12.3 Flotation machine production scenario at Zhongzhou aluminum concentrator
Table 12.1 Flotation results of the concentrator

Product name Yield/ % Al2 O3 grade/% SiO2 grade/% A/S Al2 O3 recovery rate/%
Concentrate 78.78 69.20 6.23 11.11 84.92
Tailings 21.22 45.65 27.67 1.65 91.00
Raw ore 100.00 63.47 11.38 5.58
of the process and some equipment. The flotation results of the concentrator are shown
in Table 12.1 [1].
12.1.1.2 Application of Flotation Machines in a Shanxi Aluminium

Industry Company
The ores produced by an aluminium industry company in Shanxi belong to the

typical diasporic bauxite, with complex ore patterns. Most of the ores are granular
and flaky, some are slab-flaky or cryptomerous, and the crystal size is generally
0.005 ~ 0.03 mm. The ores have the typical characteristics of high aluminium, high
silicon and low alumina–silica ratio. The useful minerals of these ores have finely
disseminated grain sizes. To achieve a good degree of liberation, the only method is
fine grinding, which increases the difficulty of flotation.
The mine was built and went into operation in 2011, and the direct flotation process
was applied. A total of 27 flotation machines with a volume of 40 m3 are used in
the concentrator, consisting of three types, i.e. KYF, XCF and GF. The latter two
types are used as pulp suction tanks. Their configuration characteristics are similar
to those in Zhongzhou Aluminum concentrator, and the horizontal configuration is
adopted for all the flotation machines. The whole flotation process is simple and
economic in the froth pump. It not only greatly reduces the energy consumption
of the concentrator, but also reduces the investment of capital construction of the
concentrator. Meanwhile, the horizontal configuration of the flotation machines is
convenient for the workers’ process operations, thus reducing the costs for equipment
management and maintenance. The flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.4.
Since the concentrator went into operation, the equipment has been running reli-
ably, and the pulp level has been stable. The flotation machine has a strong agitation
force, a stable pulp suspension layer is formed in the upper-middle part of the flota-
tion machine without the phenomena of fluctuation of the pulp level and sediment
in tank, and the froth layer is stable. The production indexes show that, when the
mean alumina–silica ratio of run-of-mine is 5.31, the alumina–silica ratio of concen-
trate can reach 9.33, the mean grade of Al2 O3 in concentrate reaches 69.70%, the
mean recovery rate reaches 66.51% and the final mineral separation index can fully
Feed
Classification
Ball Mill
Condition Rougher Classification
Pump Sump
Ball Mill
Cleaner 2 Cleaner 1
Pump Sump
Cleaner 3 Separation Rougher

Separation Scavenger Scavenger
Separation Cleaner
Final Tail
Final Concentrate 2
Final Concentrate 1
Fig. 12.4 The flotation circuit at an aluminium concentrator in Shanxi

Fig. 12.5 Flotation machine production scenario at an aluminium concentrator in Shanxi
meet the technological design requirements of the concentrator [2]. The production
scenario on site is shown in Fig. 12.5.
12.1.2 Application of Flotation Machines for Copper Mine
There are many kinds of flotation machines applied in copper mines. The KYF and
JJF flotation machines are the main types of large flotation machines used in large
mines, and KYF/XCF aggregate units, JJF, BF, GF, etc., are the main types used in
small mines. The configuration method of flotation machines includes the horizontal
configuration and the stepwise configuration, in which the horizontal configuration
is the main configuration method.
As the copper ores grades become lower and lower, the throughput also becomes
larger and larger. Therefore, large-scale, energy-saving and high-efficacy separation
equipment is an effective way to improve the economic benefits of copper mines. The
flotation machines with the volume of greater than 40 m3 are used for rougher and
scavenger in mines such as Dexing Copper Mine (daily throughput 130,000 t/d),
Chengmenshan Copper Mine (throughput 10,000 t/d), Yongping Copper Mine
(throughput 10,000 t/d), Wunugetushan Copper–Molybdenum Mine (throughput
75,000 t/d), Deerni Copper Mine (throughput 15,000 t/d), Huichun Zijin Copper and
Gold Mine (throughput 15,000 t/d) and Zijin Copper Mountain Mine (throughput
15,000 t/d). The selection of flotation machines gives priority to forced air flotation
machines, and mechanical flotation machines are also the options. There are both
horizontal and stepwise configurations in terms of configuration method. The Dashan
Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine and the Wunugetushan Copper–Molybdenum
Mine will be highlighted below as representatives.
12.1.2.1 Application of Flotation Machines at Dashan Concentrator

of Dexing Copper Mine
Dashan Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine, the largest copper concentrator in

China, mainly processes porphyry copper ores. In 2010, the throughput of the concen-
trator was increased from 60,000 t/d to 90,000 t/d after flotation circuit improvement.
There are three series, in which flotation machines are used in the rougher bank, scav-
enger bank and scavenger–cleaner–scavenger bank and flotation columns are used
in the cleaner bank. The flotation machines are of stepwise configuration, and the
middlings are returned by the froth pump. The flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.6.
The configuration status of each series of flotation machines is shown in Table 12.2.
In July 2009, nine KYF-200 flotation machines were first put into operation in
series I, while the original CNNC-39 flotation machine was still used in Series II. The
equipment runs well after the—KYF-200 flotation machines went into operation; the
froth layer is stable without slurry level fluctuation; the agitation force is powerful,
and the pulp flow direction is stable; when the flotation machine is shut down, there is
neither dead zone in the flotation tank nor pulp deposition; the air is evenly dispersed,
with a high degree of dispersion and reasonable bubble size distribution; the automatic
pulp level control system of the flotation machine can be freely adjusted as required,
and the control accuracy meets the process requirements; the froth layer thickness can
be adjusted according to the process; the flotation machine can be started normally
after full-load shutdown.
The production indexes from July to November 2009 after the 200 m3 flotation
machines went into operation are shown in Table 12.3. Table 12.3 shows that the
copper recovery in the concentrates is higher than that of the CNNC-39 flotation
machine when the KYF-200 flotation machine is used in the rougher banker with the
production throughput increased by 3750 t/d. This fully demonstrates that the KYF-
200 flotation machine has a good metallurgical performance, which is favourable
for the improvement of technical indexes of mineral separation [3]. The mineral
separation indexes are shown in Table 12.3.
The energy consumption data of the KYF-200 flotation machine and the CNNC-
39 flotation machine is shown in Table 12.4. Table 12.4 shows that the KYF-200
flotation machine can save electricity of 0.18 kWh per 1 t ores under the same
work conditions. After the 39 m3 flotation machine is replaced with the 200 m3
flotation machine, the number of flotation machines to be configured in the flotation
circuit of flotation decreases to facilitate maintenance, thus reducing the spare parts
consumption and saving the maintenance and labor costs. To sum up, the replacement
Feed
Classification
1st Step Rougher 1 1st Step Rougher 2

1st Step Scavenger
Ball Mill
Classification
1st Step Cleaner

1st Step Cleaner
1st Step Cleaner 1st Step Cleaner Scavenger 1
Scavenger 2 Final Tail
Scavenger 3
Classification
1st Step Copper Concentrate Ball Mill
1st Step Tail
2nd Step Cleaner

2nd Step Cleaner 2nd Step Rougher
Scavenger 1
Scavenger 1
2nd Step Cleaner 1
2nd Step Tail

2nd Step Cleaner 2
2nd Step Copper Concentrate
Fig. 12.6 The flotation circuit at the dashan concentrator of dexin copper mine
Table 12.2 Configuration status of flotation machines at dashan concentrator

Operation name Throughput, Flotation Quantity Configuration Operation
10,000 t/d machine model type height
difference, in m
Series I rough 3.375 KYF-200 9 Stepwise 1.0
scavenger banks layout
Series II rough 3.375 KYF-200 9 Stepwise 1.0
Series III rough 2.25 KYF-160 9 Stepwise 0.8
Fine scavenger 0.55 KYF-70 18 Stepwise 0.8
bank layout
Table 12.3 Copper index for rougher bank (%)

Equipment Raw ore grade Concentrate grade Tailings grade System recovery
specification rate
KYF-200flotation 0.442 5.74 0.062 86.81
machine
CNCC-39 flotation 0.444 5.76 0.063 86.79
machine
Difference −0.002 −0.02 −0.010 0.02
Table 12.4 Energy Consumption Data

Equipment Name Installed power, in kW Actual power Electricity
consumption, in kW consumption, in kW/t
200 m3 flotation 220 130.73 0.75
machine
39 m3 flotation 45 38.77 0.93
machine
of small flotation machines with large ones can produce better technical and economic
indexes. The production of KYF-200 flotation machines at Dashan Concentrator is
shown in Fig. 12.7.
12.1.2.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Wunugetushan

Copper–Molybdenum Mine
The Wunugetushan Copper–Molybdenum Mine is a new large copper mine built in

2008. Basic flotation circuits: The raw ores are grinded and classified to obtain the
mixed copper–molybdenum concentrate after bulk flotation. The mixed concentrates
are regrinded and classified after reagent removal, dewatering and concentration to
enter the copper–molybdenum separation flotation circuit, and the copper concentrate
and molybdenum rough concentrate are obtained, respectively. The molybdenum
rough concentrate is scrubbed and regrinded by a vertical mill and supplied into
the cleaner bank before the final molybdenum concentrate is obtained. The flotation
The Wunugetushan Copper–Molybdenum Mine Phase I has a throughput of
36,000 t/d, and the copper–molybdenum bulk flotation circuit consists of two series,
with a throughput of 18,000 t/d for a single series. Because of the large throughput
and low run-of-mine grade, the rougher and scavenger banks are provided with 32
KYF-160 flotation machines in total and configured with the automatic liquid level
control system and aeration rate control system in consideration of the outstanding
advantages of a small number of installation, less footprint, easy realization of auto-
matic control, less investment cost of capital construction, small installed power
per unit volume, high comprehensive economic benefit, etc., of the large flotation
Fig. 12.7 KYF-200 flotation machine production scenario at the dashan concentrator
machines. The throughput in Phase II was 45,000 t/d, with 16 KYF-160 floatation
machines used in the rougher and scavenger banks.
The mine achieved the production and standard and produced qualified concen-
trates in March 2010. The industrial applications show that: The main motor of KYF-
160 flotation machine has an installed power of 160 kW, actual power consumption
of about 115 ~ 120 kW and power index per unit pulp of about 0.94 kW/m3 . When
the grade of copper in the run-of-mine ores is about 0.4%, the grade of copper
in concentrates can reach 27.3% and the recovery rate reaches 89.13%. Therefore,
the metallurgical performance of the KYF-160 flotation machine has reached the
advanced level of large flotation machines.
12.1.3 Application of Flotation Machines for Lead–zinc Ore
There are many kinds of flotation machines applied in lead–zinc separation. Because
of the complex flotation circuit and the small scale of processing, the flotation
machines are dominated by small volume equipment, and all the flotation machines
are of horizontal configuration. The configurations of flotation machines in major
lead–zinc concentrators in China in the last few years are shown in Table 12.5.
Feed
Classification
Ball Mill
Cu-Mo
Bulk Flotation Rougher
Scavenger 1
Scavenger 2
Scavenger 3
Cu-Mo
Bulk Flotation Cleaner 1
Cu-Mo
Bulk Flotation Cleaner 2
Final Tail
Cu-Mo
Separation Rougher
Bulk Flotation Cleaner 3 Separation Scavenger 1
Separation Scavenger 2
Classification
Separation Cleaner 1
Ball Mill
Separation Cleaner 2 Final Cu Concentrate
Separation Cleaner 3
Final Mo Concentrate
Fig. 12.8 Copper–molybdenum bulk flotation circuit
12.1.3.1 Application of Flotation Machines in Huize Pb–Zn Deposit
Huize Pb–Zn Deposit is one of the several rare high-grade Pb–Zn deposits in China
with a throughput of 2000 t/d. There are more than 5 million tons of sulphide ores and
mixed ores and about 2 million tons of oxidized ores in the ore body, with the mean
geological grades of 8.35% for Pb and 17.41% for Zn. The oxidation rate of lead
and zinc is 4 ~ 90%, with 486,700 t of lead metal, 1,014,200 t of zinc metal 404.29 t
of silver (an accompanying rare and expensive element), 154.41 t of germanium and
2010.39 t of cadmium.
Table 12.5 Configurations of flotation machines in major lead–zinc concentrators in China

Serial No. Mine name Throughput, t/d Series Flotation machine model
1 Huize Pb–Zn deposit 2000 1 BF-16, BF-8 and BF-4
2 Zhaotong Pb–Zn deposit 2000 2 BF-16 and BF-8
3 Fankou Pb–Zn deposit 4500 2 BF-4, BF-2.8, BF-1.2, JJF-8
and JJF-4
4 Caijiaying Pb–Zn deposit 1000 XCF/KYF-10 and
XCF/KYF-2
5 Changba Pb–Zn deposit 4500 1 XCF/KYF-50 and
XCF/KYF-10
7 Tumuerting-Aobao Pb–Zn 1000 1 XCF/KYF-8 and
deposit XCF/KYF-4
8 Bashijiazi Pb–Zn deposit in 1500 XCF/KYF-24 and
Huludao XCF/KYF-8
The flotation process is selected in the principle of “sulfide ores first, oxidized ores
second” and “lead ores first, zinc ores second". The “asynchronous iso-flotation—
zinc-sulphur mixture flotation—separation” process, i.e. asynchronous iso-flotation
flow structure is used in the sulphide ore flotation, high selectivity collectors are
applied for asynchronous iso-flotation of lead sulphide and iron minerals, and rough
concentrates are reground before concentration to produce lead concentrates; Then
the bulk flotation of zinc sulphide and iron sulphide is conducted, and the zinc
sulphide concentrates and sulphur concentrates are obtained, respectively, after sepa-
ration of zinc and sulphur of the mixed concentrate. High-quality lead concentrates,
zinc concentrates and sulphur concentrates were obtained from this flotation circuit.
In view of the floatability of lead–zinc oxide in the flotation of lead–zinc oxide ores,
a new process using the new non-desliming sulphidizing flotation technology and
new electrochemical controlled flotation technology was used for efficient recovery
of lead and zinc metals. The flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.9.
Due to the complexity of the process, the BF flotation machine having the capac-
ities of self-aspirated function and self-suction function is used, and the BF flotation
machine is used as a free-flow tank and a pulp suction tank simultaneously. The
BF-16 flotation machine with the dual-froth scraping device and the single froth
scraping device is configured according to the froth yield. The rougher banker bank
of sulphide ores is provided with 54 BF-16 flotation machines, and the cleaner bank
is provided with 21 BF-8 flotation machines.
Huize Pb–Zn Deposit went into operation in 2004. The statistical results of produc-
tion indexes are shown in Table 12.6. From the production data, it is seen that the
BF flotation machine supports the realization of the process well and achieves better
flotation performance.
Feed Classification
Ball Mill
Ball Mill
Pyrite Concentrate
Zinc Sulfide Concentrate
Lead Sulfide Concentrate
Final Tail
Lead Oxide Concentrate
Zinc Oxide Concentrate
Fig. 12.9 The flotation circuit at the Huize Pb–Zn deposit
Table 12.6 Statistical results

Name Grade Recovery rate
of production indexes (%)
Raw ore Pb 8.8
Zn 22.8
FeS 15.3
Concentrate Pb Pb65.56 and Zn4.84 78.90
Zn Zn51.85 and Pb2.71 89
Tailings Pb 1.51
Zn 4.26
12.1.3.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Zhaotong Pb–Zn Deposit
Zhaotong Pb–Zn Deposit was completed and put into production in 2009, with a
throughput of 2000 t/d. The two-stage grinding is used, the ore is ground to 60 ~ 80%
passing 74 µm prior to flotation, the feed concentration is 30%, and lead–sulphur
rougher banker bank is organized first; rougherthe rough concentrate is reground
to 90% passing 43 µm, the concentrate after two-time lead–sulphur cleaner banks
enters the lead–sulphur separation flotation circuit, and the lead concentrate and
sulphur concentrate are, respectively, obtained after one-time rougher bank, two-
time scavengers bank and two-time cleaner bank; the tailings of lead rougher enter
the zinc rougher bank after scavenger bank, and the zinc concentrate is produced after
one-time rougher, three-time scavenger and two-time cleaner. The flotation circuit is
shown in Fig. 12.10.
Feed
Classification
Classification
Ball Mill
Ball Mill
Bulk Flotation
Bulk Flotation
Rougher 1
Rougher 2 Scavenger 1
Scavenger 2
Bulk Flotation
Bulk Flotation Bulk Flotation
Cleaner 1
Scavenger 1 Scavenger 2
Zinc Rougher
Zinc Scavenger 1
Zinc Scavenger 2
Zinc Scavenger 3
Bulk Flotation Zinc Cleaner

Cleaner 2
Lead Rougher
Lead Scvenger 1
Lead Scvenger 2
Zinc Concentrate
Final Tail
Lead Cleaner 1
Lead Cleaner 2 Pyrite Concentrate
Lead Concentrate
Fig. 12.10 The flotation circuit at the Zhaotong Pb–Zn deposit

The flotation process of the concentrator consists of two series, and 7 BF-16
flotation machines and 103 BF-8 flotation machines are used. The BF flotation
machine can be used as both a free-flow tank and a pulp suction tank, all the flota-
tion machines are horizontally configured for a simple. The flotation machine makes
automatic liquid level control possible. It is simple in operation and convenient in
maintenance. Since 2009, the flotation machines have been running stably, and the
production indexes have fulfilled the process design requirements for a long time.
12.1.3.3 Application of Flotation Machines in Changba Pb–Zn Deposit
Changba Pb–Zn Deposit has a throughput of 4500 t/d, with the specific gravity of
run-of-mine ores of about 2.85 t/m3 . The concentrator uses the two-stage grinding
process, the ore is ground to about 85% passing 74 µm prior to flotation, the feed
concentration is not more than 30% and the lead rougher bank is organized first; the
lead rough concentrate is reground to 92.5% passing 74 µm rougher, and the lead
concentrate is produced after four-time cleaner bank; the tailings of lead rougher
enter the zinc rougher bank after scavenger, rougher the zinc rough concentrate is
reground to 92.5% passing 43 µm, the zinc concentrate is produced after four-time
zinc cleaner bank and the flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.11.
The flotation process of the concentrator consists of a single series, 18 XCF/KYF-
50 flotation machines are used for lead–zinc rougher and scavenger banks, and 15
Feed
Classification Classification Classification Classification
Ball Mill Ball Mill Ball Mill Ball Mill
Lead Rougher Lead Scavenger 1 Lead Scavenger 2 Zinc Rougher Zinc Scavenger 1 Zinc Scavenger 2
Cleaner 1 Cleaner 2 Cleaner 3 Cleaner 4

Final Tail
Lead Concentrate Zinc Concentrate
Fig. 12.11 The flotation circuit at the Changba Pb–Zn deposit

XCF/KYF-10 flotation machines are used for lead and zinc cleaner banks, respec-
tively. The XCF flotation machine is used as a pulp suction tank, the KYF flotation
machine is used as a free-flow tank, and the flotation machines are horizontally config-
ured. Since the concentrator went into operation, the flotation machines have been
running stably, and the production indexes have met the design requirements. The
configuration of flotation machines in the whole concentrator is shown in Fig. 12.12.
Lead Rougher
Lead Scavenger 1
Condition XCF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 Lead Scavenger 2
XCF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50
XCF-50 KYF-50
Classification Pump Sump
Ball Mill Lead Cleaner 1 Lead Cleaner 2 Lead Cleaner 3 Lead Cleaner 4
XCF-10 KYF-10 XCF-10 KYF-10 XCF-10 XCF-10
Zinc Concentrate
Zinc Rougher
Zinc Scavenger 1
Condition XCF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 Zinc Scavenger 2
XCF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50
XCF-50 KYF-50
Classification Pump Sump
Ball Mill Zinc Cleaner 1 Zinc Cleaner 2 Zinc Cleaner 3 Zinc Cleaner 4
XCF-10 KYF-10 XCF-10 KYF-10 XCF-10 XCF-10
Final Tail
Zinc Concentrate
Fig. 12.12 The flotation machine layout at the Changba Pb–Zn deposit
12.1.4 Application of Flotation Machines for Nickel Ore
There are many kinds of alternative flotation machines in the flotation process of
nickel ore as a kind of sulphide ore. There are not only mechanical agitation JJF flota-
tion machines, GF flotation machines, but also forced air KYF flotation machines. All
single tank volumes ranging from 0.7 to 160 m3 are used for the flotation machines.
The tank structure has three contours: U shape, regular octagon and circular shape.
Small flotation machines are generally horizontally configured, and those flotation
machines with a single tank volume of more than 50 m3 use the stepwise config-
uration. Jilin Nickel Industry uses small volume GF flotation machines because of
its small throughput. As the largest nickel producer in China, Jinchuan Group has a
mineral separation throughput of about 30,000 t/d and uses many kinds of flotation
machines, mainly including KYF, JJF and GF flotation machines. This section mainly
describes the application of flotation machines in No. 3 Concentrator (6000 t/d) and
the new concentrator (14,000 t/d) in Jinchuan Group.
12.1.4.1 Application of Flotation Machines in the No. 3 Concentrator

of Jinchuan Group
The No. 3 Concentrator in the Jinchuan Group has a throughput of 6000 t/d, and the
metallic minerals mainly include pyrrhotite, nicopyrite and chalcopyrite. Gangue
minerals used are mainly serpentine, olivine and pyroxene.
The process of mineral separation is as follows: After two-stage grinding, the
concentrates are fed into one-stage rougher, the one-stage rougher concentrates are
of higher grades, and the nickel concentrate is obtained after two-time cleaner. After
regrinding, the one-stage rougher tailings enter the two-stage rougher and scavenger
banks, the middlings are returned in sequence, and the nickel concentrate is obtained
after the concentrate produced in two-stage rougher is subject to two-time concen-
tration. The one-stage and two-stage nickel concentrates are merged into the total
concentrate before entering the dewatering operation. For the particle size of grinding
products, the particle size of one-stage grinding product P80 is 100um; the particle
size of the two-stage grinding product P80 is 74 µm, and that of the regrinding circuit
product P80 is 50 µm. The concentration of the ore feed pulp is about 30%. The
rougher and scavenger banks are provided with the KYF-50 flotation machines, and
the cleaner bank is provided with the KYF-24 flotation machines. The detailed config-
uration is shown in Fig. 12.13, and the details of the flotation machine configuration
for each operation are shown in Table 12.7.
The installed power of a single KYF-50 flotation machine is 75 kW, and the power
per unit of volume is 1.5 kW/set. The installed power of the KYF-50 flotation machine
is saved by 25% as compared with the forced air BS-M8 flotation machine which
has the single-unit installed power of 30 kW and the power per unit of volume of
1.875 kW/set; the installed power of the KYF-50 flotation machine is saved by 160%
2nd Step Scavenger 1 2nd Step Scavenger 2

KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50
2nd Step Rougher Pump Sump Classification

KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 Condition
Final Tail
1st Step Rougher
KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 KYF-50 Condition
Ball Mill
2nd Step Cleaner 1

1st Step Cleaner 1

KYF-24 KYF-24 KYF-24 KYF-24
2nd Step Cleaner 2

1st Step Cleaner 2

KYF-24 KYF-24 KYF-24
Low Grade Nickel Concentrate
1st Step Cleaner Scavenger

High Grade Nickel Concentrate
Final Tail
Fig. 12.13 The flotation machine layout at the no. 3 concentrator in Jinchuan group
Table 12.7 Details of configuration of flotation machines

Operation name Flotation machine Qty Number of pulp Configuration
model suction tanks characteristics
One-stage rougher KYF-50 6 1 Horizontal
One-stage 1st cleaner KYF-24 4 1 configuration
One-stage 2nd KYF-24 3 1
cleaner
Two-stage rougher KYF-50 6 1
Two-stage 1st KYF-50 5 1
scavenger
Two-stage 2nd KYF-50 5 1
scavenger
Two-stage 1st cleaner KYF-24 5 1
Two-stage 2nd KYF-24 4 1
cleaner
Two-stage cleaner KYF-24 4 1
scavenger
as compared with the mechanical agitation 6A flotation machine which has the single-
unit installed power of 11 kW and the power per unit of volume of 3.928 kW/set. To
sum up, this fully demonstrates the remarkable energy-saving effect of the KYF-50
flotation machine.
Since the concentrator went into operation, the flotation machines have been
running smoothly with low failure rate; the agitation force is powerful, and the pulp
flow direction is stable without the phenomenon of fluctuation of the pulp level;
the mineral particles in the tank are evenly distributed without the phenomenon of
stratification; the froth layer is as thick as 100 ~ 200 mm and can be regulated
according to the process requirements, which will be favorable for improvement in
the concentrate grade and reduction of the magnesium oxide content; the flotation
machine can still be started normally 8, 24, 48 and 144 h after full-tank shutdown,
which meets the requirement for a normal start after long-time shutdown with the
tank full of pulp.
The production practice shows that when the nickel grade is 1.45% and the copper
grade is 0.89% in the run-of-mine ores, the nickel grade in concentrate is 9.36%, the
copper grade is 4.58%, the magnesium oxide grade in concentrate is reduced to 6.7%,
the nickel grade in tailings is 0.22%, the copper grade is 0.21%, the nickel recovery
is 86.69%, the copper recovery is 71.65%, the production indexes meet the design
standards and the production indexes of the system are better than those of the No.
5 system in the secondary separation workshop in the same stage on the whole [4].
12.1.4.2 Application of Flotation Machines in the New Concentrator

of Jinchuan Group
The new concentrator of Jinchuan Group has a throughput of 14,000 t/d, which
is designed into two series whose flotation circuit is basically the same as that of
No. 3 Concentrator (6000 t/d). The KYF-160 forced air flotation machine with the
largest single-unit volume in China at that time was adopted, and the aggregate
unit of GF/JJF-24 and GF/JJF-28 was adopted for the cleaner bank. The details of
configuration of flotation machines for each flotation bank are shown in Table 12.8.
12.1.5 Application of Flotation Machines for Molybdenum

Ore
The molybdenum ore is a kind of sulphide ore, which generally exists in the form
of molybdenite and has good floatability. The type of flotation machine applied is
similar to that of copper ore and is dominated by the external pneumatic flotation
machine. The BF flotation machine and GF flotation machine are widely applied
in the concentration and cleaner scavenger banks. The maximum flotation machine
volume applied to molybdenum ores in China is 320 m3 . Beginning in 2004, the
Table 12.8 Details of configuration of flotation machines

Operation name Flotation machine Quantity Number of pulp Configuration
model suction tanks characteristics
One-stage rougher KYF-160 6 Stepwise
configuration, with
the height difference
of 0.8 m
Two-stage rougher KYF-160 12 Stepwise
scavenger configuration, with
of 0.8 m
One-stage 1st GF/JJF-28 12 4 Horizontal
cleaner configuration
One-stage 2nd GF/JJF-28 6 2 Horizontal
Two-stage 1st GF/JJF-28 8 2 Horizontal
Two-stage 2nd GF/JJF-28 4 1 Horizontal
Two-stage 3rd GF/JJF-28 4 1 Horizontal
Middlings rougher KYF-160 2 Stepwise
configuration, with
of 0.8 m
Middlings KYF-160 2 Stepwise
scavenger configuration, with
of 0.8 m
Middlings 1st GF/JJF-28 4 1 Horizontal
Middlings 2nd GF/JJF-24 4 1 Horizontal
Middlings 3rd GF/JJF-24 2 1 Horizontal
spread application of flotation columns was initiated in the molybdenum ores cleaner
bank, and there is a trend of replacing the cleaner bank of flotation machines. This
section selects the typical molybdenum concentrators in China for introduction. The
configuration of flotation equipment is shown in Table 12.9.
Table 12.9 Configuration of flotation machines in typical Chinese molybdenum concentrators

Name of Throughput, t/d Operation Type of flotation Qty Configuration
concentrator name machine type
Concentrator of 10,000 Scavenger KYF-320 5 Stepwise
the second configuration
mineral
processing
company of
China
molybdenum
Co., Ltd
Hebei Xinyuan 8000 Rougher KYF-50 12 Horizontal
molybdenum Scavenger KYF-10 6 configuration
industry Co., Ltd
Longyu 10,000 Scavenger KYF-40 32 Stepwise
molybdenum ore configuration
concentrator of
yongcheng coal
and electric
power group
Yichun luming 50,000 Rougher KYF-320 18 Stepwise
mining industry Scavenger KYF-130 8 configuration
KYF-100 4
Cleaner XCF/KYF-20 10 Horizontal
GF-2 7 configuration
12.1.5.1 Application of Flotation Machines in Concentrator

of the Second Mineral Processing Company of China
Molybdenum Co., Ltd.
The Concentrator of the Second Mineral Processing Company of China Molybdenum

Co., Ltd. has the throughput of 10,000 t/d, and the flotation circuit is that: The feed
enters rougher after one-stage coarse grinding, the rougher concentrates enter the
flotation column for concentration after regrinding, the tailings of cleaner bank enter
the fine scavenger bank and the middlings are returned in sequence and reground
through the bottom current. Flotation machines are used in the rougher and scavenger
banks, flotation columns are used in the cleaner bank and flotation machines are used
in the cleaner scavenger bank. The detailed flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.14.
Four 4 m × 12 m flotation columns are used in the rougher bank, with the flotation
time of about 26 min; Five flotation machines with a volume of 320 m3 and a flotation
time of about 64 min are used in the scavenger bank. The flotation machines in the
scavenger bank are of stepwise configuration, and the middlings are returned by the
froth pump.
Feed
Classification
Condition
Ball Mill Rougher Scavenger
Precleaner
Final Tail
Classification
Ball Mill
Precleaner Scavenger
Molybdenum Concentrate
Final Tail
Fig. 12.14 The flotation circuit at the concentrator of the second mineral processing company of
China molybdenum Co., Ltd. The feed is ground to about 65% passing to 74 µm, and the feed
may be ground to 55% passing to 74 µm in order to increase the yield. To adapt to the changes of
the run-of-mine properties, flotation machines are used in rougher and scavenger bank, which is
favorable for ensuring the recovery of molybdenum concentrate; The regrinding fineness of rough
concentrate is −43 µm, accounting for about 90%, then the rough concentrate is fed into the cleaner
bank in which the flotation columns are used, which is favourable for improvement of the grade of
molybdenum in the concentrate. This flotation circuit makes good use of the advantages of flotation
machines and flotation columns and effectively guarantees the realization of technical and economic
indexes. However, when the contents of pyrite, chalcopyrite or kaolin in the run-of-mine ores are
higher, the tailings of the fine scavenger bank have a finer particle size of −43 µm, accounting
for more than 90%, sodium silicate is to be added to disperse the fine silt, and the fine-particle
minerals have serious surface contamination [5], leading to poor selectivity of flotation. If directly
returned to rougher, on the one hand, the fine silt contaminates the flotation environment of the
rougher bank; on the other hand, it aggravates the accumulation of pyrite or chalcopyrite in the
flotation process and increases the circulating load of middlings in the flotation process. In this
case, open circuit flotation needs to be properly organized for the cleaner bank, and the separation
indexes can be effectively guaranteed only by discharging the bottom current of fine scavenger
timely. The production practice shows that when the grade of molybdenum in the run-of-mine ores
is about 0.1%, the grade of molybdenum in concentrate is about 45–52% and the recovery rate of
molybdenum is about 76%
12.1.5.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Hebei Xinyuan

Molybdenum Concentrator
The mineral separation process of the concentrator has the technological charac-
teristics of two-stage closed-circuit grinding and double open-circuit flotation of
concentration and scavenger. The flotation circuit is that: The feed enters the rougher
bank after one-stage coarse grinding, and the rough concentrates are fed into the
flotation column for concentration after regrinding; the tailings of the cleaner bank
are fed into the cleaner scavenger bank, the middlings are returned in sequence and
the tailings are directly discarded through the bottom current; flotation machines are
used in the rougher and scavenger bank, flotation columns are used in the cleaner
bank and flotation machines are used in the cleaner scavenger bank. The detailed
process is shown in Fig. 12.15.
Based on the above characteristics, the flotation circuit of mineral separation
solves the problem of difficult separation of micro-fine particles brought about
by the high content of pyrite, chalcopyrite or kaolin. Since unnecessary repeated
grinding operations are reduced, the copper and pyrite tailings restrained by the
Feed
Classification
Condition Rougher
Scavenger
Ball Mill
Precleaner
Final Tail
Classification
Cleaner 4
Cleaner 3
Cleaner 2
Cleaner 1
Ball Mill
Final Concentrate
Final Tail
Fig. 12.15 The flotation circuit at the Hebei Xinyuan molybdenum concentrator
cleaner bank are separated separately, and the “excessive” flotation reagents can be
timely discharged from the systemic circulation, which becomes the key to solving
the problem.
12.1.5.3 Application of Flotation Machines in Longyu Concentrator

of Yongcheng Coal and Electric Power Group
The Longyu Concentrator of Yongcheng Coal and Electric Power Group has a
throughput of 10,000 t/d and grinding fineness of −74 µm in the rougher bank,
accounting for 65%. The flotation circuit is as follows: The feed enters rougher
after one-stage coarse grinding, the rough concentrates enter the flotation column for
concentration after regrinding, the tailings of cleaner bank enter the cleaner scav-
enger bank and the middlings are returned in sequence and the tailings are discarded
through the bottom current. The detailed flotation circuit of mineral separation is
Four 4 × 12 m flotation columns are used in the rougher bank and 32 flotation
machines with a volume of 40 m3 are used in the scavenger bank. The flotation
machines in the different flotation operation rooms are of stepwise configuration,
and the middlings are returned by the froth pump. The flotation time of the rougher
bank is about 26 min and that of the scavenger bank is about 78 min.
12.1.5.4 Application of Flotation Machines in Yichun Luming Mining

Industry
The Yichun Luming Mining Industry has a throughput of 50,000 t/d and uses the
semi-autogenous grinding plus ball-milling process in its grinding system, and the
grinding products enter rapid flotation after grading to obtain the qualified concentrate
as soon as possible. The tailings of rapid flotation enter the rougher scavenger bank,
the froth products enter the pre-cleaner bank, the pre-cleaner bank froth enters the
cleaner bank after regrinding, the flotation columns are used in the cleaner bank and
flotation machines are used in the cleaner scavenger bank. Large flotation machines
with single tank volumes of 320 m3 , 130 m3 , 100 m3 , etc., are selected. The flotation
12.2 Applications of Flotation Machines for Ferrous Metal

Ores
With the development of the iron and steel industry in China, the pressure of energy
saving and emission reduction is increasing and the “beneficiated burden materials
policy” has become an industry consensus. For the iron ores with poor resource
12.2 Applications of Flotation Machines for Ferrous Metal Ores 459
Feed Classification Classification
Ball Mill
Tower Mill
Rougher
Cleaner 1
Cleaner 2
Cleaner 3
Condition
Rougher Cleaner Scavenger
Scavenger 1
Scavenger 2
Scavenger 3
Final Tail
Molybdenum Concentrate
Fig. 12.16 The flotation circuit at the Longyu concentrator. In this flotation circuit layout, the
purpose of applying the flotation columns in the rougher bank is to firstly separate target minerals
easily floatable in the rougher bank and directly feed the rough concentrate into the cleaner bank after
regrinding, which is favourable for improving the grade of molybdenum concentrate; the flotation
machines are used in the scavenger bank to ensure the overall recovery of molybdenum. Because
of the use of flotation columns, we must ensure the grinding fineness in the rougher bank and the
configuration of efficient pulp agitation tanks before the flotation columns. For the pulp entering
the flotation machine in the scavenger bank, the mineral liberation surface is deactivated due to the
long-time reaction with reagents, making it impossible to ensure the effective recovery of coarse
fraction and aggregate. To improve the recovery, the flotation time of the scavenger bank needs to be
multiplied, which leads to excessive energy consumption and fails to achieve the purpose of energy
consumption saving of the flotation columns. In addition, the flotation circuit cannot overcome the
adverse effects of high content of pyrite, chalcopyrite or kaolin in ores. The grade of molybdenum in
the run-of-mine ores of this concentrator is about 0.12%, the overall recovery rate of molybdenum
is about 90% and the grade of molybdenum in the concentrate is about 45–52%
Condition Rougher 1 Rougher

Rougher 2
Scavengerer 1
Scavengerer 2
Precleaner Cleaner 1
Pump Sump
Ball Mill
Final Tail
Pump Sump Cleaner 2

Cleaner 5 Ball Mill
Cleaner 6
Cleaner
Cleaner 1 Cleaner
Scavenger 1 Cleaner
Scavenger 2
Scavenger 3
Cleaner 7 Pyrite Concentrate
Cleaner 2
Cleaner 8
Cleaner 3
Cleaner 4
Molybdenum Concentrate Final Tail
Fig. 12.17 The flotation circuit at the Yichun luming mining industry concentrator
endowment and complex components in China, it is difficult to obtain high-quality

iron concentrates by the conventional technological process of magnetic separa-
tion. Therefore, more and more attention has been paid to the process technology
for producing high-quality iron concentrate by the reverse flotation technology of
magnetic separation concentrates. Compared with the flotation of non-ferrous metal
ores, the reverse flotation of iron ores has the characteristics of high specific gravity
of pulp, high concentration of ore feed pulp, high froth output, high froth viscosity,
low gas volume required for the process, etc., which has been recognized as one of
the most difficult problems in the field of mineral separation worldwide.
Most of Chinese iron ore concentrators, including Baotou Iron and Steel
Company’s Concentrator, Anshan Group’s Gongchangling, Qidashan and Huji-
amiao Concentrators, Dahongshan Iron Ore’s Concentrator, Hainan Iron and Steel
Company’s Concentrator, Anyang Iron and Steel Company’s Concentrator, etc., used
middle- and small-sized BF/JJF flotation machines before 2005. After 2005, with
BGRIMM’s successful development of large flotation equipment, large flotation
machines such as XCF/KYF-50, GF/KYF-50, CLF-40 and KYF-200 are gradu-
ally and widely applied in Baotou Iron and Steel Company, Wuhan Iron and Steel
(Group) Corp., JISCO, Panzhihua Iron and Steel Company, Chongqing Iron & Steel
(Group) Co., Ltd., Shougang Group, Longhua Shunda Mining Company, Chengde
Shuangluan Jianlong Mining Co., Ltd., Dahongshan Iron Mine and other non-ferrous
metal mines due to changes in the situation of mining industry and the need for
development of large-scale mines.
12.2.1 Application of Flotation Machines in JISCO’s

Concentrator
Jingtieshan Mine, as the main raw material base of JISCO, has a complex mineral
composition and poor ore preparability, which set a natural obstacle to the progress of
mineral separation technology. In over 40 years before 2005, JISCO carried out a lot
of mineral separation technology studies in pre-concentration of run-of-mine ores,
magnetizing roasting, magnetic separation, mineral separation process and other
aspects, but the quality of iron concentrate has not been fundamentally improved,
and the grade of iron in comprehensive concentrate has always been hovering around
56 ~ 57% and never reached 60%. In 2005, JISCO decided to treat its iron concen-
trate of low-intensity magnetic separation through quality improvement and impu-
rity reduction by the cationic reverse flotation process and used the “low inten-
sity magnetic separation—two-time regrinding of secondary magnetic separation
concentrate—reverse flotation circuit by one-time rougher, one-time cleaner and
four-time scavenger”. The flotation operation consists of two series, 38 flotation
machines (XCF/KYF-50) are used and an automatic liquid level control system is
configured. The horizontal configuration of flotation machines is adopted for each
single series, saving the froth pump required for return of middlings and making the
whole process concise. Since it went into operation in 2008, the full-load production
has been achieved, and all the mineral separation process indexes have met the design
requirements. The production practice shows that, under the condition of full-load
production, the iron grade in the flotation concentrate is 59.56% and the SiO2 grade
is 6.4% with the iron grade in the flotation feed is 55.04% and the SiO2 grade is
10.55%. The concentrate grade is increased by 4.52% points and the SiO2 grade is
decreased by 4.15% points. The quality of iron concentrate is further improved by the
reverse flotation process, thus the economic benefits of more than RMB 70 million
can be directly produced each year.

in the Concentrator of Daye Iron Mine
The Concentrator of Daye Iron Mine of Wu Steel Mining Co. went into operation
in the 1950s, with the design of run-of-mine ore throughput of 2,640,000 t/a. After
several technological transformations, the maximum processing capacity can reach
4,000,000 t/a.
Because of the complex properties of ores and the fine disseminated grain size of
the iron-bearing minerals, the grade of iron in the final concentrate of mineral sepa-
ration is only around 65%, but the sulphur content is as high as 0.33%, so it cannot
meet the quality requirements of the iron concentrate fed into the furnace. There-
fore, Daye Iron Mine launched the technological transformation of iron concentrate
for iron improvement and sulphur reduction and determined the process of flota-
tion followed by magnetic separation (copper-sulphur mixed flotation—magnetic
separation—grading—desulphurization flotation), and ten XCF/KYF-50 flotation
machines were used in the rougher bank and scavenger bank of the flotation process.
The production practice shows that the quality of iron concentrate is improved after
the transformation of the technological process of mineral separation.
12.2.3 Application of Flotation Machines in Baotou Iron

and Steel Company’s Concentrator
The GF/KYF flotation machine unit is a special unit belonging to the XCF/KYF unit,
which is applicable to the characteristics of a large quantity of returned middlings
and froth stickiness. The BF/JJF-20 flotation machines have been used for a long
time in the reverse flotation process of No. 3 and No. 6 systems of Baotou Iron and
Steel Company’s Concentrator, and there are many problems such as a large quantity
of equipment, high energy consumption, difficult maintenance and management and
low economic benefits. To further improve the concentrate quality and reduce the
production cost, Baotou Iron and Steel Company firstly performed technical transfor-
mation on No. 3 system. Aiming at the characteristics of the reverse flotation process
for iron ores in Baotou Iron and Steel Company, the GF-50 flotation machine having
the functions of automatic air suction and automatic pulp suction is selected as the
pulp suction tank and the KYF-50 pneumatic flotation machine is selected as the free-
flow tank. In 2004, the No. 3 system was successfully reformed, the middlings could
flow automatically and return, the whole mineral separation process was smooth,
the mineral separation indexes were obviously improved, and the economic benefit
was remarkable. After that, Baotou Iron and Steel Company performed technical
transformation on No. 6 system in 2006, which was also successful. A total of 20
flotation machines with a volume of 50 m3 were used for the joint transformation of
the two series.
12.2.4 Application of Flotation Machines in Jianshan Iron

Ore Mine of Taiyuan Iron & Steel (Group) Co., Ltd.
The raw ore of Jianshan Iron Mie of Taiyuan Iron & Steel (Group) Co., Ltd. was the
Anshan type sedimentary metamorphic type of poor magnetite. In 2003, Jianshan Iron
Min carried out the mineral processing transformation by use of “stage grinding, weak
magnetic separation, anion reverse flotation process”; the BF/JJF-16 and BF/JJF-
10 flotation machine unit was applied in the reverse flotation operation; before the
transformation, the iron grade in the concentrate was about 65.5% and the SiO2 grade
was about 8%; after the transformation, the following indicators were received: the
concentrate iron grade after flotation was higher than 68.9% and the content of SiO2
was reduced below 4% and the recovery of the reverse flotation operation was about
98.5%.
12.2.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Anshan Iron

and Steel Group Corporation
(1) Diaojuntai Concentrator
The Diaojuntai Concentrator of Anshan Iron and Steel Group Corporation processes
Anshan type oxidized iron ores with the design throughput of 9 million tons per
year, applies the technological process of “continuous grinding, field weakening—
medium intensity field—high intensity magnetic, anionic reverse flotation”, and uses
the BF/JJF-20 and BF/JJF-10 flotation machine units. In the case that the grade of
iron in run-of-mine ores was 29.6%, the better separation indexes, including the
grade of iron in the flotation concentrate of 67.59%, the grade of iron in tailings of
10.56% and the iron recovery rate of 82.24% were obtained.
(2) Qidashan Concentrator
The run-of-mine ores of Qidashan Concentrator of Anshan Iron and Steel Group
Corporation belong to Anshan type hematite ores, which use the technological
process of “stage grinding, coarse and fine separation, gravity concentration—
magnetic separation—anionic reverse flotation”. The BF/JJF-10 and BF/JJF-6 flota-
tion machines are used in the reverse flotation operation. The production practice
shows that The grade of iron in concentrates has been stabilized at over 67%, the
grade of iron in tailings is reduced from original 12.5% to 11.14%, the grade of SiO2
is reduced from the original 8% to less than 4%, the grade of iron concentrate is
3.8% points higher than that, before transformation, the grade of tailings is reduced
by 1.36% points and the ratio of first-grade products reaches over 99.8%.
(3) Donganshan Sintering Plant
Donganshan Sintering Plant of Ansteel processed the Anshan type martite. In
2003, Donganshan Sintering Plant carried out the process and equipment trans-
formation by use of “two-stage continuous grinding, middling re-grinding, re-
selection—magnetic separation—anion reverse flotation process”; the BF/JJF-16
flotation machine was applied in the reverse flotation process; after the transforma-
tion, the iron concentrate grade was higher than 66% and the iron grade in tailings
was reduced to about 19.53%.
(4) Application in Gongchangling Mining Company
The run-of-mine ores processed by Gongchangling Mining Company’s No. 2

Concentrator, Anshan Iron and Steel Group Corporation are Anshan-type magnetite.
In 2003, Gongchangling Mining Company of Anshan Iron and Steel Group Corpo-
ration implemented the technical transformation of the reverse flotation process
for “iron improvement and silicon reduction”, performed reverse flotation for iron
improvement and silicon reduction on the iron concentrates of magnetic separation by
the cationic reverse flotation process, and 39 BF/JJF-20 flotation machine units were
adopted. The grade of iron concentrates increased from 65.55% before upgrading to
68.89%, an increase of 3.34% points; the grade of SiO2 in iron concentrates decreased
from the original 8.31–3.90%, a decrease of 4.41% points; the recovery of iron in
the technological process of reverse flotation reached 98.50% and the quality of iron
concentrates ranked world class.
Gongchangling Mining Company’s No. 3 Concentrator of Anshan Iron and Steel
Group Corporation is a concentrator with an annual output of 1 million tons of
hematite concentrate. The run-of-mine ore processed by the concentrator is hematite,
the concentrator uses the mature anionic reverse flotation process and forty-four
BF/JJF-20 flotation machines. Since it went into operation, 2500 t/d of hematite
concentrate can be obtained, and the concentrate grade reaches over 66.5%.
12.2.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Shougang Peru

S.A.A
At present, the ore processed by Shougang Peru S.A.A. is the copper-bearing, low
phosphorus and high sulphuric acid magnetite. In the ores, the main metals that are
available for mineral separation and recovery are iron, copper, cobalt and sulphur, and
gangue minerals mainly contain SiO2 , Al2 O3 , CaO, MgO, etc. The metal minerals
in the ores are dominated by magnetite, followed by semi-martite, martite, limonite,
pyrite, marcasite, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, with small amounts of hydrocyanite,
sphalerite, galena, chalcocite, etc. The gangues are mainly actinolite, tremolite and
common hornblende. The contents of phosphorus and arsenic in ores are very low,
having little impact on the quality of concentrate products. However, the sulphur
content is very high, and the desulphurization operation must be added during mineral
separation to obtain qualified iron concentrate. Therefore, the concentrator uses the
technological process of separation in order to obtain the final concentrates by recov-
ering the iron minerals using stage grinding and low-intensity magnetic separation
and desulphurizing them by flotation. The properties of the run-of-mine ores are
shown in Table 12.10.
At present, the concentrator consists of ten series, two of which are coarse powder
series for producing coarse-grained iron concentrates, and the remaining eight are
fine powder series for producing fine-grained iron concentrates.
The coarse powder series was designed by the concentrator for producing coarse
iron concentrates in order to reduce the grinding quantity and grinding energy
consumption. For the coarse powder series, rod mills and cyclones are used to form
closed circuit grinding. The cyclone overflow is graded by the low-intensity magnetic
separation, flotation desulphurization and flotation concentrate cyclones. After dewa-
tering by low-intensity magnetic separation, the cyclone overflow is transferred into
the fine powder series after fine grinding with the ball mill. The cyclone sand becomes
the coarse powder product after screening and dewatering. The feed particle size of
coarse powder series flotation machines was −74 µm, accounting for 48.3%. The
feed particle size was coarse, so the CLF-8 wide size fraction flotation machines
were used for reverse flotation.
A total of ten CLF-8 wide size fraction flotation machines were used for the two
coarse powder series and went into operation in 2008 and 2011, respectively. The
production practice shows that: The CLF-8 wide size fraction flotation machines
run smoothly, with stable pulp levels, and good flotation performance was obtained.
The production indexes of the coarse powder series are shown in Table 12.11. The
coarse powder concentrates are the oversize products after concentrate screening
after coarse powder series flotation, and the undersize products enter the fine-powder
series process.
Table 12.10 Ore properties

Specific gravity of ores Total Fe content FeO content S content
Raw ore 4.2 55.8% 21.5% 3.232%
Table 12.11 Production indexes of coarse powder series

−74 µm size Pulp Specific gravity Fe content/% S content/%
fraction concentration/% of ores/g.cm−3
content/%
Flotation 48.3 38.5 5.0 63.8 1.336
feed
Flotation 55.4 36.8 5.0 67.0 0.432
concentrate
Flotation 58.0 5.2 4.8 30.5 13.212
tailing
Coarse 23.7 66.6 0.432
powder
concentrate
12.3 Application of Flotation Machines in the Separation

of Rare and Precious Metal Ores
12.3.1 Application of Flotation Machines for Gold Ore

Separation
Gold ore is a representative ore type of rare and precious metals. Gold ore separation
is generally provided with the external pneumatic flotation machines, the GF or BF
flotation machines are also used in small mines, and both stepwise configuration and
horizontal configuration are adopted for the flotation machines. The configurations
of flotation machines in major gold ore concentrators in China are shown in Table
12.12.
Jinfeng Gold Mine belongs to a typical gold concentrator in China. The application
of flotation machines in the Jinfeng Gold Mine is described below.
Located in Zhenfeng County, Southwest Guizhou Autonomous Prefecture,
Jinfeng Gold Mine (also known as Lannigou Gold Mine) is a mine with the earliest
discovery, development and utilization and the largest proven and control reserves
of Carlin-type refractory primary gold deposit in China. The gold reserve in the
mining area reaches 110 tons, and the prospective reserve is more than 130 tons.
It is a world-class supersized gold deposit whose reserve accounts for 42% of the
total gold deposits in the metallogenic region in Qianxinan. Lannigou Gold Mine
is a micro-disseminated refractory primary gold deposit. It is rich in resources but
low in grade and refractory, which has been restricting the efficient development and
utilization of the gold mine. The mine expanded propagation by on-site cultivation
of strains using the mature technology of bacterial pre-oxidation and used the flota-
tion–bacterial pre-oxidation–carbon leaching–analytical smelting process. After the
mine was built and went into operation, it processes more than 1.2 million tons of
ores each year with an annual gold output of 6.25 t, making it the largest world-class
supersized gold mine in Asia. The types of flotation machines used in the flotation
operation are shown in Table 12.13 below. The flotation machine in production is
12.3.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Lithium Ore

Separation
Lithium, the lightest metallic element in the natural world, has extremely high electro-
chemical activity and has important uses in high-energy battery, aerospace, nuclear
fusion power generation and other fields. Lithium resources in the natural world
mainly occur in lithium-bearing minerals and salt lake brine. At present, lithium
is mainly extracted from lithium ores because it is technically very difficult to
extract lithium from salt lakes. Lithium ores mainly contain spodumene, lithium
12.3 Application of Flotation Machines in the Separation of Rare … 467
Table 12.12 Configuration of flotation machines

Mine name Flotation machine Quantity Throughput, t/d Configuration
model type
Zijin mining, Chongli XCF/KYF-30 12 3000 Horizontal
configuration
XCF/KYF-6 8
Zijin mining, Hunchun XCF/KYF-40 40 10,000 Horizontal
configuration
XCF/KYF-24 42 6000
XCF/KYF-4 10
YSJY CLF-30 13 3000 Horizontal
configuration
CLF-8 6
Jinfeng gold mine KYF-100 9 4000 Stepwise
configuration
KYF-40 6
KYF-50 6
Tanjianshan gold mine XCF/KYF-20 8 2500 Horizontal
configuration
XCF/KYF-6 4
Jiaojia gold mine KYF-100 9 6000 Stepwise
configuration
XCF/KYF-8 3 Horizontal
configuration
Sanshandao KYF-160 5 6000 Stepwise
configuration
XCF/KYF-8 3 Horizontal
configuration
Zhaojinguihe science KYF-100 5 4000 Horizontal
and technology Ltd configuration
Axi gold mine XCF/KYF-40 12 2000 Horizontal
XCF/KYF-6 6 configuration
mica, montebrasite, castorite and zinnwaldite, and the main paragenous minerals are
quartz, feldspar, mica, etc.
12.3.2.1 Industrial Application of Flotation Machines in Yichun

Tantalum–Niobium–Lithium Mine
Yichun Tantalum–Niobium–Lithium Mine is an important production base for

tantalum–niobium–lithium raw materials in China, with a throughput of about
2500 t/d. The proven recoverable lithium oxide reserve of the mine is 1.1 million
tons, and it is the largest lithium mine in the world. The 6A flotation machines were
used in the early stage of lepidolite flotation. The separation effect was bad because
of the obsolete equipment, especially for coarse-grained ore feeding which was not
powerful in adaptability and obviously insufficient in automatic air suction capacity.
After process improvement, the flotation machines were replaced with CLF-4 flota-
tion machines designed for coarse particle flotation, the grade of lepidolite concen-
trate tended to be stable, the product qualification ratio reached 93%, the average
Table 12.13 Configuration of flotation machines

Operation name Flotation machine model Quantity Configuration
Pre-flotation KYF-50 2 1 feed box + 2 KYF-50
flotation machines + 1
tailing box; 1 set of liquid
level detection and
automatic control system,
and 1 set of automatic
aeration rate control system
First-stage rougher flotation KYF-50 4 1 feed box + 2 KYF-50
machine flotation machines + 1
intermediate box + 2
KYF-50 flotation machines
+ 1 tailing box, 2 sets of
liquid level detection and
automatic control systems,
and 2 sets of automatic
aeration rate control
systems
Second-stage rougher KYF-100 3 1 feed box + 3 KYF-100
flotation machine flotation machines + 1
tailing box, 1 set of liquid
level detection and
automatic control system,
and 1 set of aeration rate
control system
Second-stage scavenger KYF-100 6 1 feed box + 2 KYF-100
flotation machine flotation machines + 1
tailing box, 1 feed box + 2
KYF-100 flotation
machines + 1 tailing box, 1
feed box + 2 KYF-100
flotation machines + 1
tailing box, 3 sets of liquid
level detection and
and 3 sets of automatic
aeration rate control
systems
(continued)
12.3 Application of Flotation Machines in the Separation of Rare … 469

Operation name Flotation machine model Quantity Configuration
Concentration/ cleaner KYF-40 6 1 feed box + 2 KYF-40
scavenger flotation machine flotation machines + 1
intermediate box + 2
+ 1 intermediate box + 2
+ 1 tailing box, 3 sets of
liquid level detection and
3 sets of automatic aeration
rate control systems, and 3
sets of scraper driving
devices
Fig. 12.18 Flotation machine production scenario at Jinfeng gold mine concentrator
recovery was increased by 8.5% and the economic benefit of the concentrator was
significantly improved. Thereafter, the industrial tests of lepidolite flotation were
organized on CGF-2 flotation machines in view of the coarser disseminated grain
size of lepidolite during production. The results of the industrial tests show that:
When the lithium grade of feed ore in flotation is 1.43%, the lepidolite concentrate
grade reaches 3.82%, the tailings grade is only 0.63% and the recovery of flotation
operation reaches 70%. The wide size fraction flotation machine further improves the
recovery rate of coarse fraction lepidolite and can simultaneously meet the efficient
recovery of lithium of different size fractions.
12.3.2.2 Industrial Application of Flotation Machines in Pilganugoora

Lithium Deposit
The Lithium Project of Altura Mining Limited has an annual ore throughput of
1.4 million tons, a maximum annual ore throughput of 1.54 million tons and an
annual output of 219,000 tons of concentrates containing spodumene at the grade
of 6%. The design throughput of the concentrator is about 2000 t/d, and the feed
particle-size is −106 µm, which accounts for 80%. The final lithium concentrate
can be obtained by one-time rougher and two-time cleaner. In the flotation process, 8
KYF-16 flotation machines were used for rougher and 16 KYF-8 flotation machines
were used for the cleaner bank.
12.4 Applications of Flotation Machines for Non-Metal

Ores
This section mainly describes the application of flotation machines in non-metallic

minerals such as potash mine, phosphate rock and quartz sand deposit.
12.4.1 Application of Flotation Machines for Potassic Salt

Ore
The main problems in the potassium salt flotation are the large froth output, vacuity
of froth, easy salt deposition, etc. Especially salt deposition easily leads to blockage
of the air distributor. In addition, the phenomenon of mineral sand deposition is easy
to occur in blind angle areas in the feed box, intermediate box, tailings box and
flotation tank. Therefore, this brings new design problems to the design of flotation
machines. There are more types of flotation machines applied to potash mines, the
common types include XCF/KYF, BF, JJF and CLF, and the configuration is primarily
horizontal. The representative potassium salt concentrators include SDIC, Qinghai
Salt Lake, Qinghai Yuantong and other companies. The types of flotation equipment
applied are shown in Table 12.14.
SDIC, the largest potash corporation in China, adopts the most advanced pack-
aged technology of flotation machines. Its mineral separation project of 1.2 million
tons/year is divided into a potassium chloride system and a soft potassium system and
provided with a total of 80 improved XCF/KYF-50 flotation machines. The feed of
12.4 Applications of Flotation Machines for Non-Metal Ores 471
Table 12.14 Types of flotation machines used in different potash mines

Mine name Flotation machine Quantity Yield, 10,000 t/a Configuration
model type
SDIC XCF/KYF-50 80 120 Horizontal
configuration
Qinghai salt lake JJF-42 39 100 Stepwise
potash configuration
Qinghai Yuantong BF-20, BF-16 20、10 40 Horizontal
configuration
Lao Kaiyuan mining CLF-30 12 50 Horizontal
sole company limited configuration
CLF-16 12 Horizontal
configuration
flotation machines is carnallite decomposition slurry/potassium mixed salt conver-

sion slurry. The solid phase contains the mixed materials of KCl, NaCl, MgSO4 ,
K2 SO4 , etc.; the mother liquor mainly contains the saturated mother liquor of K+ ,
Na+ , Mg2+ , Cl− and SO4 2− ; the pH value of the slurry is 6 ~ 7; particle size: potas-
sium chloride system: 0.2 mm; soft potassium system: −0.15 mm, accounting for
80%, where.
(1) Potassium chloride system. Feed pulp volume (containing return volume):
Rougher: 3818.6 m3 /h, pulp concentration: 20 ~ 28%; Cleaner: 1981.3 m3 /h,
pulp concentration: 16 ~ 18%; Scavenger: 2909.2 m3 /h, pulp concentration:
15 ~ 20%.
(2) Soft potassium system. Feed pulp volume: Rougher: 2280.1 m3 /h (containing
the return volume of scavenger: 430 m3 /h), pulp concentration: 2 ~ 30%;
Scavenger: 1364.3 m3 /h, pulp concentration: 22 ~ 28%.
In view of the characteristics of potassium salt flotation, a special flotation machine

for potassium salt has been designed, which completely meets the requirements
of SDIC mineral separation for flotation machines. This flotation machine has the
following characteristics:
(1) The aeration rate of the external pneumatic flotation machine is adjustable so
that it is easy to guarantee the optimal aeration rate required for flotation;
(2) The XCF/KYF flotation machine has fewer members in the tank and simple
structure so that the attachment points of soft potassium precipitation and
crystallization are reduced.
(3) Upsizing is easily realized for the XCF/KYF flotation machine, the in-tank
structure is relatively simple after upsizing, and precipitation and crystallization
of soft potassium are not prone to occur;
(4) In view of the characteristics of easy crystallization of soft potassium, a small
amount of flushing water can be added regularly into the hollow shaft for
washing and timely dissolution of the crystallized soft potassium in time,

making the flotation machine more suitable for potassium salt separation.
The potassium salt project of Lao Kaiyuan Mining Sole Company Limited is located
in the Thakhek region of Ganmeng Province. The potassium chloride concentrator
with the yield of 500,000 tons/year went into normal operation in May 2014 and
produced 480,000 t of concentrates (design 500,000 t/y) in 2015. Sylvite is the main
mineral in the separation design, Phase I. At present, there is a small mining yield of
sylvite in production, and most of the ores are mixed ores of sylvite and carnallite.
When the grade of KCl contained in run-of-mine ores is 18 ~ 22%, the grade of KCl
in the final concentrate can reach 95%, with a mean recovery rate of about 73 ~ 75%.
The run-of-mine ores enter the flotation process after rod milling, screening and
cold-decomposition operations. The flotation process is divided into two series, six
CLF-30 flotation machines are used in the rougher bank, and three CLF-16 flotation
machines are used in each of the first cleaner bank and second cleaner bank. The
flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.19.
Feed
Classification
Ball Mill Condition Rougher
Cleaner 1
Final Tail
Cleaner 2
Final Concentrate
Fig. 12.19 The flotation circuit at the Lao Kaiyuan mining sole company limited concentrator
12.4.2 Application of Flotation Machines in Phosphorite

Separation
Phosphate rocks are the main raw materials for extracting phosphorus and can be
used to manufacture phosphate fertilizer in the chemical industry. There are abundant
phosphate rock resources in China. There are more lean ores, less rich ores, more
refractory ores and less easily beneficiated ores although both basic reserve and
economic reserve are in the front row in the world. The P2 O5 grade of phosphate ores
in most countries of the world is about 30% and the average P2 O5 grade of phosphate
ores in China is about 17% [6]. Among the world’s phosphate rocks, the sedimentary
phosphate rock mineral (the phosphorous mineral is collophane) has the greatest
magnitude of stock, accounting for about more than 70%. The utilization of middle-
low grade silicon calcium collophane is the most difficult, and the requirements of
phosphate fertilizer processing can be met provided that the carbonate and silicate
gangue minerals are firstly removed.
Flotation has been considered the most effective method in phosphate rock sepa-
ration. The phosphorite flotation method includes the processes of direct flotation,
reverse flotation, direct and reverse flotations, reverse and direct flotations and double
reverse flotation. In the process of separation, the single direct flotation process often
cannot completely meet the separation requirements due to large froth output, froth
stickiness, poor flowability and other reasons. Therefore, the reverse flotation process
or the combination of direct and reverse flotation processes is often used for phosphate
rock separation.
The properties of phosphate rocks determine the separation process and the char-
acteristics of the separation process determine the particularity of the flotation equip-
ment. Years of production practices prove that the flotation equipment suitable for
the phosphate ore flotation process shall have the characteristics of small air volume,
large tank depth, good circulation, easy operation and maintenance, etc. For flotation
machines, the valves of inflatable components shall have high sensitivity and shall be
easy to control; the impeller shall have proper agitation intensity and ensure adequate
circulation rate; the flotation machine with pulp suction tank shall also have sufficient
pulp suction capacity, and there shall be no contradiction between pulp suction and
separation.
The representative phosphate mines in China include many mines, such as Huang-
mailing Phosphate Mine in Hubei, Dayukou Phosphate Mine, Wangji Phosphate
Mine, Wengfu Phosphate Mine, Haikou Phosphate Mine of Yunnan Phosphate
Chemical Group Co., Ltd., Anning Phosphate Mine and Kunyang Phosphate Mine.
The flotation machines used are dominated by the XCF/KYF pneumatic flota-
tion machines. With respect to the configuration, they are mainly of horizontal
configuration. The conditions of the selected flotation machines are shown in Table
12.15.
Table 12.15 Use of flotation machines in phosphate mines

Mine name Flotation machine Quantity Throughput, Configuration type
model 10,000 t/d
Huangmailing XCF/KYF-4 120 100 Horizontal
phosphate mine configuration
Dayukou phosphate XCF/KYF-16 124 150
mine
Wangji phosphate XCF/KYF-8, Horizontal
mine XCF/KYF-4 configuration
Wengfu phosphate XCF/KYF-16 24 250 Horizontal
mine configuration
Wengfu phosphate KYF-50 20 1250 Stepwise
mine in Saudi configuration
Arabia
Haikou phosphate XCF/KYF-50 20 200 Horizontal
mine configuration
Anning phosphate XCF/KYF-30 28 150 Horizontal
mine configuration
Kunyang phosphate XCF/KYF-30 and 44 and 8 450 Horizontal/Stepwise
mine KYF-130 Configuration
12.4.3 Application of Flotation Machines in the 4.5 Million

t/a Project of Kunyang Phosphate Mine
The 4.5 million t/a project at Kunyang Phosphate Mine of Yunnan Phosphate Chem-
ical Group Co., Ltd. is the largest single phosphorus concentrator in China, in which
the KYF-130 flotation machine, the largest flotation device in China, is selected and
used. An introduction to the flotation machines used in the 4.5 million t/a project at
Kunyang Phosphate Mine is given below.
The 4.5 million t/a project at Kunyang Phosphate Mine of Yunnan Phosphate
Chemical Group Co., Ltd. is provided with two mineral separation workshops. The
No. 1 workshop is originally designed with the direct and reverse flotation process,
having a processing capacity of 1.5 million t/a. It consists of two series and uses a total
of 44 XCF/KYF-30 flotation machines, with 22 flotation machines in a single series.
For the first tank during direct flotation operation, the GF-30 flotation machine with
larger pulp suction volume is used in conjunction with the KYF-30 flotation machine
and the flotation machines are horizontally configured; In the No. 2 workshop where
the process of combined configuration of flotation machines and flotation columns
is used, a total of 8 flotation columns with the diameter of 4.5 m and 8 pneumatic
flotation machines with the volume of 130 m3 are used, and the flotation machines
between operations are horizontally configured. All the flotation machines are config-
ured with the advanced automatic liquid level control system and the aeration rate
control system. The configuration method of a series of flotation machines in No. 1
Rougher 1
Rougher 2
Condition Condition GF-30 KYF-30 KYF-30 Scavenger 1
GF-30 KYF-30 KYF-30
GF-30 KYF-30 KYF-30
Anti-Flotation Rougher
KYF-30 XCF-30 Condition
Scavenger 2
GF-30 KYF-30 KYF-30
Cleaner 1
Anti-Flotation Cleaner GF-30 KYF-30
XCF-30 KYF-30 KYF-30 KYF-30
Cleaner 2
GF-30 KYF-30
Final Tail
Final Tail Phosphate Concentrate
Fig. 12.20 Flotation machine layout in the direct–reverse flotation circuit
workshop is shown in Fig. 12.20. The configuration method of flotation machines

and flotation columns in No. 2 workshop is shown in Fig. 12.21.
12.4.4 Application of Flotation Machines in Silica Sand

Separation
High-purity quartz sand is generally prepared by the processes of rod milling and
scrubbing–desliming–magnetic separation–flotation. In the 1960s, the hydrofluoric
acid method was widely used to remove feldspar. Although this method had certain
effects, the discharge of fluorine-containing wastewater caused serious environmental
pollution problems. At present, this process has been completely abandoned. The
fluorine-free flotation process technology has been successfully applied to large-
scale industrial mineral separation production, making a major breakthrough in the
research and development of silica sand mineral separation technology in China.
12.4.4.1 Particularity of Quartz Sand Flotation
(1) The material size for quartz sand flotation is coarse, with a single size fraction,
the feed particle-size is generally 0.2 ~ 0.7 mm, and the pulp concentration is
generally 30 ~ 40%;
(2) The adhesion between bubbles and mineral particles is weak;
Fig. 12.21 The joint Rougher

configuration of flotation
machine and flotation
column
Rougher
Condition
Rougher
Rougher
Cleaner 1 Condition
Cleaner 2
Phosphate Concentrate Final Tail
(3) A longer actuation duration of pulp conditioning is required for the reagents
and target minerals;
(4) The flotation rate of target minerals is high;
(5) A higher aeration rate is required;
(6) The yield of froth products is high;
(7) The products in the tank must be discharged or fed into the next operation
timely and smoothly;
(8) The impeller–stator is used in a harsh environment and easy to wear seriously,
and the problem of secondary pollution caused by the invasion of iron chips
generated from wears into the concentrate products must be solved.
12.4.4.2 Requirements of Quartz Sand Mineral Separation

for Flotation Machines
Through the analysis on the particularity of quartz sand flotation, it is seen that for
flotation equipment, the requirements of quartz sand flotation for the fluid dynamics
state in different stages and in the same stage are not exactly the same. Therefore,
the principles that the special flotation machine for quartz sand mineral separation
shall abide by are as follows:
(1) Build a relatively stable separation area and a steady froth layer to reduce the
falloff probability of mineral particles.
(2) A high suction rate (or aeration rate) is required to form a part of relatively larger
bubbles, which is good for floating up while carrying coarse-grained minerals
on the back to increase the chance of contact between mineral particles and
bubbles.
(3) A powerful agitation area is required to ensure that the pulp is fully suspended.
If the mineral particles cannot be effectively suspended, the phenomenon of
mineral precipitation or stratification will occur, which will seriously affect the
progress of the flotation process.
(4) The volume of pulp passing through the impeller should be appropriately large
to facilitate the suspension of materials and increase the chance of contact
between bubbles and mineral particles.
(5) The input power should be low, and the impeller agitation force on the pulp
should be relatively weak so as to reduce the turbulence intensity of the pulp
and facilitate the formation and smooth floating of the aggregate of coarse
quartz sand particles and bubbles.
(6) Under low agitation force, make sure that the bubbles can be uniformly
dispersed in the pulp, and that the quartz sand particles are fully suspended.
(7) The floatation tank should be as shallow as possible so that the floating distance
for carrying minerals or bubbles with high specific gravity is short, and the
separation area and froth layer should be more stable.
In 2004, Tongliao Silicon Sand Industry Co., Ltd. completed the first flotation concen-
trate production line with an annual output of 300,000 tons in China. By combining
CLF-8 and CLF-4 flotation machines, products with SiO2 ≥ 98%, Ai2 O3 ≤ 1.0%
and Fe2 O3 ≤ 0.1% were produced and met the national quality standard of the first-
grade glass products. In 2005, 15 sets of CGF-1 flotation machines were used for
the production of flotation concentrate. The successful application of fluorine-free
flotation process technology in large-scale industrial mineral separation production
in this project is a major breakthrough in the research and development of silica sand
mineral separation technology in China. The development of the flotation concentrate
product successfully meets the demands of the silica raw material market and ends the
history that the silica sand in North China is of low grade and can only be used as the
raw material of float glass. The flotation concentrate product becomes an alternative
to sandstone to serve as the main material used in the float glass production.
12.4.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Fluorite

Separation
Fluorite is classified (by grade) into metallurgical-grade fluorite (CaF2 60 ~ 85%),

ceramic-grade fluorite (CaF2 85 ~ 95%) and acid-grade fluorite (CaF2 > 97%)
according to its industrial use. Metallurgical-grade fluorite is used for steelmaking
and iron casting. A mixture of fluorite, lime and dolomite is added in the process of
EAF iron making production in which fluorite is used as a viscosity modifier and a
desulphurizing agent. Fluorite is added as a flux in the processes of oxygen-based
furnace steelmaking and steel scrap refining. Ceramic-grade fluorite is used for glass,
ceramics, cement, welding electrodes and other fluxes. Acid-grade fluorite is used
for producing hydrofluoric acid, aluminium fluoride and spinel. Hydrofluoric acid is
mainly used for synthesizing fluorocarbons. Therefore, fluorite is an important raw
material for the traditional chemical industry, iron & steel and aluminium-making
industries, as well as an important raw material for an emerging series of green
high-tech products. There are mainly three types of fluorite in the natural world,
i.e. quartz–fluorite type, quartz–fluorite–barite type and quartz–fluorite–calcite type.
Different types of fluorite deposits have very different flotation circuit and equipment
configurations. The fluorite deposits in China are mainly accompanying deposits, and
the typical example is the Shizhuyuan Mo–Bi–W polymetallic deposit.
12.4.5.1 Application of Flotation Machines in Chaishan Concentrator

of Hunan Shizhuyuan Nonferrous Metals Co., Ltd.
The Chaishan Concentrator of Hunan Shizhuyuan Nonferrous Metals Co., Ltd.

mainly sorts molybdenum, bismuth, wolfram and fluorite, with a run-of-mine
throughput of 3000 t/d. The concentration of the feed pulp is 30 ~ 35%, the grade
of rich concentrate in fluorite can reach 93 ~ 95%, the grade of lean concentrate in
fluorite is about 80%, the tailings grade is about 8% and about 300 ~ 400 t concen-
trates are produced each day. Rich concentrates are used as raw materials for the
production of hydrofluoric acid, and lean concentrates are used for making pellets
which are supplied to the smelting industry. The Shizhuyuan polymetallic deposit
adopts the technical route of flotation of molybdenum, bismuth and other sulphide
minerals first, flotation and recovery of wolframite and scheelite second, and flota-
tion of fluorite last. The grade of fluorite in flotation tungsten tailings is generally
18 ~ 22%, the grade of SiO2 is 30 ~ 40% and the grade of CaCO3 is 7 ~ 8%. The
flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.22.
Feed
Classification
Rougher
Condition
Rougher 1
Rougher 2
Ball Mill
Scavenger Cleaner 1 Cleaner 1
Cleaner 2 Cleaner 2
Cleaner 5
Final Tail
Final Tail
Cleaner 3 Cleaner 3
Cleaner 6
Cleaner 4
Cleaner 7
Low Grade Concentrate
Cleaner 8
High Grade Concentrate
Fig. 12.22 The flotation circuit of fluorite ore at the Chaishan concentrator
12.4.5.2 Application of Flotation Machines in the Rokeng Fluorite

Mineral Separation Project
Sepfluor, a SA fluorite company, has four mining projects, and Nokeng is one of them.
The annual yield of the concentrator will reach 130,000–180,000 tons of chemical-
grade fluorite and 30,000 tons of metallurgical-grade fluorite to satisfy the domestic
and export markets. A total of 26 KYF-20 flotation machines, 33 KYF-10 flotation
machines and 3 KYF-4 flotation machines are used in this concentrator.
12.4.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Graphite

Separation
Flake graphite has been widely applied in metallurgical, chemical, electrical and
other industrial sectors due to its unique physical and chemical properties. On the
one hand, large flake graphite (generally refer to +0.3 mm and +0.18 mm) is of higher
economic value than that of fine fraction, while it must be used for the purpose of
making crucibles, expandable graphite, etc., so large flakes must be protected to the
greatest extent in the process of graphite separation. The larger the flakes are, the
higher the quality of graphite products is; the higher the concentrate grade is, the
higher the quality of graphite products is. The graphite flotation process generally
has the following characteristics: The stage grinding and stage separation process is
used in order to protect the large flake graphite against damage or less damage; It
needs to undergo several cleaner banks in order to achieve the fixed carbon content
of more than 95%.
There are abundant graphite ore resources in Balama located in Northern Mozam-
bique. According to the graphite marginal grade of 5%, Balama has graphite ore
resources amounting to about 564 million tons and has become the largest graphite
mine in the world. Because of the low impurity content and high grade, it may become
the graphite mine with the lowest cost in the future.
Balama has a graphite mine throughput of 6000 t/d. Using the workflow of stage
grinding and stage separation, the rough concentrate is obtained through rougher,
scavenger, pre-cleaner and three-time cleaner bank of the run-of-mine ores. Large
flake concentrate and fine concentrate are obtained, respectively, through screening,
coarse separation and fine separation of the rough concentrates. In view of the charac-
teristics of high concentrate yield, froth stickiness, inconvenient automatic flow, high
requirement for safety protection, etc., a novel structural design scheme combining
the double transverse and four radial froth flowing grooves which are integrated with
the tank body with multiple grooves jointed for fully enclosed protection is used for
the flotation machine, thus achieving customer recognition at one stroke. A total of
30 KYF-20 flotation machines, 15 KYF-10 flotation machines and 6 KYF-6 flotation
machines are used in this process. The concentrator went into operation at the end
of 2017, allowing the production of graphite concentrate with a fixed carbon content
of more than 95%. The flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.23.
12.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Reconcentration

of Tailings
12.5.1 Application of Flotation Machines in Tailings

Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine
The comprehensive recovery of copper separation at the concentrator of Dexing

Copper Mine is about 86.5%, and there are still about 13.5% of copper metal lost
in tailings. About 50% of them are lost in the size fraction of +125 µm, and about
10,000 tons of copper metal are lost in the coarse size fraction every year. In order
to further recover the copper metal from the tailings, a tailings concentrator was
established, with a small part of the tailings from Sizhou and Dashan concentrators
12.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Reconcentration of Tailings 481
Classification
Condition Rougher
Ball Mill
Scavenger
Cleaner 1 Precleaner
Polishing Mill
Cleaner 2
Flake Cleaner 1
Screen
Polishing Mill Polishing Mill

Flake Cleaner 2
Fine Cleaner 1
Fine Cleaner Scavenger
Flake Concentrate
Fine Cleaner 2
Fine Cleaner 3
Final Tail
Fine Concentrate
Fig. 12.23 The flotation circuit at the Balama concentrator
as ore feed raw materials. In order to improve the recovery rate of coarse fraction
copper-bearing minerals for tailings separation, the application research on industrial
tests of the CGF-40 mechanical agitation flotation machine was carried out. The
results of the industrial tests show that: The CGF-40 mechanical agitation flotation
machine used for the concentrator’s pre-flotation operation for reconcentration of the
one-stage tailings has stable equipment performance, allowing effective recovery of
Classification
Classification
Condition Prerougher Condition Rougher
Scavenger
Ball Mill
Cleaner 1
Final Tail
Final Tail
Cleaner 2
Final Concentrate
Fig. 12.24 The flotation circuit at the tailings concentrator of Dexing copper mine
coarse-grained target minerals in one-stage tailings of the concentrator. In the pre-

flotation operation, the copper enrichment ratio reaches 3.018, the copper recovery
rate reaches 21.13% and the accumulated value of copper enrichment ratio reaches
2.63 times. The flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.24.
12.5.2 Application of Flotation Machines at Sizhou

Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine
The throughput of the Tailings Concentrator of Dexing Copper Mine only accounts
for a small part of the total tailings of Dexing Copper Mine, which cannot meet the
processing demand of all tailings. It is urgently needed to develop tailings flotation
equipment technology with super processing capacity. After continuous research
and accumulation, BGRIMM developed the 680 m3 supersized flotation machine
technology, making large-scale recovery of tailings resources possible.
The 680 m3 supersized flotation machine processed the tailings of the original
separation process in the Phase I 18,000 t/d system in Sizhou Concentrator. A
purpose-made intermediate box with four valves (with two valves open, two valves
for standby use) is arranged between the last 130 m3 flotation machine and the
680 m3 supersized flotation machine in the original scavenger bank, achieving on-line
switching between the original production process and 680 m3 supersized flotation
machine. The tailings of the original production process automatically flow into the
680 m3 flotation machine through the purpose-made intermediate box. After the flota-
tion by the supersized flotation machine, the tailings are automatically discharged
12.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Reconcentration of Tailings 483
Fig. 12.25 KYF-680 flotation machine production scenario at Sizhou concentrator of Dexing
copper mine
into the original tailings discharge pipeline, and the concentrate froth is returned to
the first rougher bank of the original flotation process after regrinding. The industrial
practice shows that the comprehensive recovery rate of copper in Phase I system of
Sizhou Concentrator was 1.48% points higher than that in Phase II system in the
same period when the grades of run-of-mine ores entering the separation operation
are basically equivalent after the industrial test for more than one month, and the
final concentrate grades are basically equivalent. The industrial test on the 680 m3
supersized flotation machine is shown in Fig. 12.25.
12.5.3 Application of Flotation Machines in Chengde

Shuangluan Jianlong Mining Co., Ltd
The company’s Luoguozigou Iron Mine has the characteristics of large scale of ore
deposit, low ore grade, more associated elements and complex ore properties, and
the ores here are typical low-iron, low-phosphorus, low-titanium, low-scandium and
low-cobalt vanadium-bearing ores. The tailings of magnetic separation recovered in
this project contain valuable metals such as phosphorus and titanium, and the tailings
of magnetic separation are not recoverable under the original technical conditions of
flotation equipment due to the characteristics of high specific gravity, coarse grain
size, high concentration and easy sediment in tank. In 2005, the company solved the
technical problems of tailings recovery with fourteen CLF-40 flotation machines,
applied the new process and new technology for the comprehensive recovery and
utilization of titanium and phosphorus to the production practice, activated the large
mineral field that had been stagnant for more than a year, and realized the synchronous
improvement of economic, social and environmental benefits. This not only brought
new economic income to the company but also improved the resource utilization
rate, forming the production capacity of 4000 t/d.
12.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Copper Smelting

Slag
In the modern pyrometallurgical copper smelting process, the copper slag mineral
separation has become an indispensable operation step for copper smelting enter-
prises no matter which smelting process is adopted. Whether it is to improve the
total recovery rate of smelters or to “save energy and cut down consumption”, slag
concentration is of great significance. At present, the copper slag disposal methods
mainly include three broad categories, i.e. flotation, pyrometallurgical dilution and
wet leaching, and flotation is the most promising method for disposal of slag with
lower copper content. The copper slag has the characteristics of small grain size,
fine disseminated grain size and complex symbiotic relationship between ores. The
copper slag has a fine disseminated grain size, copper in the slag is associated with
iron and other minerals, and a high degree of liberation can only be achieved by
full fine grinding. The density and hardness of copper slag are higher than those of
unremarkable ores, and the conventional flotation machines generally cannot meet
the technological requirements of slag flotation. In view of the process characteris-
tics of slag flotation, BGRIMM successively developed special flotation machines
for slag melting with six specifications ranging from 2 to 40 m3 , which were respec-
tively applied in multiple domestic slag concentrators such as Noranda Furnace Slag
Concentrator of Daye Nonferrous Metals Co., Ltd., Jinkouling Slag Flotation Plant of
Tongling Nonferrous Metals Group Co., Ltd. and Guixi Smelter’s Slag Concentrator
of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited.
12.6.1 Application of Flotation Machines at Guixi Smelter

of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited
Guixi Smelter of Jiangxi Copper Corporation Limited built the first concentrator for
disposal of diluted electric furnace slag in China in 2005. The run-of-mine ores were
formed by proportionally mixing the converter slag and electric furnace slag in the
ratio of 1:4, with a specific gravity of about 3.75 g/cm3 . The flotation run-of-mine ores
with the grinding fineness of −43 µm accounting for more than 80% were obtained
by grading of the run-of-mine ores. The concentration of one-stage rougher flotation
is about 70%, which is not only much higher than that of the concentration of ore
feed pulp in the conventional flotation but also higher than the general slag flotation
12.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Copper Smelting Slag 485
concentration. The concentrator can dispose 2500 t of diluted electric furnace slag
every day. In the case that the average grade of copper concentrate in the slag flotation
method is 26%, more than 5000 tons of copper metal can be recovered from the waste
electric furnace slag every year, and rare and precious metals such as gold and silver
are also recovered. The flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.26.
Feed Classification
Classification
Classification
SAG Mill
Ball Mill
Classification
Rougher 1
Rougher 2
Scavenger
Cleaner 1
Cleaner 2
Final Tail
Cleaner 3
Final Concentrate
Fig. 12.26 The flotation circuit at the Guixi smelter concentrator of Jiangxi copper corporation
limited
12.6.2 Application of Flotation Machines in PASAR
Philippines Alliance Smelting and Refining Company (PASAR), a subsidiary of sole

investment subordinate to Glencore International AG, is the only copper producer
in the Philippines. The Copper Smelter’s Slag Concentrator of PASAR is a slag
concentration system newly built after the original slag concentrator (for disposal
of water-quenched slag and intermediate materials) was dismantled. It disposes the
mixed slag of flash smelting slag and converter slag after slow cooling, with the
design processing capacity of 3000 t/d.
Its flotation circuit is as follows: After ore grinding, the copper-bearing slag pulp
is graded by the cyclone, the overflow (the content of the −45 µm size fraction is
80%) is subject to the one-time rougher bank after being agitated by the agitation
tank, the concentrate is taken as the final concentrate and the first rougher tailings
enter the second rougher. The second rougher concentrate enters the cleaner bank,
and the tailings enter the scavenger bank. The final concentrates are obtained from the
concentrates of second rougher after the two-time cleaner bank, and the final tailings
are obtained from the tailings of second rougher after the two-time scavenger bank.
The concentrates from the scavenger bank and the tailings from the concentration I
are merged and supplied into the middlings regrinding system as middlings. After
agitation, the pulp overflow (F80 = 22 µm) from middling classifier for regrinding
enters the fine scavenger bank, the concentrates from the cleaner scavenger bank are
returned to the flotation columns of concentration II and the tailings from the cleaner
scavenger bank enter the two-time rougher.
Since the specific gravity of ore feed slag reached 3.5 g/cm3 and the concentration
of ore feed pulp was about 40%, the CLF wide size fraction flotation machines
were selected. Two and four CLF-40 flotation machines were, respectively, used for
rougher I and rougher IIbank, and four and three CLF-40 flotation machines were,
respectively, used for scavenger I and scavenger II bank. The production practice
shows that: The flotation circuit of the slag concentrator runs steadily, with the
reliable performance of flotation machines. When the copper grade in the mixed slag
of feed was 2.5% in the practical production, the good indexes of the final copper
concentrate grade 26.22% and the copper recovery rate 88.52% were obtained. The
detailed flotation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.27.
12.6 Application of Flotation Machines in Copper Smelting Slag 487
Condition Rougher 1
Rougher 2 Scavenger 1
Scavenger 2
Cleaner 1
Cleaner Scavenger
Cleaner 2
Classification
Final Tail
Ball Mill
Final Concentrate
Fig. 12.27 The flotation circuit at the PASAR copper slag concentrator
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Joao Das Couves Vol 2

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Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11693

Principles and Technologies

ISSN 2195-9862 ISSN 2195-9870 (electronic)

Jointly published with Metallurgical Industry Press

© Metallurgical Industry Press 2021

At the time of publishing this book, I would like to express my gratitude to my

Beijing, China Zhengchang Shen

3.1.3 Diameter and Distribution of Bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.2.5 Optimization of Flotation Machines Based

8.2.3 Performance and Application of the XCF

10.5 Process Control Problems and Development Trend

12 Application Examples of Flotation Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

12.5 Application of Flotation Machines in Reconcentration

1.1 Brief Introduction of the Evolution History of Flotation

1.1.1 Flotation in Ancient Times

© Metallurgical Industry Press 2021 1

1.1.2 Flotation in Ancient Times

1.1.2.1 Before 1960

machine, Callow flotation machine, Fahrenwald Denver flotation machine, Fager-

Minerals Separation, the earliest flotation equipment manufacturer, became a tech-

Fig. 1.1 The standard

Fig. 1.3 Countcurrent flotation machine of the Minerals Separation Company

The Callow flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic flotation machine invented by

Fig. 1.4 Callow’s forced-air flotation machine

(3) Fahrenwald Denver flotation machine

Fig. 1.5 Denver flotation

(4) Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine

The Fagergren WEMCO flotation machine invented in 1920 is a mechanical agitation

Fig. 1.6 Fagergren flotation machine in the 1920s

Fig. 1.7 Fagergren flotation machine in the 1930s

The Agitair flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation

Fig. 1.8 Agitair flotation

1.1.2.2 After 1960

Fig. 1.9 Denver DR flotation machine

Metso’s RSCTM (Reactor Cell System) flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic

Fig. 1.10 Metso’s RCS

Fig. 1.11 WEMCO1+1 flotation machine

The Dorr-Oliver flotation machine is a kind of pneumatic mechanical agitation flota-

Fig. 1.12 Dorr-Oliver

The flash flotation machine applies to grinding-classification circuit: Cyclone grit is

In 1987, Outokumpu developed the HG flotation machine in order to improve the

Fig. 1.13 TankCell flotation

1. KYF flotation machine

The KYF flotation machine, as a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine,

Fig. 1.14 KYF flotation

Fig. 1.15 XCF flotation

Fig. 1.16 GF flotation

The BF flotation machine is an efficient separation plant developed by Beijing

Fig. 1.17 BF flotation machine

before upgrading to 68.89%, and that of iron concentrates is increased by 3.34%;

Fig. 1.18 CLF flotation

6. YX flash flotation equipment

Fig. 1.19 YX flash flotation

(6) China Coal Research Institute

Fig. 1.20 XJM-S flotation

1. KHD Humboldt Wedag flotation machine

The mechanical agitation flotation machine manufactured by KHD Humboldt Wedag

Both KR and TR flotation machines manufactured by Krupp are automatic suction

The Warman flotation machine manufactured by Warman Equipment Company of

5. LM flotation machine

The LM flotation machine is a pneumatic mechanical agitation flotation machine

1.2 Development Trend of Flotation Equipment

1.2.1 Classification of Flotation Machines