UNIT – 3

Dynamics of OB-I

Communication

Communication skills are vital to a healthy, efficient workplace. Often categorized as a “soft skill” or
interpersonal skill, communication is the act of sharing information from one person to another person or
group of people. There are many different ways to communicate, each of which play an important role in
sharing information.

In this article, we take a closer look at the different types of communication and how to strengthen your
skills in each.

Importance of communication

We use communication every day in nearly every environment, including in the workplace. Whether you
give a slight head nod in agreement or present information to a large group, communication is absolutely
necessary when building relationships, sharing ideas, delegating responsibilities, managing a team and
much more.

Learning and developing good communication skills can help you succeed in your career, make you a
competitive job candidate and build your network. While it takes time and practice, communication and
interpersonal skills are certainly able to be both increased and refined.

There are four main types of communication we use on a daily basis: Verbal, nonverbal, written and
visual. Let’s take a look at each of these types of communication, why they are important and how you
can improve them for success in your career.

Types of communication

There are several different ways we share information with one another. For example, you might use
verbal communication when sharing a presentation with a group. You might use written communication
when applying for a job or sending an email.

There are four main categories or communication styles including verbal, nonverbal, written and visual:

1. Verbal
Verbal communication is the use of language to transfer information through speaking or sign language. It
is one of the most common types, often used during presentations, video conferences and phone calls,
meetings and one-on-one conversations. Verbal communication is important because it is efficient. It can
be helpful to support verbal communication with both nonverbal and written communication.

Here are a few steps you can take to develop your verbal communication skills:

 Use a strong, confident speaking voice. Especially when presenting information to a few or a
group of people, be sure to use a strong voice so that everyone can easily hear you. Be confident
when speaking so that your ideas are clear and easy for others to understand.
  Use active listening. The other side of using verbal communication is intently listening to and
hearing others. Active listening skills are key when conducting a meeting, presentation or even
when participating in a one-on-one conversation. Doing so will help you grow as a communicator.
 Avoid filler words. It can be tempting, especially during a presentation, to use filler words such as
“um,” “like,” “so” or “yeah.” While it might feel natural after completing a sentence or pausing to
collect your thoughts, it can also be distracting for your audience. Try presenting to a trusted friend
or colleague who can call attention to the times you use filler words. Try to replace them by taking
a breath when you are tempted to use them.

2. Nonverbal
Nonverbal communication is the use of body language, gestures and facial expressions to convey
information to others. It can be used both intentionally and unintentionally. For example, you might smile
unintentionally when you hear a pleasing or enjoyable idea or piece of information. Nonverbal
communication is helpful when trying to understand others’ thoughts and feelings.

If they are displaying “closed” body language, such as crossed arms or hunched shoulders, they might be
feeling anxious, angry or nervous. If they are displaying “open” body language with both feet on the floor
and arms by their side or on the table, they are likely feeling positive and open to information.

Here are a few steps you can take to develop your nonverbal communication skills:

 Notice how your emotions feel physically. Throughout the day, as you experience a range of
emotions (anything from energized, bored, happy or frustrated), try to identify where you feel that
emotion within your body. For example, if you’re feeling anxious, you might notice that your
stomach feels tight. Developing self-awareness around how your emotions affect your body can
give you greater mastery over your external presentation.
 Be intentional about your nonverbal communications. Make an effort to display positive body
language when you feel alert, open and positive about your surroundings. You can also use body
language to support your verbal communication if you feel confused or anxious about information,
like using a furrowed brow. Use body language alongside verbal communication such as asking
follow up questions or pulling the presenter aside to give feedback.
 Mimic nonverbal communications you find effective. If you find certain facial expressions or
body language beneficial to a certain setting, use it as a guide when improving your own nonverbal
communications. For example, if you see that when someone nods their head it communicates
approval and positive feedback efficiently, use it in your next meeting when you have the same
feelings.

3. Written
Written communication is the act of writing, typing or printing symbols like letters and numbers to
convey information. It is helpful because it provides a record of information for reference. Writing is
commonly used to share information through books, pamphlets, blogs, letters, memos and more. Emails
and chats are a common form of written communication in the workplace.

Here are a few steps you can take to develop your written communication skills:

 Strive for simplicity. Written communications should be as simple and clear as possible. While it
might be helpful to include lots of detail in instructional communications, for example, you should
look for areas where you can write as clearly as possible for your audience to understand.
 Don’t rely on tone. Because you do not have the nuance of verbal and nonverbal communications,
be careful when you are trying to communicate a certain tone when writing. For example,
 attempting to communicate a joke, sarcasm or excitement might be translated differently
depending on the audience. Instead, try to keep your writing as simple and plain as possible and
follow up with verbal communications where you can add more personality.
 Take time to review your written communications. Setting time aside to re-read your emails,
letters or memos can help you identify mistakes or opportunities to say something differently. For
important communications or those that will be sent to a large number of people, it might be
helpful to have a trusted colleague review it as well.
 Keep a file of writing you find effective or enjoyable. If you receive a certain pamphlet, email or
memo that you find particularly helpful or interesting, save it for reference when writing your own
communications. Incorporating methods or styles you like can help you to improve over time.

4. Visual
Visual communication is the act of using photographs, art, drawings, sketches, charts and graphs to
convey information. Visuals are often used as an aid during presentations to provide helpful context
alongside written and/or verbal communication. Because people have different learning styles, visual
communication might be more helpful for some to consume ideas and information.

Here are a few steps you can take to develop your visual communication skills:

 Ask others before including visuals. If you are considering sharing a visual aid in your
presentation or email, consider asking others for feedback. Adding visuals can sometimes make
concepts confusing or muddled. Getting a third-party perspective can help you decide whether the
visual adds value to your communications.
 Consider your audience. Be sure to include visuals that are easily understood by your audience.
For example, if you are displaying a chart with unfamiliar data, be sure to take time and explain
what is happening in the visual and how it relates to what you are saying. You should never use
sensitive, offensive, violent or graphic visuals in any form.

To make improvements to your communication skills, set personal goals to work through the things you
want to accomplish step by step. It might be helpful to consult with trusted colleagues, managers or
mentors to identify which areas would be best to focus on first.

Interactive communication

Interactive communication is an exchange of ideas where both participants, whether human, machine
or art form, are active and can have an effect on one another. It is a dynamic, two-way flow of
information. [1]
Many forms of communication previously thought one-way, like books and television, have
become interactive with the rise of computers, the Internet, and digital and mobile devices. These
developing collaborative technologies, or new media, have rapidly increased the opportunities for
interactive communication across mediums, disciplines, cultures, social classes, locations, and even time.
Interactive communication is a modern term that encompasses these evolving forms of conversation. It is
a primary characteristic of the present Information Age. New experiments in interaction design are
evolving on a daily basis.
Interactive communication forms include basic dialogue and nonverbal communication, game-books,
interactive fiction and storytelling, hypertext, interactive television and movies, photo and video
manipulation, video sharing, video games, social media, user-generated content, interactive
marketing and public relations, augmented reality, ambient intelligence, and virtual reality.
 Interactivity is rooted in basic communication, the development of rhetoric, and the evolution of social
interface. Gesture, touch and body language were the earliest forms of communication. The time line of
spoken and written language’s emergence is still under debate. Rhetoric is the effective use of language.
Once human cognition and thought evolved, varieties of language and communication increased
exponentially. Braille and sign language are forms of interface, as are the arts of music, cooking,
photography and fashion. Politics, trade, international relations, immigration and war are examples of
group interaction.
Industrial design, the aesthetics and engineering of human and machine interface, arrived with
the Industrial Revolution. Interest in interactive communication has grown with the increase in human-
computer interaction. An important consideration in the development of any modern user interface is its
interactivity.

Barriers to Effective Communication

1. Filtering

Filtering is the distortion or withholding of information to manage a person’s reactions. Some

examples of filtering include a manager’s keeping a division’s negative sales figures from a
superior, in this case, the vice president. The old saying, “Don’t shoot the messenger!” illustrates
the tendency of receivers to vent their negative response to unwanted messages to the sender. A
gatekeeper (the vice president’s assistant, perhaps) who doesn’t pass along a complete message
is also filtering. Additionally, the vice president may delete the e-mail announcing the quarter’s
sales figures before reading it, blocking the message before it arrives.

As you can see, filtering prevents members of an organization from getting the complete picture
of a situation. To maximize your chances of sending and receiving effective communications,
it’s helpful to deliver a message in multiple ways and to seek information from multiple sources.
In this way, the impact of any one person’s filtering will be diminished.

Since people tend to filter bad news more during upward communication, it is also helpful to
remember that those below you in an organization may be wary of sharing bad news. One way to
defuse this tendency to filter is to reward employees who clearly convey information upward,
regardless of whether the news is good or bad.

Here are some of the criteria that individuals may use when deciding whether to filter a message
or pass it on:

1. Past experience: Were previous senders rewarded for passing along news of this kind in the
past, or were they criticized?
2. Knowledge and perception of the speaker: Has the receiver’s direct superior made it clear that
“no news is good news?”
3. Emotional state, involvement with the topic, and level of attention: Does the sender’s fear of
failure or criticism prevent the message from being conveyed? Is the topic within the sender’s
realm of expertise, increasing confidence in the ability to decode the message, or is the sender
out of a personal comfort zone when it comes to evaluating the message’s significance? Are
personal concerns impacting the sender’s ability to judge the message’s value?

2. Selective Perception

Small things can command our attention when we’re visiting a new place—a new city or a new company.
Over time, however, we begin to make assumptions about the environment based on our past
experiences. Selective perception refers to filtering what we see and hear to suit our own needs. This
process is often unconscious. We are bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay equal attention
to everything, so we pick and choose according to our own needs. Selective perception is a time-saver, a
necessary tool in a complex culture. But it can also lead to mistakes.

Think back to the example conversation between the person asked to order more toner cartridges and his
boss earlier in this chapter. Since Bill found the to-do list from his boss to be unreasonably demanding, he
assumed the request could wait. (How else could he do everything else on the list?) The boss, assuming
that Bill had heard the urgency in her request, assumed that Bill would place the order before returning to
previously stated tasks. Both members of this organization were using selective perception to evaluate the
communication. Bill’s perception was that the task could wait. The boss’s perception was that a time
frame was clear, though unstated. When two selective perceptions collide, a misunderstanding occurs.

3. Information Overload

Messages reach us in countless ways every day. Some messages are societal—advertisements that we
may hear or see in the course of our day. Others are professional—e-mails, memos, and voice mails, as
well as conversations with our colleagues. Others are personal—messages from and conversations with
our loved ones and friends.

Add these together and it’s easy to see how we may be receiving more information than we can take in.
This state of imbalance is known as information overload, which occurs “when the information
processing demands on an individual’s time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceed the
supply or capacity of time available for such processing” (Schick, Gordon, & Haka, 1990). Others note
that information overload is “a symptom of the high-tech age, which is too much information for one
human being to absorb in an expanding world of people and technology. It comes from all sources
including TV, newspapers, and magazines as well as wanted and unwanted regular mail, e-mail and faxes.
It has been exacerbated enormously because of the formidable number of results obtained from Web
search engines.”

4. Emotional Disconnects

An effective communication requires a sender and a receiver who are open to speaking and listening to
one another, despite possible differences in opinion or personality. One or both parties may have to put
their emotions aside to achieve the goal of communicating clearly. A receiver who is emotionally upset
tends to ignore or distort what the sender is saying. A sender who is emotionally upset may be unable to
present ideas or feelings effectively.
5. Lack of Source Familiarity or Credibility

Have you ever told a joke that fell flat? You and the receiver lacked the common context that could have
made it funny. (Or yes, it could have just been a lousy joke.) Sarcasm and irony are subtle and, therefore,
they are potentially hurtful commodities in business. It’s best to keep these types of communications out
of the workplace, as their benefits are limited, and their potential dangers are great. Lack of familiarity
with the sender can lead to misinterpreting humor, especially in less-rich information channels such as e-
mail. For example, an e-mail from Jill that ends with, “Men should be boiled in vats of oil,” could be
interpreted as antimale if the receiver didn’t know that Jill has a penchant for exaggeration and always
jokes to let off steam. Similarly, if the sender lacks credibility or is untrustworthy, the message will not
get through. Receivers may be suspicious of the sender’s motivations (Why is she telling me this?).
Likewise, if the sender has communicated erroneous information in the past or has created false
emergencies, the current message may be filtered.

6. Workplace Gossip

The informal gossip network known as the grapevine is a lifeline for many employees seeking
information about their company (Kurland & Pelled, 2000). Researchers agree that the grapevine is an
inevitable part of organizational life. Research finds that 70% of all organizational communication occurs
at the grapevine level (Crampton, 1998). Employees trust their peers as a source of information, but the
grapevine’s informal structure can be a barrier to effective communication from the managerial point of
view. Its grassroots structure gives it greater credibility in the minds of employees than information
delivered through official channels, even when that information is false. Some downsides of the office
grapevine are that gossip offers politically minded insiders a powerful tool for disseminating
communication (and self-promoting miscommunications) within an organization. In addition, the
grapevine lacks a specific sender, which can create a sense of distrust among employees: Who is at the
root of the gossip network? When the news is volatile, suspicions may arise as to the person or person
behind the message. Managers who understand the grapevine’s power can use it to send and receive
messages of their own. They can also decrease the grapevine’s power by sending official messages
quickly and accurately, should big news arise.

Strategies to Improve The Follow Communication

Good communication helps everyone on your team (and you) to feel heard and understood, and as a
result, everyone benefits from a positive, encouraging and successful environment. Conversely,
ineffective communication brings about the opposite results. Ideas fall flat due to lack of follow-through.
You and your team feel frustrated, unacknowledged and misunderstood, and morale declines.
Leadership sets the tone in any business. While improving communication may seem like a daunting task,
it can be done, and you can successfully lead the way. Start employing our five strategies for improved
workplace communication to increase understanding, improve the workplace environment and promote
team spirit. As these natural by-products of effective communication take place, improved success will
follow.
Effective Workplace Communication Strategies
1. Give Your Undivided Attention. Whether you’re in a group meeting or with one employee, offering
your full focus to those you’re with will greatly improve how you’re received. How often have you been
in a conversation with someone who kept looking at their smartphone or elsewhere while talking or
listening to you? Lack of focus devalues the conversation causing people to tune out. Maintain eye
contact during conversations and meetings, and put all other things aside to visually convey your focus
and encourage each individual to stay present.
2. Take Time to Listen. Don’t monopolize the conversation. After a while, people will start tuning you
out and your message will be lost. Be frugal with your words, avoiding fluff and fillers. Pause after
important points to take questions or check for understanding. This will help your staff members feel that
they play an active role in the conversation.
3. Be Mindful of How You’re Communicating. Your words are only a fraction of the message you
relay to staff members. Body language and tonality contribute heavily toward the effectiveness with
which your communication is received. Maintain a relaxed stance and facial expression while speaking
with employees. Rest your arms by your sides rather than crossing them over your chest as this is a
defensive posture. Make eye contact, smile when it’s appropriate and nod your head affirmatively while
listening.
4. Follow Up in Writing. No matter how compelling your meeting was, it’s probable that those in
attendance will not remember everything that was shared. Prior to the meeting, designate a person to take
notes. Assimilate this information into a bullet-pointed email to send to your team as a follow-up and
refresher. Short, concise notes will keep important information fresh in people’s minds.
5. Inform and Inspire. Communication is a form of information exchange. Explaining and clarifying
your thoughts and ideas is important in a leadership role. But passing on information to your team is only
half of the equation. As a leader, it’s vital to your business that your communication efforts inspire your
team as much as they educate them. Plan ahead for meetings and conversations so you can effectively mix
information and inspiration. If this is particularly challenging for you, the support of a mentor or coach
can be helpful.
The effects of improved communication may or may not appear overnight. Stick with it for the long haul,
and eventually your business will reap the rewards of better communication in the workplace. Check in
with a business peer or mentor whenever possible to talk about how things are going and brainstorm ways
to continue improving communication between you and your employees.
Decision Making

Decision making refers to making choices among alternative courses of action—which may also include
inaction. While it can be argued that management is decision making, half of the decisions made by
managers within organizations ultimately fail . Therefore, increasing effectiveness in decision making is
an important part of maximizing your effectiveness at work. Individuals throughout organizations use the
information they gather to make a wide range of decisions. These decisions may affect the lives of others
and change the course of an organization.

Decisions can be classified into three categories based on the level at which they occur.

1. Strategic decisions set the course of an organization.

2. Tactical decisions are decisions about how things will get done. Finally,
3. operational decisions refer to decisions that employees make each day to make the organization
run.

For example, think about the restaurant that routinely offers a free dessert when a customer complaint is
received. The owner of the restaurant made a strategic decision to have great customer service. The
manager of the restaurant implemented the free dessert policy as a way to handle customer complaints,
which is a tactical decision. Finally, the servers at the restaurant are making individual decisions each day
by evaluating whether each customer complaint received is legitimate and warrants a free dessert.

Making Rational Decisions

The rational decision-making model describes a series of steps that decision makers should consider if
their goal is to maximize the quality of their outcomes. In other words, if you want to make sure that you
make the best choice, going through the formal steps of the rational decision-making model may make
sense. Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

Participative decision making techniques

Now-a-days, a number of techniques both quantitative and non-quantitative techniques are used by
managers in making decisions. These techniques, if used properly, would contribute for the effectiveness
of the decisions.

The techniques of decision-making may be classified as:-

 Non-Quantitative Techniques

 Quantitative Techniques

 Traditional Techniques

 Modern Techniques.
*(A) Non-Quantitative Techniques:

1. Intuition:

It is an insight without logical backing where an individual does something without the aid of resoning
process. A decision taken under this method is marked by convictions and inner feelings of the manger
without the support of facts and figures. Under this method, quick decisions can be taken but there is no
guarantee that it will a right decision.

2. Experience:

Adopting past decision to the present situation if the problem is of similar nature as that of one solved in
the past. Of course, past experience gives a clear understanding of the issues involved in the present
situation. But it is dangerous to give more weightage to the past experience because a decision applied in
one situation may not be suitable to a different situation. Therefore, past experience can be used only to
routine decisions.

3. Experimentation:

It involves practical application of each alternative in actual situation. The results are observed. The
alternative give the best solution is selected. It is a time consuming and costly method. It leads to delay in
decision making.

4. Brainstorming:

It was developed by A.F. Osborn. It involves the use of a small group. This group is simulated to creative
thinking. A particular problem is placed before the group and members of the group are asked to provide
solutions. Later all the solutions are critically evaluated to arrive at the best solution.

It helps the mangers to arrive at innovative solutions. The success of this technique lies in creating a free
and open environment where members of the group participate without any inhibitions. The larger the
number of solutions, the fairer is the chances in locating an acceptable solution. But it consumes lot of
time and an expensive exercise. It emphasizes only quantity of solutions, which prove to be superficial.

5. Synectics:

Synectics is a concept developed by William J.J. Gordon. It is derived from a Greek word which means
“Fitting together of diverse element”. A problem is presented to a group of people with different
backgrounds and varied experiences. It is the responsibility of the group leader to present the problem and
lead the discussion in order to stimulate creative solutions.

This approach ensures on the spot evaluation of ideas. The leader who is a technical expert assists the
group in evaluating the feasibility of their ideas. When the problem is tough and challenging, this
approach is used for effective decision-making.

*(B) Quantitative Techniques:

1. Operations Research:

The origin and development of operations research is attributed to military operations and applications
during Second World War. Operations Research is the systematic method of studying the basic structure,
functions and relationships of an organization as an open system. It aims at developing optimal solution
with limited resources in a given situation. It employs optimizing models like Linear Programming,
Project Management, Inventory Control, Simulation, Programmed Evaluation and Review Technique,
Decision Theory and Waiting Line Theory.

2. Marginal Analysis:

It is a technique where there is a comparison of additional revenues with additional costs. The extra cost
resulting from the addition of one more unit is compared with the benefit there from. Break even analysis
is the modification of this technique wherein it tells the point of activity at which there will be no profit
and no loss.

3. Correlation:

It is the study of degree of functional relationship between two or more variables. This method helps to
make an estimate of one variable when the value of another variable is known. For example, when
demand is known, profit can be determined.

*(C) Traditional Techniques:

These techniques are divided into two groups:

I. Traditional techniques for making programmed decisions.

II. Traditional techniques for making non-programmed decisions.

I. Traditional Techniques for Making Programmed Decisions:

Three common traditional techniques for making programmed decisions are:

(a) Habits:

Habits are the ways in which problems are solved according to pre-defined notions. Managers do not
apply scientific techniques to solve problems. By solving the same problem in a defined way over and
over again, managers form the habit of solving it in that manner. It does not require much of managerial
thinking and initiative.

(b) Operating Procedures:

Operating procedures are organisational habits. They guide decision-makers in solving organisational
problems in a pre-defined manner. They are more formal than habits. However, they are flexible and can
be changed. Cases of absence without leave are not left for managerial discretion. Standard procedures
guide action in such cases.

(c) Organisation Structure:

It is a well-defined structure of authority-responsibility relationships. Each person knows his position in

the organisation, his authority to make decisions, the extent to which it can be delegated to subordinates,
the communication channel, the persons to whom he has to report etc. This helps in solving programmed
problems.
II. Traditional Techniques for Making Non-Programmed Decisions:

Managers solve unstructured, novel and non-repetitive problems through judgment, intuition and
creativity. No scientific basis of decision-making is followed. These are more of personal qualities than
techniques for solving the problems. They, therefore, vary from person to person. Each manager perceives
the problem in his own way and solves it to the best of his judgment. No scientific techniques are
available to solve the problems.

*D. Modern Techniques:

Modern techniques use mathematical models to solve business problems. They apply scientific and
rational decision-making process to arrive at the optimum solution. They use quantifiable variables and
establish relationships amongst them through mathematical equations and operations research techniques.
They also make use of computers for data processing and storage to solve complex management
problems.

These techniques can be classified as follows:

I. Modern Techniques for making Programmed Decisions:

These are as follows:

(a) Break-Even Technique:

It helps to determine that level of output at which total costs (variable costs and fixed costs) and total
revenue are the same. Total profit at this volume of output called the break-even point is zero. It helps
managers analyse the economic feasibility of a proposal. For any level of output, the amount of profit can
be ascertained which serves as an acceptance or rejection criterion of the proposal. It is only a rough
estimate of assessing a project since it assumes a constant selling price and fixed cost, which is not always
so.

(b) Inventory Models:

So that business firms do not run out of stock, they carry enough inventory with them. Though this
ensures regular supply of goods to customers, they incur costs to carry the inventory. These are the
handling costs, storage costs, insurance costs, opportunity cost of money tied in the inventory etc. These
are known as carrying costs. In order to reduce these costs, firms can keep minimum inventory in store
and order for fresh inventory when the need arises. This will reduce the carrying cost of inventory but the
ordering cost will go up.

These are the costs of placing an order and include cost of preparing an order and cost of receiving and
inspecting the goods. Both the carrying and ordering costs operate in reverse direction. Increase in one
means decrease in the other. Sophisticated inventory models are available for efficient management of
inventory. They place order for goods at the point where the total of ordering costs and carrying costs is
the least.

(c) Linear Programming:

It is a technique of resource allocation that aims to maximise output or minimise costs through optimum
allocation of scarce resources. It is applied when resources are scarce and have to be optimally utilised so
that output can be maximised out of limited resources. Linear programming is “a quantitative tool for
planning how to allocate limited or scarce resources so that a single criterion or goal (often profits) is
optimised.”

It aims to maximise profits or minimise costs by combining two variables which involve the best use of
available resources. The (two) variables, the dependent and independent must be linearly related, i.e.,
increase or decrease in the independent variable should result in a corresponding increase or decrease in
the dependent variable.

Linear programming is a managerial tool that helps in optimisation of resources. Its use is facilitated
through mathematical equations.

(d) Simulation:

This technique is used to create artificial models of real life situations to study the impact of different
variables on that situation. A model is prepared on the basis of empirical data, it is put to all kinds of
influences, positive and negative, which may affect the project and the final results are the predictions of
actual results if the project in question is put to use.

For example, if a transportation company wants to make a road or rail system, it will prepare a simulation
model to analyse the effect of all the factors (e.g., traffic signals, fly overs, other heavy and light traffic
commuting on the same road) and if this model appears to be feasible, actual construction of the rail/road
system shall commence.

(e) Probability Theory:

Probability is the number of times an outcome shall appear when an experiment is repeated. What is the
probability that sales will increase if expenditure on advertisement is increased is answered through
probability theory. These decisions are based on past experience and some amount of quantifiable data.

(f) Decision-Tree:

It is a diagrammatic representation of future events that will occur when decisions are made under
different option plans. It reflects outcomes and risks associated with each outcome. Each outcome or
future event is evaluated in terms of desired results and the outcome which gives the maximum value is
selected out of alternative courses of action.

“Decision-trees depict, in the form of a ‘tree’, the decision points, chance events, and probabilities
involved in various courses that might be undertaken”. For example, a firm wants to launch a new product
which can be sold in the domestic market or the international market.

Creativity in Decision Making

Creativity is the ability to link or combine ideas in novel ways, and their unique alternatives have to be
considered useful to others. Creativity is also known as divergent or lateral thinking. Lateral thinking
moves away from the linear approach that’s advocated in rational decision making. Some researchers feel
that employee and manager creativity is the hallmark of an organization’s success—that solving old
organizational issues in new ways creates organizational effectiveness.

If creativity is the key to organizational effectiveness, then how do we get some of that? Is there a way
that organizations can foster creativity for the benefit of decision making?
 Four characteristics that creative leaders seem to have in common:

 Perseverance in the face of obstacles and adversity

 Willingness to take risks
 Willingness to grow and openness to experience
 Tolerance of ambiguity
 Effective use of analogy to apply a known situation to an unknown situation

Group Decision Making

The Group Decision Making is the collective activity wherein several persons interact simultaneously to
find out the solution to a given statement of a problem. In other words, group decision making is a
participatory process wherein multiple individuals work together to analyze the problem and find out the
optimum solution out of the available set of alternatives.

In group decision-making, the number of participants often ranges from two to seven. It is not necessary
that all the group members agree with each other and hence most of the times, the decision is taken on the
basis of a majority if no other mode of a majority is prescribed. The majority means the number of votes
in favor or against the proposed alternative.

There are several techniques that can be used to increase the efficiency of group decision making. These
are as follows:

1. Nominal group Technique

2. Delphi Technique
3. Brainstorming
4. Dialectic Decisions Method

The concept of group decision making is based on the proverb that two heads are better than one. This
means when the decisions are taken jointly, the expertise or experience of each member could be
capitalized to reach to an optimum solution. Thus, the synergy gets created when the decisions are made
in a group as more ideas and opinions pop up during the discussion session.

But however, the group decision making can be time-consuming and often leads to the conflict between
the group members. Also, no single member is held accountable in case of a failure of such decision,
since it is the whole group that agrees with that decision

Dynamics of OB –II

Organizational Stress

Stress is defined by psychologists as the body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental, or
emotional adjustment or response. Stress is an inevitable feature of life. It is the force that gets us out of
bed in the morning, motivates us at the gym, and inspires us to work.
Stress factors broadly fall into four types or categories:

1. physical stress

2. psychological stress

3. psychosocial stress, and

4. psychospiritual stress.

1.Physical stress: trauma (injury, infection, surgery), intense physical labor/over-exertion, environmental
pollution (pesticides, herbicides, toxins, heavy metals, inadequate light, radiation, noise, electromagnetic
fields), illness (viral, bacterial, or fungal agents), fatigue, inadequate oxygen supply, hypoglycemia I(low
blood sugar), hormonal and/or biochemical imbalances, dietary stress (nutritional deficiencies, food
allergies and sensitivities, unhealthy eating habits), dehydration, substance abuse, dental challenges, and
musculoskeletal misalignments/imbalances.

2. Psychological stress: emotional stress (resentments, fears, frustration, sadness, anger,

grief/bereavement), cognitive stres (information overload, accelerated sense of time, worry, guilt, shame,
jealousy, resistance, attachments, self-criticism, self-loathing, unworkable perfectionism, anxiety, panic
attacks, not feeling like yourself, not feeling like things are real, and a sense of being out of control/not
being in control), and perceptual stress (beliefs, roles, stories, attitudes, world view).

3. Psychosocial stress: relationship/marriage difficulties (partner, siblings, children, family, employer,

co-workers, employer), lack of social support, lack of resources for adequate survival, loss of
employment/investments/savings, loss of loved ones, bankruptcy, home foreclosure, and isolation.

4. Psycho-spiritual stress: A crisis of values, meaning, and purpose; joyless striving (instead of
productive, satisfying, meaningful and fulfilling work; and a misalignment withn one’s core spiritual
beliefs.
Overall, improperly or ineffectively managed stress usually takes a toll on the body. When stress-related
feelings, moods, emotions are pushed into the body, the soma, this is usually termed psychosomatic or
psychogenic illness, including headaches, heart palpitations, physical/cognitive/emotional pain and
suffering, constricted throat and shallow, constricted breathing, clammy palms, fatigue, nausea, anxiety,
allergies, asthma, autoimmune syndromes related to an ineffective functioning of the immune system,
hypertension (high blood pressure), and gastrointestinal disturbances such as diarrhea, upset stomach,
duodenal ulcers and esophageal reflux syndrome.

Prolonged stress can result in suppressed immune function, increased susceptibility to infectious and
immune-related diseases and cancer. Emotional stress can also result in hormonal imbalances (adrenal,
pituitary, thyroid, etcetera) that further interfere with healthy immune functioning.

Organizational Conflict
Organizational Conflict or otherwise known as workplace conflict, is described as the state of
disagreement or misunderstanding, resulting from the actual or perceived dissent of needs, beliefs,
resources and relationship between the members of the organization. At the workplace, whenever, two or
more persons interact, conflict occurs when opinions with respect to any task or decision are in
contradiction.
 In simple terms, organizational conflict alludes to the result of human interaction, that starts when one
member of the organization discerns that his/her goals, values or attitude are incompatible, with those of
other members of the organization. The incompatibility in opinions can come into being, within a
member, between two members, or between groups of the organization

Types of Organizational Conflict

 Relationship Conflict: The conflict arising out of interpersonal tension among employees, which is
concerned with the relationship intrinsically, not the project at hand.
 Task Conflict: When there is a discord, among members regarding nature of work to be performed is
task conflict
 Process Conflict: Clashes among the team members due to the difference in opinions, on how work
should be completed, is called process conflict.
Organizational conflict can also be personal conflict (one that exist between two people because of
mutual dislike), intragroup conflict (one arising out of lack of liberty, resource, etc. in a group) and
intergroup conflict (one that exist between two groups).

Effects of Stress

Generally stress is considered to the negative, thereby meaning that it has negative consequences.
However, stress has neutral connotation; it is only the degree of stress which produces positive or
negative consequences. From this point of view, stress can be classified as Eustress or distress.

Eustress : Eustress denotes the presence of optimum level of stress in an individual which contribute
positively to his performance. This may lead employees to new and better ways of doing their jobs. In
certain jobs, such as sales, creativity ( journalism, radio/television announcement, where time pressure is
significant), a mild level of stress contributes positively to productivity.

Distress : Distress denotes the presence of high level of stress in an individual which affects job
performance adversely and creates many types of physical, psychological and behavior problems.
At the performance level of stress (eustress), the performance is maximum. It is lower in the case of very
low-level stress, and still lower in very high-level stress. Through optimum level of may be different for
different individuals, each individual can determine how much stress is functional for him to operate in a
productive manner. High level of stress(distress) causes physical, and behavioral problems.

1.Physical problems : Stress causes physical reaction, including autonomic, excitability of nerves,
increased heart beat rate, and a decrease in body temperature. A research finding suggests that high-level
stress is accompanied by high blood pressure and high level of cholesterol and can result into heart
disease, ulcer and arthritis. There may even be link between stress and cancer. Such serious ailments,
however, are not caused exclusively by stress alone; physical characteristics of the individuals have their
contributions. These ailments have a drastic effect on the individuals, their families and organizations.

2. Psychological Problems : High level of stress may be accompanied by psychological reactions, such
as anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritability, tension and boredom depending upon the nature of
stress and the capacity of individuals to bear stress. The effects of psychological reactions of individuals
may be changes in mood and other emotional states, lowered self-esteem, resentment of supervision,
inability to concentrate and make decisions, and job dissatisfaction. These affect productivity in the
organization adversely.

3. Behavioral Problems : People show dysfunctional behavior because of stress of high level. Such
behavior may be in the form of alcoholism, drug addiction, increased smoking, sleeplessness, under/over
eating, etc. In extreme cases, when the individual is not able to bear stress, it may result into suicide. At
the workplace, people may show behavior like tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover. In all these cases,
organization is going to suffer.

4. Burnout : Burnout is a syndrome wherein a person breaks down physically and emotionally due to
continuous over-work over a long period of time. The human body cannot instantly rebuild its ability to
cope with stress once it is depleted. As a result, people physically and emotional weakened from trying to
combat it. They become detached from their jobs and feel unable to accomplish their goals. Burnout is a
slow process and goes through the following stages:

 Stage of job contentment- enthusiasm to work with high energy level and positive attitudes.
 Stage of fuel shortage-experience mental fatigue, frustration, disillusionment, and low morale.
 Stage of withdrawal and isolation- avoiding contact with co-workers, showing anger, negativism,
and emotional disturbances.
 Stage of crisis- very low-esteem, cynicism, and negative feelings.
 Stage of final breakdown- alcoholism, drug addiction, suicidal tendency and heart attacks.

5.Rustout : Rustout is syndrome where a person is chronically under-worked and his skills are under-
utilized in performing the job. This syndrome is a problem for employees. Like a rusting tool, there is
continuous erosion in employees and over the period of time, they become useless. Rusting in employees
occurs in two situations- sidelined and misemployment. In sidelining, an employee is isolated by his
superior either du e to lack of confidence, prejudices, or due to demonstrated misdeeds. In
misemployment, the employee is placed on a job which requires much lesser skills than what he
possesses. In both these situations, he employee develops one or more of the following feelings or
behaviors:
  He no longer engages in workplace events.
 He does not identify with his job the way he used to do earlier.
 He begins to feel that he is not needed or valued.

Intra-individual conflict

Conflict is an inevitable part of life. Each of us possesses our own opinions, ideas and sets of beliefs. We
have our own ways of looking at things and we act according to what we think is proper. Hence, we often
find ourselves in conflict in different scenarios; may it involve other individuals, groups of people, or a
struggle within our own selves. Consequently, conflict influences our actions and decisions in one way or
another.

Conflict is classified as the following types:

1.Interpersonal conflict: refers to a conflict between two individuals. This occurs typically due to how
people are different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to incompatible
choices and opinions. Apparently, it is a natural occurrence which can eventually help in personal growth
or developing your relationships with others. In addition, coming up with adjustments is necessary for
managing this type of conflict. However, when interpersonal conflict gets too destructive, calling in a
mediator would help so as to have it resolved.

2.Intrapersonal conflict: occurs within an conflict between two individuals. This occurs typically due to
how people are different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to
incompatible choices and opinions. Apparently, it is a natural occurrence which can eventually help in
personal growth or developing your relationships with others. In addition, coming up with adjustments is
necessary for managing this type of conflict. However, when interpersonal conflict gets too destructive,
calling in a mediator would help so as to have it resolved.

How to resolve the four main types of conflict Intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual. The
experience takes place in the person’s mind. Hence, it is a type of conflict that is psychological involving
the individual’s thoughts, values, principles and emotions. Interpersonal conflict may come in different
scales, from the simpler mundane ones like deciding whether or not to go organic for lunch to ones that
can affect major decisions such as choosing a career path.

3. Intragroup conflict: is a type of conflict that happens among individuals within a team. The
incompatibilities and misunderstandings among these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict. It is
arises from interpersonal disagreements (e.g. team members have different personalities which may lead
to tension) or differences in views and ideas (e.g. in a presentation, members of the team might find the
notions presented by the one presiding to be erroneous due to their differences in opinion). Within a team,
conflict can be helpful in coming up with decisions which will eventually allow them to reach their
objectives as a team.

4. Intergroup conflict: takes place when a misunderstanding arises among different teams within an
organization. For instance, the sales department of an organization can come in conflict with the customer
support department. This is due to the varied sets of goals and interests of these different groups. In
addition, competition also contributes for intergroup conflict to arise.
Strategies to cope with stress and conflict:

Common Sources of Work Stress

Certain factors tend to go hand-in-hand with work-related stress. Some common workplace stresses are:

 Low salaries.
 Excessive workloads.
 Few opportunities for growth or advancement.
 Work that isn't engaging or challenging.
 Lack of social support.
 Not having enough control over job-related decisions.
 Conflicting demands or unclear performance expectations.

Calming Coping Strategies:

There are two main types of coping strategies: emotion-focused coping strategies and solution-focused
coping strategies.

1.Some more emotion-focused techniques for coping with stress include:

1. Journaling about your emotions.

2. Practicing loving-kindness meditation to increase self-compassion
3. Using visualization strategies to increase positive feelings.

2. These types of solution-focused techniques include the following:

1. Using time-management strategies when you feel overwhelmed by a busy schedule.

2. Talking to HR if you feel overwhelming demands or harassment at work
3. Using conflict-resolution strategies to mitigate the stress in a relationship .

Taking Steps to Manage Stress:

1.Track your stressors. Keep a journal for a week or two to identify which situations create the most
stress and how you respond to them. Record your thoughts, feelings and information about the
environment, including the people and circumstances involved, the physical setting and how you reacted.
Did you raise your voice? Get a snack from the vending machine? Go for a walk? Taking notes can help
you find patterns among your stressors and your reactions to them.

2.Develop healthy responses.: Instead of attempting to fight stress with fast food or alcohol, do your best
to make healthy choices when you feel the tension rise. Exercise is a great stress-buster. Yoga can be an
excellent choice, but any form of physical activity is beneficial.

3.Establish some work-life boundaries for yourself: That might mean making a rule not to check email
from home in the evening, or not answering the phone during dinner. Although people have different
preferences when it comes to how much they blend their work and home life, creating some clear
boundaries between these realms can reduce the potential for work-life conflict and the stress that goes
with it.
4.Learn how to relax.: Techniques such as meditation, deep breathing exercises and mindfulness (a state
in which you actively observe present experiences and thoughts without judging them) can help melt
away stress. Start by taking a few minutes each day to focus on a simple activity like breathing, walking
or enjoying a meal. The skill of being able to focus purposefully on a single activity without distraction
will get stronger with practice and you'll find that you can apply it to many different aspects of your life.

5.Get some support:. Accepting help from trusted friends and family members can improve your ability
to manage stress. Your employer may also have stress management resources available through an
employee assistance program (EAP), including online information, available counseling and referral to
mental health professionals, if needed. If you continue to feel overwhelmed by work stress, you may want
to talk to a psychologist, who can help you better manage stress and change unhealthy behavior.