BIO 242 (General Physiology II) Zoology Part-1

Dept of Biological Sciences, Federal University Dutsin-Ma.
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & EDUCATION
Course lecturer; Jabbi Aminu Muhammad
Lecture note on BIO 242 (General Physiology II) 2012/2013 Academic Session
COURSE CONTENTS
Organ and tissue system among animals (Digestive system, Respiratory system, Reproductive
system, Excretory system and Nervous system).
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion; It is a form of catabolism that involves the mechanical and chemical breakdown
of food into smaller components that are more easily and readily absorbed into a blood stream.
TYPE OF DIGESTION
i. Mechanical
ii. Chemical
Mechanical digestion; It is the physical process of breaking down food in to smaller particles by
mastication in buccal cavity or churning in the stomach.
Mechanical digestion is important in the same that;
a. It reduces the sizes of food for easy swallowing than large lumps
b. The surface area of food is vastly increased, which speed up chemical digestion.
c. Mixing of food thoroughly with saliva and other digestive juices.
Chemical digestion; It involves the chemical break down of food by enzymes in to soluble
forms that are more easily absorbed into a blood stream through the villi.
FORMS OF DIGESTION
i. Extracellular digestion
ii. Intracellular digestion
Intracellular digestion; It occurs inside the cell. It is typical of unicellular organism such as
amoeba and to a limited extent, of simple multicellular animals, such as hydra.
Page 1 of 27 Lecture note on BIO 242 (General Physiology II) 2012/2013 Academic Session
Extracellular digestion; This occurs outside the cell and it is typical of most multicellular
organism such as mammals. Typically extracellular digestion occurs within a tube called
alimentary canal. In certain specialized regions the wall of intestine & associated organs
produces digestive juices which break down the food in to soluble forms.
OVERVIEW OF VERTEBRATE DIGESTION
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multi-stage process in the digestive system, starting from

ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of
mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
i. Ingestion: Placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
ii. Mechanical and chemical breakdown: Mastication and the mixing of the
resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break
down complex molecules into simple structures,
iii. Absorption: Nutrients from the digestive system are absorb in to the circulatory and
lymphatic capillaries in the villi through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and
iv. Egestion: Removal of undigested & unabsorbed food substances from the digestive tract
through defecation.
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing
and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on
the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are
important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen
in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and
musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves
as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for reabsorption of water
from digesta before excretion.
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is

produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and
chemical digestion begins in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin
enzymatic processing of uncooked starches. The stomach continues to break food down
mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and
enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes
with defecation.
DIGESTION IN HUMAN (HUMAN GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT)
The whole digestive system is around 9 meters long. In a healthy human adult this process can
take between 24 and 72 hours. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon
other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal.
ORAL CAVITY
In humans, digestion begins in the Mouth, otherwise known as the "Buccal Cavity", where food
is chewed. Saliva is secreted in large amounts (1-1.5 litres/day) by three pairs of exocrine
salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) in the oral cavity, and is mixed with the
chewed food by the tongue. Saliva cleans the oral cavity, moistens the food, and contains
digestive enzymes such as salivary amylase, which aids in the chemical
breakdown of polysaccharides such as starch into disaccharides such as maltose. It also contains
mucus, a glycoprotein that helps soften the food and form it into a bolus. An additional
enzyme, lingual lipase, hydrolyzes long-chain triglycerides into partial glycerides and free fatty
acids.
PHARYNX
The pharynx is the part of the neck and throat situated immediately behind the mouth, nasal
cavity, and cranial, or superior, to the esophagus. It is part of the digestive system and respiratory
system. Because both food and air pass through the pharynx, a flap of connective tissue,
the epiglottis closes over the trachea when food/water is swallowed to prevent choking or
asphyxiation.
The oropharynx is that part of the pharynx behind the oral cavity. It is lined with stratified
squamous epithelium. The nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity and like the nasal passages
is lined with ciliated columnar pseudo stratified epithelium.
Like the oropharynx above it the hypopharynx (laryngopharynx) serves as a passageway for food
and air and is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium. It lies inferior to the upright epiglottis
and extends to the larynx, where the respiratory and digestive pathways diverge. At that point,
the laryngopharynx is continuous with the esophagus. During swallowing, food has the "right of
way", and air passage temporarily stops.
ESOPHAGUS The esophagus is a narrow muscular tube about 20-30 centimeters long, which
starts at the pharynx at the back of the mouth, passes through the thoracic diaphragm, and ends at
the cardiac orifice of the stomach. The wall of the esophagus is made up of two layers of smooth
muscles, which form a continuous layer from the esophagus to the colon and contract slowly,
over long periods of time. The chewed food is pushed down the esophagus to the stomach
through peristaltic contraction of these muscles. It takes only about seven seconds for food to
pass through the esophagus to stomach.
PERISTALSIS
The circular muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic muscles, with one contracting
as the other relaxes. When the circular muscles contract, the lumen becomes narrower and longer
and the food is squeezed and pushed forward. When the longitudinal muscles contract, the
circular muscles relax and the gut dilates to become wider and shorter to allow food to enter.
The esophagus and remainder of the digestive tract undergoes peristalsis to transport food from
the stomach to the rectum and allow food to be mixed with the digestive juices and absorbed.
STOMACH
The stomach is a small, 'J'-shaped pouch with walls made of thick, distensible muscles, which
stores and helps break down food. Food reduced to very small particles is more likely to be fully
digested in the small intestine, and stomach churning has the effect of assisting the physical
disassembly begun in the mouth.
Food enters the stomach through the cardiac orifice where it is further broken apart and
thoroughly mixed with gastric acid, pepsin and other digestive enzymes to break down proteins.
The acid itself does not break down food molecules; rather it provides an optimum pH for the
reaction of the enzyme pepsin and kills many microorganisms that are ingested with the food.
The parietal cells of the stomach also secrete a glycoprotein called intrinsic factor, which

enables the absorption of vitamin B-12. Other small molecules such as alcohol are absorbed in
the stomach, passing through the membrane of the stomach and entering the circulatory
system directly. Food in the stomach is in semi-liquid form, which upon completion is known
as chyme.
Mucus neck cells are present in the gastric glands of the stomach. They secrete mucus, which
along with gastric juice plays an important role in lubrication and protection of the mucosal
epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Figure 1; Human gastrointestinal tract
SMALL INTESTINE
It has three parts: the Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum (Figure 1).
After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine via the pyloric
sphincter. The majority of digestion and absorption occurs here after the milky chyme enters
the duodenum. Here it is further mixed with three different liquids:
i. Bile; It emulsifies fats to allow absorption, neutralizes the chyme and is used to excrete waste

products such as bilin and bile acids. Bile is produced by the liver and then stored in
the gallbladder where it will be released to the small intestine via the bile duct. The bile in the
gallbladder is much more concentrated.
ii. Pancreatic juice; It is secreted by the pancreas, which secretes enzymes such as pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase, and trypsinogen (inactive form of protease).
iii. Intestinal juice; It is secreted by the intestinal glands in the small intestine. It contains
enzymes such as enteropeptidase, erepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, maltase, lactase and
sucrase.
The pH level increases in the small intestine as all three fluids are alkaline. A more basic
environment causes more helpful enzymes to activate and begin to help in the breakdown of
molecules such as fat globules.
Small finger-like structures called villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with

numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the
intestine and enhancing speed at which nutrients are absorbed.
Blood containing the absorbed nutrients is carried away from the small intestine via the hepatic
portal vein and goes to the liver for filtering, removal of toxins, and nutrient processing.
LARGE INTESTINE
After the food (chyle) has been passed through the small intestine, the food enters the large
intestine. Within it, digesta is retained long enough to allow fermentation due to the action of gut
bacteria, which breaks down some of the substances that remain after processing in the small
intestine; some of the breakdown products are absorbed. In humans, these include most complex
saccharides (at most three disaccharides are digestible in humans). In addition, in many
vertebrates, the large intestine reabsorbs fluid; in a few with desert lifestyles, this reabsorbtion
makes continued existence possible.
In general, the large intestine is less vigorous in absorptive activity. It produces sacculation,
renews epithelial cells, and provides protective mucus and mucosal immunity. In humans, the
large intestine is roughly 1.5 meters long, with three parts: the cecum at the junction with
the small intestine, the colon, and the rectum.
The large intestine absorbs water from the chyle and stores feces until it can be egested. Food
products that cannot go through the villi, such as cellulose (dietary fiber), are mixed with other
waste products from the body and become hard and concentrated feces. The feces is molded &
stored in the rectum for a certain period and then the stored feces is eliminated from the body due
to the contraction and relaxation through the anus. The exit of this waste material is regulated by
the anal sphincter.
NUTRIENTS DIGESTION
PROTEIN DIGESTION
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main
enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas,
break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by
various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are
mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by
pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form
trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.
FAT DIGESTION
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short
chain lipids into diglycerides. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that
stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver for breakdown
of fats into fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (triglyceride) results in 3 fatty
acid molecules and one glycerol molecule.
CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called
amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by
salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results
in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small
intestine.
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose
and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately half
of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat milk-based
foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table
sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which
are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is the biological system that introduces respiratory gases to the interior and
performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system
include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles.
Respiration; I is the sequence of processes that leads to the release of energy in living cells.
In most multicellular organism it involve;
i. Intake and absorption of oxygen from surrounding environment.
ii. Transport of oxygen to individual cells and
iii. Using oxygen to release energy as ATP from energy reach substances via Kreb’s cycle.
Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous

external environment and the blood and also occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs and in the body
cells.
Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and
in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange.
TYPE OF RESPIRATION
i. Aerobic respiration; It occurs in most higher animals such as arthropods, vertebrates, mollusks etc,
and require the presence of oxygen for breaking down of glucose.
ii. Anaerobic respiration; It occurs mostly in unicellular organisms such as amoeba and does not require
the presence of oxygen
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN VERTEBRATES
HORSES;
Horses are obligate nasal breathers which means that they are different from many other mammals
because they do not have the option of breathing through their mouths and must take in oxygen through
their noses.
ELEPHANTS;
The elephant is the only animal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal and visceral
pleura are both composed of dense connective tissue and joined to each other via loose connective tissue.
This lack of a pleural space, along with an unusually thick diaphragm, are thought to be evolutionary
adaptations allowing the elephant to remain underwater for long periods of time while breathing through
its trunk which emerges as a snorkel.
BIRDS
The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique
anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds
lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood
capillaries, rather than in alveoli.
REPTILES
The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking
the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs
in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the
volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles
except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inspiration or expiration.
AMPHIBIANS
Both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The skin of these animals is highly
vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus from specialized cells. While
the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the skin's unique properties aid rapid gas
exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.
FISH
In most fish, respiration takes place through gills. Lungfish, however, do possess one or two lungs.
The labyrinth fish have developed a special organ that allows them to take advantage of the oxygen of the
air.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INVERTEBRATES
INSECTS
Most insects breathe passively through their 'Spiracles' (special openings in the exoskeleton) which lead
in to a smaller tubes called 'trachaea' which branch repeatedly to form minute tubes called 'tracheoles'.
The tracheoles contain fluid in which the oxygen is dissolve before actually reaching individual body
cells.
Diffusion of gases is effective over small distances, this is one of the reasons why insects are all relatively
small (with body not more than 2cm wide). The tracheal system is not connected in any way with
circulatory system, each individual cell is supplied with oxygen by diffusion This the reason why the
insect blood is colourless, (i.e. without haemoglobin). Insects which do not have spiracles and trachaea,
such as some Collembola, breathe directly through their skins, also by diffusion of gases.
The number of spiracles an insect has is variable between species, however they always come in pairs,
one on each side of the body, and usually one per segment. Some of the Diplura have eleven, with four
pairs on the thorax, but in most of the ancient forms of insects, such as Dragonflies and Grasshoppers
there are two thoracic and eight abdominal spiracles. However in most of the remaining insects there is
less.
It is at the level of the tracheoles that oxygen is delivered to the cells for respiration. The trachea is water-
filled due to the permeable membrane of the surrounding tissues. During exercise, the water level retracts
due to the increase in concentration of lactic acid in the muscle cells. This lowers the water potential and
the water is drawn back into the cells via osmosis and air is brought closer to the muscle cells.
The diffusion pathway is then reduced and gases can be transferred more easily.
MOLLUSCS
Molluscs generally possess gills that allow exchange of oxygen from an aqueous environment into the
circulatory system. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood which contains hemocyanine as
its oxygen-capturing molecule. Hence, this respiratory system is similar to that of vertebrate fish.
The respiratory system of gastropods can include either gills or a lung.
RESPIRATION IN MAMMALS
VENTILATION
In respiratory physiology, ventilation is the rate at which gas enters or leaves the lung. It occurs under the
control of the autonomic nervous system from parts of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata and
the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration regulatory center, a series of interconnected brain
cells within the lower and middle brain stem which coordinate respiratory movements.
INHALATION
Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal muscles. Normal
resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute, with a time period of 2 seconds. During vigorous
inhalation (at rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute), or in approaching respiratory failure, accessory
muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These consist of sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and
the scalene muscles of the neck. Pectoral muscles and latissimus dorsi are also accessory muscles.
Under normal conditions, the diaphragm is the primary driver of inhalation. When the diaphragm
contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results in a
larger thoracic volume and negative pressure (with respect to atmospheric pressure) inside the thorax. As
the pressure in the chest falls, air moves into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and
humidified as it flows to the lungs.
During forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external intercostal muscles and accessory
muscles aid in further expanding the thoracic cavity.
EXHALATION
Exhalation is generally a passive process; however, active or forced exhalation is achieved by
the abdominal and the internal intercostal muscles. During this process air is forced or exhaled out. The
lungs have a natural elasticity: as they recoil from the stretch of inhalation, air flows back out until the
pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium.
During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal
muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of
the lungs.
Figure 2; Human Respiratory organs

GAS EXCHANGE
The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange between the external environment and an
organism's circulatory system. In humans and other mammals, this exchange facilitates oxygenation of
the blood with a concomitant removal of carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from
the circulation. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part
of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained, two opposing conditions could occur: respiratory
acidosis, a life threatening condition, and respiratory alkalosis.
Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs (0.2mm in diameter) which are the
basic functional component of the lungs (Figure 2). The alveolar walls are extremely thin (approx.
0.001mm). These walls are surrounded by dense network of pulmonary capillaries which are composed of
a single layer of endothelial cells. The close proximity of these two cell types allows permeability to
gases and, hence, gas exchange. This whole mechanism of gas exchange is carried by the simple
phenomenon of pressure difference. When the air pressure is high inside the lungs, the air from lungs
flow out. When the air pressure is low inside, then air flows into the lungs.
One set of human lungs comprises of about 300 millions alveoli, which provide a surface area of about
90m2. When joined together, the capillaries which make up the network covering 90m 2 alveoli can cover a
distance of 5000km.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Organism have a limited life span, they die either a natural death or as a result of diseases / sickness. But
due to their ability to reproduces life continues.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
i. Asexual reproduction; It involve only single parent, and the newly produced individuals are identical
to their parents, because they share the same hereditary information.
ii. Sexual reproduction; It involve two parents, each of the parent contribute haploid gamete which later
unite to form zygote (in a process called fertilization), which developed in to an individual that is usually
unidentical to their parent, due to shared hereditary information.
The reproductive system or genital system is a system of organs within an organism which work together

for the purpose of reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones,
and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system. Unlike most organ systems,
the sexes of differentiated species often have significant differences. These differences allow for a
combination of genetic material between two individuals, which allows for the possibility of
greater genetic fitness of the offspring.
In mammals, the major organs of the reproductive system include the external genitalia (penis and vulva)
as well as a number of internal organs including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and ovaries).
Most other vertebrate animals have generally similar reproductive systems consisting of gonads, ducts,
and openings. However, there is a great diversity of physical adaptations as well as reproductive
strategies in every group of vertebrates.
VERTEBRATES
Vertebrate animals all share key elements of their reproductive systems. They all have gamete producing
organs or gonads. In females, these gonads are then connected by oviducts to an opening to the outside of
the body, typically the cloaca, but sometime to a unique pore such as a vagina or intromittent organ.
MAMMALS
Most mammal reproductive systems are similar, however, there are some notable differences between the
"normal" mammal and humans. For instance, most mammalian males have a penis which is stored
internally until erect, and most have a penis bone orbaculum. Additionally, males of most species do not
remain continually sexually fertile as humans do.
Like humans, most groups of mammals have descended testicles found within a scrotum, however, others
have descended testicles that rest on the ventral body wall, and a few groups of mammals, such as
elephants, have undescended testicles found deep within their body cavities near their kidneys.
The uterus and vagina are unique to mammals with no homologue in birds, reptiles, amphibians, or
fish. In place of the uterus the other vertebrate groups have an unmodified oviduct leading directly to
a cloaca, which is a shared exit-hole for gametes, urine, and feces. Monotremes
(i.e. platypus and echidnas), a group of egg-laying mammals, also lack a uterus and vagina, and in that
respect have a reproductive system resembling that of a reptile.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Human reproduction takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process,
the erect penis of the male is inserted into the female's vagina until the male ejaculates semen, which
contains sperm, into the female's vagina. The sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into
the uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon successful fertilization, implantation
& gestation of the fetus then occurs within the female's uterus for approximately nine months, this process
is known as pregnancy in humans. Gestation ends with birth, the process of birth, which is known as
Paturition.
Paturition consists of;
i. The muscles of the uterus contracting,
ii. The cervix dilating, and
iii. The baby passing out the vagina (the female genital organ).
Human's babies and children are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care for many years.
One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glands in the female breasts to nurse the
baby.
Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every reproductive
organ, numerous differences typically occur in secondary sexual characteristics.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside of the body and around
the pelvic region of a male that contribute towards the reproductive process (Figure 3). The primary direct
function of the male reproductive system is to provide the male gamete or (spermatozoa) for fertilization
of the ovum.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories.
i. Sperm production and storage, Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the
temperature regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for development and
storage.
ii. Ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and the vas
deferens.
iii. Copulation, and deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the female, these include the use of
penis, urethra, vas deferens, and Cowper's gland.
An important sexual hormone of males is androgen, and particularly testosterone. This is produced in the
testes by interstitial cells and controls the development of sperm. This hormone is also responsible for the
development of physical secondary sexual characters.
Major secondary sexual characteristics includes:
i. larger, & more muscular stature,
ii. Deepened voice,
ii. Facial and body hair,
iv. Broad shoulders, and
v. Development of an adam's apple.
Figure 3; Male reproductive organ
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside of the body and
around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process.
The human female reproductive system contains three main parts (Figure 4):
i. The vagina, which leads from the vulva, the vaginal opening to the uterus and clitoris (erectile organ);
ii. The uterus, which protect and nourish the developing fetus until birth; and
iii. The ovaries, which produce the female's ova& hormones.
The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and urethra; during
intercourse this area is lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to
the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. Each
ovary contains hundreds of egg cells or ova (singular ovum).
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Menstrual cycle occur in every 20-45days (average 28 days), which is accompanied by production of
ovum by the ovary in a process called ovulation, when fertilized developed in to fetus; otherwise, it will
be will die in the next 36hrs. This is followed by the disintegration of the lining of uterus (endometrium),
and about twelve to fourteen days after ovulation, the dead ovum together with endometrium and a
quantity of blood are expel out of the body through the vigina, in a process called menstruation.
The pituitary gland releases a hormone (follicle stimulating hormone) that stimulates the production of

estrogen & progesterone by the ovaries, which are responsible for the development of ova and other
reproductive processes, including the preparation of the uterus to receive the ovum & development of
physical secondary sexual characters.
Figure
4; Female reproductive organ
Major secondary sexual characteristics includes:

i. Round face,
ii. Enlargement of breast,
iii. Development of body hair, mostly in pubic region & in the arm pit.
iv. Enlargement of pelvis, and
v. Deposition of fats around hips & laps.
One ovum is usually released at a time and it passes through the fallopian tube where the fertilization
takes place. Upon successful fertilization, the developing zygote is retained for 4-5 days in the oviduct
and it lining provides nourishment, during these period it under goes cell division by mitosis and
developed in to a blastocyst, within 5-7 days after fertilization the blastocyst is implantated in the
endometrium of uterus, which developed in to a new individual.
Blastocyst developed in to;

i. Fetus,
ii. Fetus membrane and
iii. The placenta, which serve as a link between the mother & the fetus, and also as source of nourishment.
PRODUCTION OF GAMETES
The production of gametes takes place within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis.
Gametogenesis occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal diploid
number of chromosome(n=46) into haploids cells containing only 23 chromosomes.
In males, this process is known as spermatogenesis and takes place only after puberty in the seminiferous
tubules of the testes. The immature spermatozoon or sperm are then sent to the epididymis where they
gain a tail and motility. Each of the original diploid germs cells or primary spermatocytes forms four
functional gametes which is each forever young. The production and survival of sperms require a
temperature that is lower than the normal core body temperature. Since the scrotum, where the testes is
present, is situated outside the body cavity, it provides a temperature about 3°C below normal body
temperature.
In females, gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in the ovarian follicles of the ovaries.

This process does not produce mature ovum until puberty. In contrast with males, each of the original
diploid germ cells or primary oocytes will form only one mature ovum, and three polar bodies which are
not capable of fertilization. It has long been understood that in females, unlike males, all of the
primary oocytes ever found in a female will be created prior to birth, and that the final stages of ova
production will then not resume until puberty. However, recent scientific data has challenged that
hypothesis.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Despite the differences between the adult male and female reproductive system, there are a number
of homologous structures shared between them due to their common origins within the fetus. Both organ
systems are derived from the intermediate mesoderm.
The three main fetal precursors of the reproductive organs are the Wolffian duct, Müllerian ducts, and
the gonad. Endocrine hormones are a well known and critical controlling factor in the normal
differentiation of the reproductive system.
The Wolffian duct forms the epididymis, vas deferens, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal
vesicle in the male reproductive system and essentially disappears in the female reproductive system.
For the Müllerian duct this process is reversed as it essentially disappears in the male reproductive system
and forms the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina in the female system.
Examples of homologous human reproductive organs
Male organ Female organ Shared function
Cowper's gland Bartholin's glands Lubrication secretions
Penis Clitoris Erectile tissue and sensation
Testes Ovary Gamete & hormones production
Prostate gland Skene's gland Ejaculatory fluid and sensation
BIRDS
Male and female birds have a cloaca, an opening through which eggs, sperm, and wastes pass. Intercourse
is performed by pressing the lips of the cloacae together, which is sometimes known as intromittent
organ that is analogous to the mammals' penis. The female lays amniotic eggs in which the young fetus
continues to develop after it leaves the female's body. Unlike most vertebrates female birds typically have
only one functional ovary and oviduct. As a group, birds, like mammals, are noted for their high level of
parental care.
REPTILES
Reptiles are almost all sexually dimorphic, and exhibit internal fertilization through the cloaca. Some
reptiles lay eggs while others are viviparous (animals that deliver live young). Reproductive organs are
found within the cloaca of reptiles. Most male reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually retracted
or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single median penis-like
organ, while male snakes and lizards each possess a pair of penis-like organs.
AMPHIBIANS
Most amphibians exhibit external fertilization of eggs, typically within the water, though some
amphibians such as caecilians have internal fertilization. All have paired, internal gonads, connected by
ducts to the cloaca.
FISH
Fish exhibit a wide range of different reproductive strategies. Most fish however are oviparous and
exhibit external fertilization. In this process, females use their cloaca to release large quantities of their
gametes, called spawn into the water and one or more males release "milt", a white fluid containing many
sperm over the unfertilized eggs. Other species of fish are oviparous and have internal fertilization aided
by pelvic or anal fins that are modified into an intromittent organ analogous to the human penis. A small
portion of fish species are either viviparous or ovoviviparous, and are collectively known as livebearers.
Fish gonads are typically pairs of either ovaries or testes. Most fish are sexually dimorphic but some
species are hermaphroditic or unisexual.
INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates have an extremely diverse array of reproductive systems, the only commonality may be that
they all lay eggs. Also, aside from cephalopods, and arthropods, nearly all other invertebrates
are hermaphroditic and exhibit external fertilization.
CEPHALOPODS
All cephalopods are sexually dimorphic and reproduce by laying eggs. Most cephalopods have semi-

internal fertilization, in which the male places his gametes inside the female's mantle cavity or pallial
cavity to fertilize the ova found in the female's single ovary. Likewise, male cephalopods have only a
single testicle.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from
an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage to the body. It
is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as other liquid and gaseous
wastes, as urine and as a component of sweat and exhalation.
EXCRETORY FUNCTIONS (COMPONENT ORGANS)
THE LIVER
The liver detoxifies and breaks down chemicals, poisons and other toxins that enter the body. For
example, the liver transforms ammonia (which is poisonous) into urea (which is then filtered by the
kidney into urine). The liver also produces bile, and the body uses bile to breakdown fats into usable fats
and unusable waste.
BILE
After bile is produced in the liver, it is stored in the gall bladder. It is then secreted within the small
intestine where it helps to break down ethanol, fats and other acidic wastes including ammonia, into
harmless substances.
LARGE INTESTINE'S ROLE

The large intestine which is about 5 feet long collects undigested and unabsorbed food substances from
the intestine and then removes as solid waste (feces)and also extracts any remaining usable water .
SKIN
Sweat glands in the skin secrete a fluid waste called sweat or perspiration; however, its primary functions
are temperature control and pheromone release. Therefore, its role as a part of the excretory system is
minimal. Sweating also maintains the level of salt in the body.
ECCRINE
Like sweat glands, they allow excess water to leave the body. The eccrine glands are densely concentrated
mainly on the forehead, the bottoms of the feet, and the palms, although the glands are everywhere
throughout the body. They help in controlling the body temperature.
LUNGS
One of the main functions of the lungs is to diffuse gaseous wastes, such as carbon dioxide, from the
bloodstream as a normal part of respiration.
URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system or renal system is the organ system that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. In
humans it includes two kidneys, two ureters, bladder and urethra. The female and male urinary system are
very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.
Urinary System performs several homeostatic functions such as:-

i. Controlling blood volume and maintaining blood pressure
ii. Regulation of electrolyte balance (e.g. sodium, potassium and calcium)
iii. Regulation of pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
iv. Removal of toxic metabolic by-products (mainly urea and uric acid)
KIDNEYS
The kidneys are bean shaped organs found just above the waist (Figure 5). Every person has two kidneys.
The blood in our body is constantly passing through our kidneys. The renal artery brings in the
"contaminated" blood (containing waste substances) into the kidneys. The work of kidneys is to remove
the poisonous substance (urea, other waste salts and excess water) from the blood and excrete them in the
form of yellowish liquid called urine. Thus, kidneys clean our blood by filtering it to remove unwanted
substances present in it. The filtered blood is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein. The ureters,
one from each kidney, open into urinary bladder where it empties the urine, which is stored in the bladder,
till it becomes filled. The urine collected in the bladder is passed out from the body through the urethra.
NEPHRONS
The basic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. There are over 1 million nephrons in
each kidney, which when joint end to end will cover about 60km, these nephrons act as filters inside the
kidneys.
Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called
a glomerulus and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contents—
primarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients
it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then
expel out of the body via the urethra as urine.
The amount of filtrate produced every minute is called the glomerular filtration rate or GFR and
amounts to a staggering 180 litres per day. About 99 % of this filtrate is then reabsorbed as it passes
through the nephron and the remaining 1 % becomes urine.
In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They grow and can become a painful irritant
that may require surgery or ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small enough to be forced into the
urethra.
URETER
The ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the human
adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. In humans, the ureters arise from the renal pelvis
on the medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards the bladder on the front of the psoas
major muscle.
Figure 5; Kidney and related tubules
URINARY BLADDER
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination.
It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the
bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.
URETHRA
It is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an
excretory function in both genders to pass urine. In human males it also expel semen.
URINE FORMATION
Average urine production in adult humans is about 1 – 2 L per day, depending on state of hydration, (fluid
intake) activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health. Producing too much or
too little urine needs medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5
L/day), oliguria when < 400 mL are produced, and anuria one of < 100 mL per day.
REGULATION OF CONCENTRATION AND VOLUME

The urinary system is under influence of the blood pressure, nervous system and endocrine system.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is a neurohypophysial hormone found in most mammals. Its two primary
functions are to retain water in the body and to constrict blood vessels.
URINATION
Urination (peeing) is the ejection of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of
the body. In healthy humans (and many other animals), the process of urination is under voluntary
control. In infants, some elderly individuals, and those with neurological injury, urination may occur as an
involuntary reflex. In other animals, in addition to expelling waste material, urination can mark territory
or express submissiveness. In male placental mammals, urine is ejected through the penis, and in female
placental mammals through the vulva.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates the voluntary and involuntary actions
of the animal and transmits signals between different parts of its body (Figure 6).
The nervous system of vertebrate animals (including humans) is divided into;

i. The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part, and includes the brain and spinal cord. The CNS
is enclosed and protected by meninges, a three-layered system of membranes, including a tough, leathery
outer layer called the dura mater. The brain is also protected by the skull and the spinal cord by
the vertebrae.
ii. The the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that
connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary
movement, and the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and
the parasympathetic nervous system which regulate involuntary functions, and the enteric nervous
system, a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal
system.
The PNS is divided into;

a. The somatic part; consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles. The cell bodies of
somatic sensory neurons lie in dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord.
b. The visceral part; also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the
internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.
The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: The sympathetic nervous system and
the parasympathetic nervous system. Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie
in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them.
Nervous systems are found in most multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. The only
multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are sponges, placozoans and mesozoans, which
have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of ctenophores (comb jellies) and cnidarians (e.g.,
anemones, hydras, corals and jellyfishes) consist of a diffuse nerve net.
All other types of animals, with the exception of a few types of worms, have a nervous system containing
a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central
cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to on the
order of 100 billion cells in humans.
Figure 6; Human central & peripheral nervous system
The nervous system is susceptible to malfunction in a wide variety of ways, as a result of genetic defects,
physical damage due to trauma or poison, infection, or simply aging. The medical specialty
of neurology studies the causes of nervous system malfunction, and looks for interventions that can
prevent it or treat it. In the peripheral nervous system, the most commonly occurring type of problem is
failure of nerve conduction, which can have a variety of causes including diabetic neuropathy and
demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Figure 7; Major divisions of the vertebrate nervous system.
CELLS
The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells: neurons and glial cells.
NEURONS
At the cellular level, the nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called
the neuron, also known as a "nerve cell". Neurons have special structures that allow them to send
signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical waves
traveling along thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released
at junctions called synapses. A cell that receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be excited,
inhibited, or otherwise modulated.
GLIAL CELLS
Glial cells (named from the Greek for "glue") or simply glia, which provide structural and metabolic
support are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and
participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, it is estimated that the total
number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain
areas. Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to
supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy pathogens and remove dead
neurons; and to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets.
A very important type of glial cell (oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system, and Schwann
cells in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called myelin that wraps
around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials much
more rapidly and efficiently.
FUNCTION
a. At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others or
from one part of the body to others.
There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells.
i. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to
distant sites.
ii. The nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target
areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a
much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals
travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.
b. At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body. It does
this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode
this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an appropriate
response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response.
The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible for various animal species to have
advanced perception abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ
systems, and integrated processing of concurrent signals.
In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract
representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features of human society that would
not exist without the human brain.
MAJOR ELEMENTS IN SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
An electrochemical wave called an action potential travels along the axon of a neuron. When the wave
reaches a synapse, it provokes release of a small amount of neurotransmitter molecules, which bind to
chemical receptor molecules located in the membrane of the target cell.
Most neurons send signals via their axons, although some types are capable of dendrite-to-dendrite
communication. (In fact, the types of neurons called amacrine cells have no axons, and communicate
only via their dendrites.) Neural signals propagate along an axon in the form of electrochemical waves
called action potentials, which produce cell-to-cell signals at points where axon
terminals make synaptic contact with other cells.
TYPE OF SYNAPSES
i. Electrical synapses; make direct electrical connections between neurons, but chemical synapses are
much more common, and much more diverse in function.
ii. Chemical synapse; the cell that sends signals are called presynaptic, and the cell that receives signals
is called postsynaptic. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic areas are full of molecular machinery that
carries out the signalling process.
The presynaptic area contains large numbers of tiny spherical vessels called synaptic vesicles, packed
with neurotransmitter chemicals. When the presynaptic terminal is electrically stimulated, an array of
molecules embedded in the membrane are activated, and cause the contents of the vesicles to be released
into the narrow space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes, called the synaptic cleft.
Fig
ure 8; Neurons and synapses
The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors embedded in the postsynaptic membrane, causing them to
enter an activated state. Depending on the type of receptor, the resulting effect on the postsynaptic cell
may be excitatory, inhibitory, or modulatory in more complex ways. For example, release of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine at a synaptic contact between a motor neuron and a muscle cell induces
rapid contraction of the muscle cell. The entire synaptic transmission process takes only a fraction of a
millisecond, although the effects on the postsynaptic cell may last much longer (even indefinitely, in
cases where the synaptic signal leads to the formation of a memory trace).
REFERRENCES;
i. Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall, Text Book of Medical Physiology,11th Edition, Elsevier Inc
(2006), pp 781-790, 101-140
ii. M. B. V. Roberts, T. J. King. Biology: A Functional Approach. Students' Manual Biology
Series. Authors Edition 2, illustrated. Publisher, Nelson Thornes pp 65-130
iii. Mader S.S., Windelspecht M. Biology, 11th Edition, McGRAW-HILL INTERNATIONAL
EDITION, (2013).
iv. Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Modern Biology, 6 Edition, African first Publishers plc, (2011), pp 285-
300,319-342, 405-422.

BIO 242 (General Physiology II) Zoology Part-1

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Dept of Biological Sciences, Federal University Dutsin-Ma.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

OVERVIEW OF VERTEBRATE DIGESTION

In most vertebrates, digestion is a multi-stage process in the digestive system, starting from

In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is

DIGESTION IN HUMAN (HUMAN GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT)

The parietal cells of the stomach also secrete a glycoprotein called intrinsic factor, which

Figure 1; Human gastrointestinal tract

It has three parts: the Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum (Figure 1).

i. Bile; It emulsifies fats to allow absorption, neutralizes the chyme and is used to excrete waste

Small finger-like structures called villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with

Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous

Figure 2; Human Respiratory organs

The reproductive system or genital system is a system of organs within an organism which work together

Figure 3; Male reproductive organ

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The pituitary gland releases a hormone (follicle stimulating hormone) that stimulates the production of

Major secondary sexual characteristics includes:

Blastocyst developed in to;

In females, gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in the ovarian follicles of the ovaries.

Examples of homologous human reproductive organs

Male organ Female organ Shared function

Cowper's gland Bartholin's glands Lubrication secretions

Penis Clitoris Erectile tissue and sensation

Testes Ovary Gamete & hormones production

Prostate gland Skene's gland Ejaculatory fluid and sensation

All cephalopods are sexually dimorphic and reproduce by laying eggs. Most cephalopods have semi-

LARGE INTESTINE'S ROLE

Urinary System performs several homeostatic functions such as:-

Figure 5; Kidney and related tubules

REGULATION OF CONCENTRATION AND VOLUME

The nervous system of vertebrate animals (including humans) is divided into;

The PNS is divided into;

Figure 6; Human central & peripheral nervous system

Figure 7; Major divisions of the vertebrate nervous system.

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