Professional Documents
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Relationship between SA:V (and thus the size of an organism) and metabolic rate
- Rate of heat loss / heat lost per unit body mass increases as SA:V increases
- i.e. more heat lost per unit body mass in smaller animals with a high SA:V
- So they need a higher metabolic rate / faster respiration
- To generate enough heat to maintain a constant body temperature i.e. replace lost heat
- Larger organisms need a specialised surface / organ for gaseous exchange e.g. lungs
- Because they have a smaller SA:V and a long diffusion pathway (and skin is waterproof / gas
tight)
- As well as having a high demand for oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide
Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces shown by gas exchange…
Across the body surface of a single-celled organism
-
- Note: if the current was parallel, equilibrium would be met, so a concentration
gradient wouldn’t be maintained and oxygen wouldn’t diffuse into the blood
along the whole gill plate
- Each gill is made of lots of gill filaments (thin plates) which are covered in many lamellae → gill
filaments provide a large surface area, lamellae increase surface area even more
- Vast network of capillaries on lamellae → remove oxygen to maintain a concentration gradient
- Thin/flattened epithelium → shorter diffusion pathway between water and blood
Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces shown by gas exchange…
By the leaves of dicotyledonous plants
Structural and functional compromises between the opposing needs for efficient gas
exchange and the limitation of water loss shown by:
Xerophytic plants
Structural and functional compromises between the opposing needs for efficient gas
exchange and the limitation of water loss shown by:
Terrestrial insects
- Trachea
- Splits into two bronchi
- Each bronchus branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles
- Bronchioles end in air sacs called alveoli
- Many alveoli/capillaries
- Large surface area → fast diffusion
- Alveoli/capillary walls are thin / short distance between alveoli and blood
- Short diffusion distance → fast diffusion
- Ventilation/circulation
- Maintains concentration gradient → fast diffusion
- Breathing in (inspiration)
- External intercostal muscles contract, internal intercostal muscles relax (antagonistic)
- Moving ribcage up and out
- Diaphragm muscles contract → flatten/move down diaphragm
- Increasing volume in thoracic cavity / chest
- Decreasing pressure in thoracic cavity
- Atmospheric pressure higher than pressure in lungs
- Air moves down pressure gradient into lungs
- (Active process)
- Breathing out (expiration)
- Internal intercostal muscles contract, external intercostal muscles relax (antagonistic)
- Moving ribcage down and in
- Diaphragm relaxes, moves upwards
- Decreasing volume in thoracic cavity
- Increasing pressure in thoracic cavity
- Atmospheric pressure lower than pressure in lungs
- Air moves down pressure gradient out of lungs
- (Passive process)
Interpret information relating to the effects of lung disease on gas exchange and/or
ventilation
- Lung diseases affect ventilation and gas exchange in the lungs – lung function. Exams might ask
you to interpret results from the kind of tests doctors carry out to investigate lung function, for
example:
- Tidal volume → volume of air in each breath
- Ventilation rate → number of breaths per minute
- Forced expiratory volume (FEV) → maximum volume of air that can be breathed out in 1
second
- Forced vital capacity (FVC) → maximum volume of air possible to breathe forcefully out
of lungs after a deep breath in
- Some examples of lung diseases and their effects
- Fibrosis
- Scar tissue in lungs → scar tissue is thicker and less elastic than normal
- Diffusion distance increased → rate of diffusion decreased
- Faster ventilation rate to get enough oxygen into lungs/blood
- Lungs can expand and recoil less → can’t hold as much air
- Reduced tidal volume
- Reduced forced vital capacity
- Asthma
- Asthma = inflamed bronchi
- Asthma attack: smooth muscle lining bronchioles contracts
- Constriction of airways – narrow diameter → airflow in/out of lungs reduced
- FEV reduced
- Less oxygen enters alveoli / blood
- Reduce rate of gas exchange in alveoli → less oxygen diffuse into blood → cells receive less
oxygen → rate of aerobic respiration reduced → less energy released → fatigue, weakness etc.
Forced expiration volume (FEV1) is the volume of air a person can breathe out in 1 second.
Emphysema is a lung disease which results in a reduction in FEV1. Emphysema is mainly caused by long-
term cigarette smoking.
Scientists investigated the effects of ageing and long-term cigarette smoking on FEV1 and on the
development of emphysema.
Emphysema is a disease that affects the alveoli of the lungs and leads to the loss of elastic tissue. The
photographs show sections through alveoli of healthy lung tissue and lung tissue from a person with
emphysema. Both photographs are at the same magnification.
Using the evidence given above and your own knowledge, explain why a person with emphysema is
unable to do vigorous exercise. (4 marks)
✓ Not enough O2
✓ For increased respiration / for ATP needed for exercise
✓ Reference to decreased surface area of alveoli / longer diffusion pathway
✓ Less gas exchange / diffusion / less oxygen passes into the blood
✓ OR
✓ Reference to decreased elasticity / reduced elastic recoil
✓ Meaning breathing becomes more difficult / lungs do not empty
Students should be able to: interpret data relating to the effects of pollution and
smoking on the incidence of lung disease AND analyse and interpret data associated
with specific risk factors and the incidence of lung disease AND recognise correlations
and causal relationships AND evaluate the way in which experimental data led to
statutory restrictions on the sources of risk factors
Scientists investigated the link between pollution from vehicle exhausts and the number of cases of
asthma. Between 1976 and 1996, the scientists recorded changes in the following
- Large biological molecules in food e.g. starch / proteins too big to be absorbed across cell
membranes
- Digestion breaks them into smaller molecules e.g. glucose / amino acids → absorbed from the
gut to the blood
Digestion of disaccharides
- Membrane bound disaccharidases, e.g. maltase, sucrose, lactase (attached to epithelial cells
lining the ileum of the small intestine) → hydrolyse disaccharide to x2 named monosaccharides
- E.g. maltase – maltose → glucose + glucose
- E.g. sucrase – sucrose → fructose + glucose
- E.g. lactase – lactose → galactase + glucose
- Hydrolysis of glycosidic bond
- Endopeptidases
- Hydrolyse peptide bonds within a protein / between amino acids in the central region
- Breaking protein into two or more smaller peptides
- Exopeptidases
- Hydrolyse peptide bonds at the ends of protein molecules
- Removing a single amino acid
- Dipeptidases (type of exopeptidase)
- Often membrane bound in ileum
- Hydrolyse peptide bond between a dipeptide
- = 2 amino acids
Suggest and explain why the combined actions of endopeptidases and exopeptidases are more
efficient than exopeptidases on their own. (2 marks)
Mechanisms for the absorption of the products of digestion by cells lining the ileum of
mammals, to include co-transport mechanisms for the absorption of amino acids and of
monosaccharides
1. Sodium ions actively transported out of epithelial cells lining the ileum, into the blood, by the
sodium-potassium pump. Creating a concentration gradient of sodium (higher conc. of sodium
in lumen than epithelial cell)
2. Sodium ions and glucose move by facilitated diffusion into the epithelial cell from the lumen, via
a co-transporter protein
3. Creating a concentration gradient of glucose – higher conc. of glucose in epithelial cell than
blood
4. Glucose moves out of cell into blood by facilitated diffusion through a protein channel
Figure 1 shows the co-transport mechanism for the absorption of amino acids into the blood by a cell
lining the ileum.
The addition of a respiratory inhibitor stops the absorption of amino acids. Use figure 1 to explain why.
(3 marks)
Mechanisms for the absorption of the products of digestion by cells lining the ileum of
mammals, to include the role of micelles in the absorption of lipids
- Monoglycerides and fatty acids diffuse out of micelles (in lumen) into epithelial cell
- Because lipid soluble
- Monoglycerides and triglycerides recombine to triglycerides which aggregate into globules
- Globules coated with proteins to form chylomicrons
- Leave via exocytosis and enter lymphatic vessels
- Return to blood circulation
Design and carry out investigations into the effect of a pH or bile salts on the rate of
reaction catalysed by a digestive enzyme
Students investigated the digestion of lipids in milk by lipase. They set up three test tubes.
Using Visking tubing models to investigate the absorption of the products of digestion
Mass transport
- In large multicellular organisms, mass transport systems needed to carry substances between
exchange surfaces and rest of body and between parts of body
- Most cells too far away from exchange surfaces / each other for diffusion alone to
maintain composition of tissue fluid within suitable metabolic range
- Mass transport maintains final diffusion gradients bringing substances to and from cells
- Mass transport helps maintain relatively stable immediate environment of cells that is
tissue fluid
- The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal – names only required of coronary arteries
and of the blood vessels entering/leaving the heart, lungs and kidneys
- Closed double circulatory system – two circuits
- Blood passes through heart twice for each complete circulation of body
- Pulmonary circulation
- Deoxygenated blood in right side of heart pumped to lungs → oxygenated blood
returns to left side of heart
- Systemic circulation
- Oxygenated blood in left side of heart pumped to tissues / organs of body →
deoxygenated blood returns to right side
- Important for mammals because
- Prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood → so blood pumped to
body is fully saturated with oxygen → efficient delivery of oxygen and glucose for
respiration
- Blood can be pumped at a higher pressure (after being lower from lings) →
substances taken to and removed from body cells quicker and more efficiently
- Coronary arteries
- Deliver oxygenated blood to cardiac muscle
- Blood vessels entering and leaving heart
- Aorta – takes oxygenated blood from heart → respiring tissues
- Vena cava – takes deoxygenated blood from respiring tissues → heart
- Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein (see below)
- Blood vessels entering and leaving lungs
- Pulmonary artery – takes deoxygenated blood from the heart → lungs
- Pulmonary vein – takes oxygenated blood from the lungs →heart
- Blood vessels entering and leaving kidneys
- Renal arteries – take deoxygenated blood → kidneys
- Renal veins – take deoxygenated blood to the vena cava from the kidneys
Figure 2 shows how the blood pressure changes as blood travels from the aorta to the capillaries.
The rise and fall in blood pressure in the aorta is greater than in the small arteries. Suggest why. (3
marks)
- Capillaries allow the efficient exchange of gases and nutrients between blood and tissue fluid
- Capillary wall is a thin layer (one cell thick) of squamous endothelial cells
- Short diffusion pathway → rapid diffusion
- Capillary bed is made of a large network of (branched) capillaries (which are all thin)
- Increase surface area (to volume ratio) → rapid diffusion
- Narrow lumen
- Reduces flow rate so more time for diffusion / exchange
- Capillaries permeate tissues (no cell is far away from capillary)
- Short diffusion pathway
- Pores in walls between cells
- Allows substances to escape e.g. white blood cells to deal with infections
The formation of tissue fluid and its return to the circulatory system
Pressure and volume changes and associated valve movements during the cardiac cycle
that maintain a unidirectional flow of blood
- Atrial systole
- Atria contract → decreasing volume and increasing pressure inside atria
- Atrioventricular valves forced open
- When pressure inside atria > pressure inside ventricles, atrioventricular valves
open
- Blood pushed into ventricles
- (note: semilunar valves are shut)
- Ventricular systole
- Ventricles contract from the bottom up → decreasing volume and increasing pressure
inside ventricles
- Semilunar valves forced open
- When pressure inside ventricles > pressure inside arteries
- Atrioventricular valves shut
- When pressure inside ventricles > pressure inside atria
- Blood pushed out of heart through arteries
- Diastole
- Atria and ventricles relax → increasing volume and decreasing pressure inside chambers
- Blood from veins fills atria (increasing pressure inside atria slightly) and flows passively to
ventricles
- Atrioventricular valves open
- When pressure inside atria > pressure inside ventricles blood flows passively to
ventricles
- Semilunar valves shut
- When pressure inside arteries > pressure inside ventricles
- Note: the purpose of valves shutting is to prevent back flow into (named chamber / vein) to
maintain unidirectional flow of blood through the heart
Maths skill: Use and rearrange the equation cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
when given two measures
Analyse and interpret data relating to pressure and volume changes during the cardiac
cycle
Analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and the incidence of
cardiovascular disease
High blood cholesterol levels, obesity and high blood pressure are factors that increase the risk of
cardiovascular disease. The graph below shows the percentage of people with CVD who have high
blood pressure or have high blood cholesterol or are obese for the period 1960 to 1990.
Using the information in the graph, describe the overall changes that have occurred in these risk
factors during this period:
Studies of CVD patterns between different countries suggest that there is a link between CBD and diet.
Suggest why such studies may not prove the link between CVD and diet. (2 marks)
Haemoglobin
- The haemoglobins are a group of chemically similar molecules found in many different
organisms
- Chemical structure may differ between organisms e.g. sequence of amino acids in the
primary structure
- Found in red blood cells (erythrocytes)
- No nucleus – contain more haemoglobin
- Biconcave shape – increase surface area for rapid diffusion/absorption of oxygen
- Structure
- Quaternary structured protein – made of 4 polypeptide chains
- Each polypeptide chain contains a Haem group containing an iron ion (Fe 2+) which
combines with oxygen
The loading, transport and unloading of oxygen can be seen in relation to the
oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
- At high pO2, haemoglobin is saturated with O2
- At low pO2, haemoglobin is less saturated with O2
- The cooperative nature of oxygen binding – why the graph is ‘s’ shaped
- Haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen as the 1 st oxygen molecule binds
- So from 0% saturation, an increase in pO2 results in a slow increase in saturation
(shallow gradient)
- After the 1st oxygen molecule binds, the shape of haemoglobin changes in a way that
makes it easier for the 2 nd and 3rd oxygen molecules to bind too i.e. haemoglobin has a
higher affinity for oxygen
- The rate of increase in % saturation increases (between approximately 25-75%
saturation) as pO2 further increases (steep gradient)
- After the 3rd molecule binds, and haemoglobin starts to become saturated, the shape of
haemoglobin changes in a way that makes it harder for other molecules to bind too
- At a high pO2, the rate increase in % saturation decreases
The graph shows oxygen dissociation curves for the haemoglobin of a mother and her fetus.
(a) What is the difference in percentage saturation between the haemoglobin of the mother and
her fetus at a partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) at 4 kPa?
✓ 16
(b) The oxygen dissociation curve of the fetus is to the left of that for its mother. Explain the
advantage of this for the fetus. (2 marks)
✓ Higher affinity / loads more oxygen
✓ At low/same/high partial pressure
✓ Oxygen moves from mother to fetus
(c) After birth, fetal haemoglobin is replaced with adult haemoglobin. Use the graph to suggest the
advantage of this to the baby. (2 marks)
✓ Low affinity / oxygen dissociates
✓ (Oxygen) to respiring tissues/muscles/cells
(d) Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) is a condition in which production of fetal
haemoglobin continues into adulthood. Adult haemoglobin is also produced.
People with HPFH do not usually show symptoms. Suggest why. (1 marks)
✓ Enough adult Hb produced / enough oxygen released / idea that curves/affinities/Hb are
similar / more red blood cells produced
Xylem is the tissue that transports water in the stem and leaves of plants
- Cohesion tension theory: How water moves up the xylem against gravity via the transpiration
stream
- Water evaporates from the leaves via the (open) stomata due to transpiration
- Reducing water potential in the cell and increasing water potential gradient
- Water drawn out of xylem
- Creating tension
- Cohesive forces between water molecules pull water up as a column
- Water lost enters the roots via osmosis
- Water is moving up, against gravity
- Water is also cohesive so sticks to the edges of the column
- Translocation:
- Movement of solutes/ assimilates from source to sink/ one place to another
- E.g. sugars made from photosynthesis in the leaves are transported to the site of
respiration
- At the source:
- High concentration of solute
- Active transport loads solutes from companion cells to sieve tubes of the phloem
- Lowering the water potential inside the sieve tubes
- Water enters sieve tubes by osmosis from xylem and companion cells
- Increasing pressure inside sieve tubes at the source end
- At the sink:
- Low concentration of solute
- Solutes removed to be used up e.g. enzymes hydrolyse
- Increasing the water potential inside the sieve tubes
- Water leaves tubes via osmosis
- Lowering pressure inside sieve tubes
- Mass flow:
- Pressure gradient from source to sink
- Pushes solutes from source to sink
- Solutes used or stored at the sink e.g. respiration
- Use of tracers
- Supply plant with radioactive tracer such as 14C in CO2 to a photosynthesising leaf by
pumping the radioactive CO2 into a container surrounding the leaf
- 14C is incorporated into the organic substances produced by the leaf e.g. sugars via
photosynthesis
- Organic substances undergo translocation
- Autoradiography – plant killed and placed in a photographic film, film turns black where
the radioactive substance is present
- Identifies where radioactive substance has moved to and thus where the organic
substances have moved to via translocation from source to sink
- Can show this over time by taking autoradiographs at different times
Example exam question:
Scientists investigated the movement of organic substances in four plants, A, B, C and D. One leaf from
each plant was supplied carbon dioxide containing the radioactive isotope of carbon, 14C. Figure 1
shows one of these plants. Each plant was treated differently before it was supplied with the
radioactive isotope. A was ringed at position X, B at position Y, C at X and Y and D wasn’t ringed.
(a) All 4 plants were kept in bright light for one hour. Explain why. (1 mark)
✓ Rapid photosynthesis to produce radioactive sugars
(b) Figure 2 shows the distribution of 14C after one hour in one of these plants.
One leaf on a young plant was supplied with carbon dioxide containing the radioactive isotope of
carbon. The plant was kept in bright light for one hour. The amount of radioactivity was then measured
at three places in the plant. The diagram shows the results. Only the treated leaf is shown.
(a) Suggest one explanation for the difference in the amount of radioactivity in the bud and the
roots. (2 marks)
✓ More carbohydrate transported to bud than root
✓ Carbohydrate needed for growth / high growth rate in bud
✓ Carbohydrate needed for respiration / to release energy/ATP
✓ Synthesis of molecules e.g….
(b) Suggest why some radioactivity remains in the leaf. (1 mark)
✓ Remains in organic molecules in lead / not enough time for removal
(c) Describe how a ringing experiment could be carried out to determine which tissue transports
the substances containing the radioactive carbon. (3 marks)
✓ Remove / kill phloem
✓ Named technique / method for measuring radioactivity e.g. use of radiography / analysis of
feeding aphids / Geiger counter
✓ If no radioactivity passes ring, transport is via phloem