DNA is stored differently in eukaryotes vs.

prokaryotes

- Eukaryotic DNA: Long, linear, associated with proteins called histones, tightly coiled into
chromosomes (DNA molecule + its associated proteins)
- Prokaryotic DNA: Short, circular, not associated with proteins/histones

Mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells have their own DNA

- Similar to prokaryotic DNA – short, circular, not associated with proteins/histones

Genes

- Sequence of DNA bases that codes for:

- The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
- A functional RNA e.g. ribosomal RNA and tRNAs
- A gene occupies a fixed position, called a locus, on a particular DNA molecules

The nature of the genetic code

- Sequence of DNA triplets (or mRNA codons) codes for sequence of amino acids
- DNA triplet: sequence of 3 bases coding for specific amino acid
- e.g. UAU codes for tyrosine
- Universal
- The same specific DNA base triplets code for the same amino acids in all living organisms
- e.g. UAU codes for tyrosine in all organisms
- Non-overlapping
- Discrete, each base can only be used once and in only one triplet
- Degenerate
- The same amino acid can be coded for by more than one base triplet
- e.g. tyrosine can be coded for by UAU or UAC

In eukaryotes, much of the DNA doesn’t code for polypeptides

- Between genes…
- Non-coding multiple repeats (or Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) in second
year)
- Within genes
- Only exons code for amino acid sequences, which are separated by one or more non-
coding sequences, called introns
More important definitions

- Genome: the complete set of genes in a cell, including those in mitochondria and/or chloroplasts
- Proteome: The full range of proteins that a cell/genome is able to produce
- Alleles: different version (sequence of bases / triplets) of the same gene
- Homologous pair of chromosomes: same size chromosomes with same genes, but different
alleles

Protein synthesis overview

- 2 stages:
1. Transcription
- Production of mRNA from DNA
- Nucleus
2. Translation
- Production of polypeptides from the sequence of codons carried by mRNA
- Cytoplasm on ribosomes

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

- Made by transcription in the nucleus

- Acts as a template for translation in the cytoplasm
- Sequence of bases on RNA determines sequence of amino
acids in polypeptide chain
- Straight chain molecule
- Sequence of bases on RNA determined by sequence of
bases on DNA
- Triplet code = codon
- Chemically unstable
- So breaks down after a few days

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

- Carries an amino acid

- Amino acid binding site
- Anticodon = 3 bases
- Anticodon bases complementary to mRNA
codon
- Each tRNA specific to one amino acid, in relation to its
anticodon
- Single polynucleotide strand
- Folded – 3 hairpin loops = three-leafed clover
shape
- Held together by hydrogen bonds
- Similarities
- Both single polynucleotide strand
- Differences
- mRNA single helix / straight, whereas tRNA folded into clover shape
- mRNA is a longer, variable length, whereas tRNA is shorter
- mRNA contains no paired bases or hydrogen bonds, whereas tRNA has some paired
bases and hydrogen bonds

- In nucleus
- DNA double helix unzipped / unwound by
helicase
- Hydrogen bonds broken
- RNA nucleotides align next to their
complementary bases on the template
strand
- Forming (temporary) hydrogen
bonds
- Uracil replaces thymine in RNA
- RNA polymerase joins adjacent
nucleotides - condensation reaction
- Forming phosphodiester bonds
- When RNA polymerase reaches stop
codon, mRNA (prokaryotes) or pre-mRNA (eukaryotes) detaches from DNA
- mRNA leaves nucleus via nuclear pore

- Eukaryotic genes contain

- Exons – coding regions
- Introns – non-coding regions
- Whole gene transcribed to pre-mRNA
- Pre-mRNA contains introns &
exons
- Splicing
- Introns removed
- Exons spliced together
- Spliced together in different combos for different proteins
- Prokaryotic DNA doesn't contain introns
- mRNA produced directly from DNA
- No splicing
 - Sequence of mRNA codons determines sequence of amino acids
- tRNAs carry specific amino acids, in relation to their anticodon
- At the ribosome, tRNA codon binds to mRNA codon
- tRNA anticodon complementary to mRNA codon
- Hydrogen bonds formed
- First codon = start
codon
- Two amino acids joined by
condensation, forming a
peptide bond
- Using energy from
ATP
- tRNA detaches (without its
amino acid), ribosome
moves along mRNA to next
codon
- Continues until stop codon
(polypeptide released)

- ATP
- Hydrolysis of ATP, to ADP + Pi, releases energy
- For the bond between the amino acid and its corresponding tRNA molecule
- Amino acid attaches at amino acid binding site
- For peptide bond formation between amino acids
- tRNA
- tRNA attaches to and transports a specific amino acid, in relation to its anticodon
- tRNA anticodon complementary base pairs to mRNA codon, forming hydrogen bonds
- Two tRNAs bring amino acids together for the formation of a peptide bonds
- About 60 types of tRNAs to carry 20 different amino acids
- Genetic code is degenerate
- Ribosomes
- Attaches to mRNA and houses tRNA, allowing codon-anticodon complementary base
pairing
- Allows peptide bonds to form between amino acids

Example exam question

Ricin is a protein produced by some plants. In animal cells, ricin acts as an enzyme. This enzyme
removes the adenine molecule from one of the nucleotides in the RNA of ribosomes. As a result, the
ribosome changes shape.

(a) Ricin causes the death of cells and is very poisonous to many animals. Suggest how the action of
ricin on ribosomes could cause the death of cells. (2)

✓ Stops translation / formation of a protein / identified protein

 ✓ Prevents mRNA / tRNA binding
✓ Prevents formation of peptide bond
✓ Consequence of loss of identified protein

(b) Ricin is found in high concentrations in the seeds of some species of plant. Suggest and explain
one advantage of this to the plant. (2)

✓ Animals that can eat the plant get ill / killed / avoid plant
✓ So seeds / plants / species more likely to survive

Relating the base sequence of nucleic acids to the amino acid sequence of
polypeptides, when provided with suitable data about the genetic code

- tRNA anticodons are complementary to mRNA codon

- E.g. mRNA codon = ACG; tRNA anticodon = UGC
- mRNA sequence of bases / codons are complementary to sequence of bases / triplets on DNA
template strand
- E.g. mRNA base sequence = ACG UAG AAC; DNA base sequence = TGC ATC TTG
- In RNA, uracil replaces thymine
- You may then have to relate this to amino acid sequences

Example from CGP book:

- To investigate how two new drugs affect nucleic acids and their role in protein synthesis,
bacteria were grown in normal conditions for a few generations, then moved to media
containing the drugs
- After a short period of time, the concentration of protein and complete strands of mRNA in the
bacteria were analysed. The results are shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Bar chart to show mRNA and protein concentration in the presence and absence of drugs

(a) Describe and explain the results for drug 1

- Figure 2 shows both mRNA and protein concentration were lower in the presence of
drug 1 compared to the no drug control
- This suggests that drug 1 affects the production of full length mRNA, so there’s no mRNA
for protein synthesis during translation
(b) Describe and explain the results for drug 2
- Figure 2 shows mRNA production in the presence of drug 2 was unaffected, but less
protein was produced – 3mg cm-3 compared to 8mg cm-3 (always use data!)
 - This suggests that drug 2 interferes with translation - mRNA was still produced but less
protein was translated from it
- Drug 1 was found to be a ribonuclease (an enzyme that digests RNA) which could explain the
results for the first experiment – most strands of mRNA produced would be digested by drug 1,
so couldn’t be used in translation to make proteins
- Drug 2 was found to be a single stranded, clover shaped molecule capable of binding to the
ribosome. This helps explain he results as drug 2 could work by binding to the ribosome,
blocking tRNA from binding to it and preventing translation

What is a gene mutation?

- A change in the base sequence of DNA (on chromosomes)

- Can arise spontaneously during DNA replication (interphase)
- Involves base deletion / substitution

A mutation can lead to the production of a non-functional protein / enzyme

- Change in base / triplet sequence of DNA / gene

- Changes sequence of codons on mRNA
- Changes sequence of amino acids in the primary structure of the polypeptide
- Changes position of hydrogen / ionic / disulphide bonds in tertiary structure of protein
- Changes tertiary structure / shape of the protein (and active site if enzyme)
- (if enzyme) substrate can’t bind to active site and form an enzyme-substrate complex

Base deletion

- One nucleotide / base removed from DNA sequence

- Changes triplet / codon sequence from the point of mutation (frameshift)
- Changes sequence of codons on mRNA after point of mutation
- Changes sequence of amino acids in primary structure of polypeptide
- Changes position of hydrogen / ionic / disulphide bonds in tertiary structure of protein
- Changes tertiary structure / shape of protein i.e. non-functional or new and superior

Base substitution

- Nucleotide / base in DNA replaced with another nucleotide / base

- Change in one base → changes one triplet
1. Changes one mRNA codon and one amino acid → sequence of amino acids in primary structure
of polypeptide changes etc.
 OR
2. Due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code, the new triplet may still code for the same
amino acid so the sequence f amino acids in the primary structure of the polypeptide remains
unchanged

Example exam question

Figure 1 shows a DNA base sequence. It also shows the effect of two mutations on this base sequence.
Figure 2 shows DNA triplets that code for different amino acids.

(a) Complete Figure 1 to show the sequence of amino acids coded for by the original DNA base
sequence. (1 mark)

✓ Ile Gly Val Ser

(b) Some gene mutations affect the amino acid sequence. Some mutations do not. Use the
information from Figure 1 and Figure 2 to explain…
(i) Whether mutation 1 affects the amino acid sequence (2 marks)

✓ Has no effect / same amino acid (sequence) / same primary structure

✓ Glycine named as same amino acid

(ii) How mutation 2 could lead to the formation of a non-functional enzyme. (3 marks)

✓ Leu replaces Val / change in amino acid (sequence)/primary structure

✓ Change in hydrogen/ionic bonds
✓ Alters tertiary structure/active site
✓ Substrate cannot bind / no longer complementary / no enzyme-substrate complexes form
Example exam question

The table shows the DNA base sequences that code for three amino acids

Some substitution mutations would affect the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide, and others
would not. Using only the information in the table, explain why. (3 marks)

Met:
✓ Substitution always gives different amino acids
✓ Substitution of C gives isoleucine
Gly/iso:
✓ Substitution of first two bases gives different amino acid
✓ In glycine, substitution of 3rd base still codes for glycine

Mutagenic agents

- Increase the rate of gene mutation (above the rate of naturally occurring mutations)
- E.g. ultraviolet light or alpha particles

Meiosis

- Before meiosis starts, DNA replicates so there are two copies of each chromosome, called sister
chromatids, joined by a centromere
- 2 x 2n

- Meiosis I (first division) separates homologous pairs

- Chromosomes arrange into homologous pairs
- Crossing over (prophase I) creates genetic variation in gametes
 - Independent segregation (metaphase I) increases genetic variation in gametes
- 2n
- Meiosis II (second division) separates chromatids
- n
- Creates 4 haploid cells (from a single diploid parent cell) that are genetically varied

How meiosis creates genetic variation

- Crossing over between homologous chromosomes

- Alleles exchanged between chromosomes
- Creates new combinations of maternal and paternal alleles on chromosomes
- Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes
- Random alignment of homologous pairs at equator → random which chromosome from
each pair goes to each daughter cell
- Creates different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes and alleles in
daughter cells
- Random fertilisation when two gametes fuse to form a zygote

Importance of meiosis

- Two divisions – creates haploid gametes (half number of chromosomes)

- Diploid number restored at fertilisation
- Maintains chromosome number from one generation to the next
- Independent segregation and crossing over creates genetic variation

Example exam question

A zeedonk is the offspring produced from breeding a mountain zebra with a donkey. The body cells of a
mountain zebra contain 32 chromosomes and the body cells of a donkey contain 62 chromosomes. Use
this information to suggest why zeedonks are usually infertile. (2 marks)

✓ Zeedonk has 47/odd/uneven number of chromosomes

✓ Chromosomes cannot pair/are not homologous/ chromosome number cannot be halved /
meiosis cannot occur / sex cells/haploid cells are not produced

Mutations in the number of chromosomes – chromosome non-disjunction

- Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I OR sister chromatids fail to separate
during meiosis II
- One gamete has an extra copy of this chromosome and the other has none
- Upon fertilisation, zygote has one fewer (dies) or one extra chromosome (survives)
- Arises spontaneously
- Causes genetic diseases e.g. down’s syndrome in humans – extra copy of chromosome 21
Exam question example

In humans, non-disjunction involving chromosome 21 can lead to a child being born with Down’s
syndrome. Figure 2 shows two ways in which non-disjunction can take place during meiosis.

(a) Use Figure 2 to explain what is meant by non-disjunction. (2 marks)

✓ Failure of chromosome (pairs) to separate

✓ Failure of chromatids to separate
✓ During anaphase
✓ (So) both chromosomes/chromatids go to one pole of spindle

(b) More than one of the egg cells, numbered 1 to 8, could produce zygotes that would develop into
a child with Down’s syndrome. Give the numbers of these cells and explain the reason for your
choices. (3 marks)

✓ 1, 2 and 5
✓ They contain an extra chromosome
✓ At fertilisation, gives zygote/embryo/baby with 3 copies of chromosome (21)/47
chromosomes in total
Maths

- Calculate the number of possible different combinations of chromosomes in daughter cells

following meiosis (assuming no crossing over)
- = 2n where n = the number of pairs of homologous chromosomes
- Calculate the number of different combinations of chromosomes following the random
fertilisation of two gametes
- = (2n)2 where n = the number of pairs of homologous chromosomes
- Worked example: calculate the number of possible chromosome combinations produced from
the fertilisation of two gametes from separate individuals whose diploid number is 12 (assuming
no crossing over)
- Number of homologous chromosomes = 12/2 = 6
- (26)2 = 4096

Explaining the different outcomes of mitosis and meiosis

- Mitosis produces diploid cells whereas meiosis produces haploid cells

- Two divisions in meiosis whereby homologous chromosomes separate then chromatids
separate, whereas one division in mitosis whereby only sister chromatids separate
- Daughter cells genetically identical to each other and parent cell in mitosis whereas in meiosis,
daughter cells are genetically varied
- Crossing over and independent segregation during meiosis I whereas no crossing over in
mitosis
- Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells whereas meiosis produces 4 daughter cells
- Two divisions in meiosis whereas only one division in mitosis

Life cycles

- You need to be able to recognise where meiosis occurs when given information about an
unfamiliar life cycle
- Meiosis occurs during sexual reproduction when the chromosome number halves (2n → n)

Exam question example

The diagram shows the life cycle of a fungus

 (a) On the diagram mark with (i) the letter F where fertilisation takes place (ii) the letter M where
meiosis takes place. (2 marks)

✓ M between 2n and spores

✓ F between gamete producing structure and zygote

(b) When large amounts of nutrients are present, the fungus reproduces asexually. Explain one
advantage of this. (2 marks)

✓ Many spores released nearby

✓ So more of nutrient sourced used / more rapidly used
✓ OR produces genetically identical fungi
✓ So all well suited to nutrient source / environment

Exam question example

The diagram shows the life cycle of a fungus that reproduces sexually

(a) Explain why the arrow labelled M2 represents the second division of meiosis (2 marks)

✓ Division of zygote / previous stage chromosome number halved / 2n to n (so must be first
stage of meiosis)
✓ In second sage separation of chromatids occurs (so chromosome number remains
constant)/(2 haploid cells go to) 4 haploid cells produced

(b) The spores vary genetically. Describe two ways by which this variation is produced (2 marks)

✓ Independent segregation
✓ Crossing over
✓ Mutation / change in base sequence of DNA
What is genetic diversity?
- Number of different alleles of a gene in a population
- Population – group of interbreeding individuals of the same species

The principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations

1. Variation of alleles exists in population due to random DNA mutations
e.g. some bacteria contain gene for antibiotic resistance due to a mutation
2. Selection pressure / change in environment
e.g. antibiotic introduced
3. Those with advantageous allele have increased chance of survival and reproduction –
differential survival/reproductive success
e.g. bacteria with gene for resistance survive and reproduce whilst those without it die
4. Those surviving / reproducing pass advantageous allele to offspring
5. Frequency of advantageous allele and (named) characteristic increases in the population
6. Over many generations / long period of time
(evolution: change in allele frequency over time)

Directional selection e.g. antibiotic resistance in bacteria

- Change to the environment
- Selection pressure acts one side
of the mean
- One extreme phenotype more
likely to survive and produce
- Bacteria with gene for
antibiotic resistance
- Mean phenotype changes

Stabilising selection e.g. human birth weights

- Stable environment
- Selection pressure acts either side of the mean
- Both extremes of phenotype less likely to
survive and reproduce
- Very small or very large babies
- Mean phenotype remains the same

Natural selection results in better adapted species

- These adaptations all increase an organism’s chance of survival (and/or reproduction)
- Anatomical
- Structural features of organisms body / observed structures
- E.g. whales thick layer of blubber helps keep warm in cold sea
- Physiological
- Processes inside the body
 - E.g. brown bears hibernate in the winter, lower metabolism to conserve energy so they
don’t need to look for food when its scarce
- Behavioural
- Ways an organism acts
- E.g. possum plays dead if they’re being threatened by a predator, to escape attack

Students should be able to: use unfamiliar information to explain how natural selection
produces changes within a population of species; interpret data relating to the effect
of selection in producing change within populations; show understanding that
adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and contribute to the diversity
of living organisms.

Exam question example

Snow geese fly north to the Arctic in the spring and form breeding colonies. Different colonies form at
different latitudes. The greater the latitude, the further north is the colony. The further north a
breeding colony forms, the colder the temperature and the greater the risk of snow.

(a) There is a positive correlation between the size of snow geese and how far north they breed. A
large size results in snow geese being adapted for breeding in colder conditions. Explain how. (2
marks)

✓ Small surface area to volume ratio / more fat

✓ Lose less heat (to the environment) / for insulation
✓ When they are sitting on eggs

(b) Snow geese are either white or blue in colour. The table shows the percentage of white snow
geese in colonies at different latitudes at different times over a 40-year period. The blank cells in
the table are years for which no figures are available.

(i) Describe how the percentage of white snow geese varies with distance north. (1 mark)

✓ The further north/higher the latitude, the higher the percentage of white snow geese

(ii) The further north, the greater the risk of snow. Use this information to explain how natural
selection might have accounted for the effect of latitude on the percentage of white snow
 geese. (3 marks)

✓ Snow lying longer / melts slower further north / at greater latitudes

✓ White geese better camouflaged (further north)
✓ Predation linked to survival / reproductive success

(c) The percentage of white snow geese in these colonies changed over the period shown in the
table. Use your knowledge of climate change to suggest an explanation. (2 marks)

✓ Snow melts earlier / snow melts further north / less snow

✓ White geese decreasing as less well camouflaged / at disadvantage / blue geese
increasing as better camouflaged / at an advantage

(d) Snow geese breed in large colonies. Scientists studied the nests in one colony. For each nest,
they recorded the day on which the first egg hatched. They also recorded the number of young
that survived from the nest. They used the data to plot a graph.

(i) What type of natural selection is shown in the graph? (1 mark)

✓ Stabilising

(ii) Describe the evidence for your answer. (1 mark)

✓ Few geese survive at the extremes / most survive from the middle of the range
Example exam question (part d is related to this topic)

The seeds of some plant species require chilling (exposure to low temperatures) before the embryos
they contain grow into plants. During chilling, storage molecules in the seed that contain phosphate are
broken down and phosphates are transported to the embryo. Scientists investigated the change in the
mass of phosphate in the embryos of cherry seeds exposed to two different temperatures for 16
weeks.

Figure 6 shows their results.

(a) Phospholipids are one of the storage molecules found in cherry seeds. Name the type of
reaction used to break down phospholipids to release phosphate. (1 mark)

✓ Hydrolysis

(b) The scientists concluded that an increase in phosphate in the embryo was linked to growth of
the embryo. Suggest two reasons why an increase in phosphate can be linked to growth of the
embryo. (2 marks)

✓ (Phosphate required) to make RNA

✓ (Phosphate required) to make DNA
✓ (Phosphate required) to make ATP/ADP
✓ (Phosphate required) to make membranes
✓ (Phosphates required) for phosphorylation

(c) Calculate the ratio of the mean mass of phosphate found at 5oC to the mean mass of phosphate
found at 25oC after 9 weeks of chilling. (1 mark)
 ✓ Accept answer in range from 3.7 : 1 to 4.1 : 1

(d) The chilling requirement of seeds of certain plant species is considered to be an adaptation for
survival in countries with seasonal changes in environmental conditions. Suggest how this
adaptation may enable these plant species to survive and respond to seasonal changes. (3
marks)

✓ Seeds/embryo remain dormant/inactive in winter/cold

OR
Growth/development of seed/embryo during winter/cold
✓ Seeds/plants develop in spring/summer
OR
Seeds/plants develop when temperature/light increases
✓ Plant photosynthesise (in spring/when warm)
✓ Produce (more) seeds/offspring in spring/growing season

Species

- If two organisms belong to the same species they are able to produce fertile offspring
- Offspring from 2 different species mating may be infertile because they will have an odd number
of chromosomes so can’t perform meiosis to produce (haploid) sex cells (gametes)

Example exam question

The red panda is native to South East Asia. There are two populations that are separated by a deep
river gorge. These populations are very different from each other in appearance.

How could scientists show that the two populations are the same species? (2 marks)

✓ Breed together red pandas from different areas

✓ If fertile offspring, then still same species

Courtship behaviour is a necessary precursor to successful mating. The role of

courtship in species recognition.

- Allows recognition of members of the same species because courtship behaviour is species
specific
- Production of fertile offspring
- Indication of sexual maturity
- Recognition/attraction of opposite sex
- Stimulate release of gametes
- Establishes a pair bond to raise young
- Synchronise mating → maximum probability that sperm will fertilise ovum
Example exam question

Male field crickets produce a courtship song by vibrating their wings. The natural song contains seven
low-pitched ‘chirps’ followed by two high-pitched ‘ticks’.

Scientists recorded this song and used a computer program to change the number of chirps and ticks.
Different versions of the song were then played back continuously to females in the presence of a
male. This male had previously had one wing removed so he could not produce a courtship song. The
scientists determined the percentage of females that showed courtship behaviour within 5 minutes of
hearing each recorded song.

Table 3 shows the results of the scientists’ playback experiments.

(a) The scientists wanted to know if the recorded natural song was less effective than the natural
song in stimulating courtship behaviour. Suggest how the scientists could determine if the
recorded natural song (L) was less effective than the natural song. (2 marks)

✓ Use a (real) male (with intact wings/no wing removed)

✓ Determine (percentage) response (of females compared with L) (accept: compare results
with L)

(b) A student concluded from Table 3 that the number of chirps and ticks is essential for
successfully stimulating courtship behaviour. Do these data support this conclusion? Explain
your answer (4 marks)

✓ Lowest/only 30% courtship with no song/K/ (or) courtship still occurred when no song
played/K
✓ Reduced courtship when no ticks/M / there is some courtship when no ticks/M
✓ Reduced courtship when no chirps/N / there is some courtship when no chirps/N
✓ (So) courtship must involve a visual stimulus/other factor involved
✓ Chirps more important as lowest courtship when none/N / ticks less important as similar
courtship when changed/M
✓ Data only show presence and absence of chirps/0 and 7 chirps
A phylogenetic classification system

- Arranges species into groups based on their evolutionary origins (common ancestors) and
relationships
- What is a hierarchy
- Smaller groups placed within larger groups
- No overlap between each group
- Each group = taxon

Example exam question

There are over 200 species of catfish. All catfish evolved from a common ancestor. The diagram shows
how some species of catfish are classified. This diagram is based on the evolutionary links between
these species.

(a) Which species of catfish is most closely related to Synodontis membranacea? (1 mark)

✓ Synodontis batensoda

(b) Which species of catfish is most distantly related to Synodontis membranacea? (1 mark)

✓ Mochokus niloticus

(c) How many different genera are shown in this diagram? (1 mark)

✓ 5

One hierarchy comprises the taxa:

- Domain (drunken)
- Kingdom (kangaroos)
- Phylum (punch)
- Class (children)
- Order (on)
- Family (family)
- Genus (game)
- Species (shows)
Each species is universally identified by a binomial consisting of the name of its genus
and species

- Genus e.g. homo + Species e.g. sapien

- = Homo sapien
- Advantage – universal; no confusion as many organisms have more than one common name

Students should be able to appreciate that advances in immunology and genome

sequencing help to clarify evolutionary relationships between organisms

- Genome sequencing
- Compare the order of base sequence of whole genome of different species
- Higher % match = more closely related e.g. humans and chimps = 96%
- Immunology
- DNA → mRNA → sequence of amino acids in polypeptide
- So tertiary structure of protein tells us about sequence of DNA
- If same antibody binds to a specific antigen then it is closely related

Exam question example

The proteins of different species can be compared using immunological techniques. The protein
albumin obtained from a human was injected into a rabbit. The rabbit produced antibodies against the
human albumin. These antibodies were extracted from the rabbit and then added to samples of
albumin obtained from four different animal species. The amount of precipitate produced in each
sample was then measured. The results are shown in the table.

What do the results suggest about the evolutionary relationship between humans and the other
species? (2 marks)

✓ Most closely related to chimpanzee

✓ Least closely related to trout
Definitions

- Biodiversity = the variety of living organisms in an area

- It has 3 components:
1. Species diversity – the number of different species and the number of individuals of
each species within a community
2. Genetic diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity
- Habitat = places where an organism lives
- Community = all the populations of different species in a habitat

Biodiversity can relate to a range of habitats, from a small local habitat to the Earth;
biodiversity can be considered at different levels

- Local biodiversity → the variety of species living in a small habitat e.g. pond / meadow
- Global biodiversity → the variety of species living on Earth

Quantifying species diversity

- Species richness
- The number of different species in a community
- Index of diversity
- Describes the relationship between the number of species in a community and the
number of individuals in each species

- The greater the species richness and species evenness, the higher the number
- Note: The lowest possible value of D is 1. The larger the value of D, the greater the
diversity
- Index of diversity is a more useful measure of species diversity than species richness
- As well as measuring the number of species, it also measures the number of individuals in
a species (different proportions of species)
- So takes account for the fact that some species may be present in low/high numbers
- You could be given data from which to calculate an index of diversity and interpret the
significance of the calculated value of the index

Farming techniques reduce biodiversity

- Removal of woodland and hedgerows

- Monoculture e.g. replace natural meadows with one cereal crop
- Use of pesticides, herbicides and inorganic fertilisers
- Crops better competitors for resources e.g. light / nutrients
Exam question example

Farmers clear tropical forest and grow crops instead. Explain how this causes the diversity of insects in
the area to decrease. (3 marks)

✓ Less variety of plants / lower diversity of plants (could now be monoculture)

✓ Fewer habitats / niches
✓ Less variety of food sources
✓ Aspect of agriculture kills insects e.g. pesticides

Exam question example:

The demand for increased food production has led to areas of heath being used to grow wheat. Explain
the effect of this on (i) the species diversity of plants (2 marks) and (ii) the species diversity of animals
(2 marks)

(i)
✓ Reduced as one species grown / other species removed
✓ Use of herbicides / weeding / ploughing
✓ Wheat (better) competitor for named factor e.g. light / nutrients

(ii)
✓ (Reduced) as less variety of food sources
✓ (Reduced) as fewer habitats/niches
✓ Reduced by pesticides / chemicals

The balance between conservation and farming

- Humans need to make a balanced judgement between the demands for increased food
production due to a rapidly growing human population, and the need to conserve the
environment
- Some conservation techniques can be applied that increase biodiversity without unduly raising
food costs or lowering yields, for example…
- Use crop rotation of nitrogen fixing crops instead of fertilisers
- Maintain existing hedgerows and plant new hedges instead of using fences
- Reduce the use of pesticides
- It is recognised that these practices will make food slightly more expensive to produce, so to
encourage farmers there are a number of financial incentives e.g. from the Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the European Union.
Variation

- Differences (in characteristics) between individuals, within a species (intraspecific variation) or

between different species (interspecific variation)
- Variation within a species could be the result of…
- Genetic factors i.e. different alleles
- Environmental factors
- Or a combination of both

Continuous variation

- No distinct categories
- Data teds to be quantitative
- Controlled by many genes
- Strongly influenced by the environment
- Example: height

Discontinuous variation

- Distinct, discrete categories

- Data tends to be qualitative
- Controlled by a single gene or a few genes
- Unaffected / not strongly influenced by the environment
- Example; blood groups

Genetic diversity is the number of different alleles in a population

Genetic diversity within, or between species, can be made by comparing…

- The frequency of measurable / observable characteristics

- Indicates genetic diversity because is based on the fact that different alleles determine
different characteristics
- So the higher the variety of a characteristic, the higher the variety of alleles of that gene
and hence the higher the genetic diversity
- The base sequence of DNA and mRNA
- The amino acid sequence of the proteins encoded by DNA and mRNA

How and why has gene technology caused a change in the methods of investigating
genetic diversity?

- Early estimates of genetic diversity made by looking at frequency of measurable / observable

characteristics in a population
- Limitations:
- Many observable characteristics coded for by more than one gene (polygenic) →
vary continuously → difficult to distinguish one from another
- Characteristics could be modified by the environment so differences may be as a
result of different environmental conditions rather than different alleles
 - Gene technologies have made it possible to directly obtain DNA sequences. These technologies
can be used to give more accurate estimates of genetic diversity within a population / species
because:
- Different alleles of the same gene have slightly different base sequences
- Comparing DNA base sequences of same gene in different organisms in a
population → find out how many alleles of that gene in a population
- Different alleles transcribed into slightly different mRNA base sequences and may
produce polypeptides with slightly different amino acid sequences which can also be
compared

Quantitative investigations of variation within a species

- Taking a representative sample

- Random sample → eliminates bias
- Example of random sampling in a field:
- Divide the area into a grid of numbered lines
- Using random numbers from a table, obtain a series of coordinates
- Take samples at the intersection of each pair of coordinates i.e. using
quadrats
- Large sample size
- Minimise effects of chance (lower probability that chance will influence the data)
- Anomalies have less influence and can be identified
- Analyse results with a *named depending on the question* statistical test
- See if variation observed is or isn’t due to chance
- Calculating a mean of the collected data and the standard deviation of that mean
- Mean = (sum of all measurements)/(total number of measurements)
- Standard deviation (you won’t be required to calculate standard deviations in your exam)
- Shows the spread of values around the mean
- 68% of all measurements lie within ± 1 standard deviation
- About 95% of all measurements lie within ± 2 standard deviations
- Note: this is only true if data shows a normal distribution i.e. when plotted
as a graph it forms a bell-shaped curve
- Interpreting the mean values and their standard deviations
- Mean → can show if there is variation / differences between samples
- Useful for comparison, but provides no info about the range
- Standard deviation
- The higher the value standard deviation, the higher the variation
- If standard deviations overlap, causing values of each set of data to be shared,
any difference between the two may be due to chance
- Mean and standard deviation can be shown in different ways, e.g.
- 9 ± 3 mean = 9 and standard deviation = 3
- Standard deviation can be plotted on graph / chart of mean values using error
bars
- Error bars extend one standard deviation above and one standard
deviation below the mean
- Example: Hypothesis: south facing leaves are smaller than north facing leaves:
- Results: Surface area of south facing leaves 50mm2 ± 14 and surface area of north facing
leaves 70mm2 ± 17 Interpretation: There is an overlap in standard deviations; the
maximum size of the south leaves was 64 mm2, whilst the minimum size of north leaves
was 53mm2; so sometimes the south leaves are bigger than north leaves, so the
difference in length may be due to chance