STRUCTURAL FOUNDATIONS MANUAL FOR LOW-RISE BUILDINGS SECOND EDITION M. F. ATKINSONPreface Examples A. Site investigations ra 12 13 14 1s 16 ‘Walk-over survey Desk study ‘Site investigation: feld work 13. Trial pitlogs 1.32. Borehole record Site investigation procedure 14.1 Borchole logs 142. Trial pit logs 1.43. Groundwater 1.44 Standard penetration tests Interpretation of laboratory testing 1.5.1 Chemical tests Solution features 1.6.1 Limestones 1.62. Chalk 163° Salt 64 Gypsum Case Study 1.1 Tavestigation of former mining site, Sheffield Bibliography 2. Foundation design 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 Introduction 24.1 Width of footing 2.1.2 Soft spots 2.1.3 Stratum variation in excavation 2.14 Finmclays overlying soft strata 2.1.5 Depth of footings ‘Widened reinforced strip footings Reinforced strip footings on replacement granular fil ‘Trench fil foundations Raft foundations Pad and pier foundation 26.1 Disused wells Piled foundations 27.1 Bored piles 27.2 Design of a bored pile 2.73 Design of bored and driven piles a 2a B B 25 » 2 3 4 a a 48 Contents 27.4 Driven piles 2.75 Driving precast piles 276 Testloading Bibliography ‘3. Foundations in cohesive sols, 3.1. Introduetion 3.2. Settlements in cohesive soils 33 Consolidation setlement 33.1 Bearing capacity of cohesive soils 3.3.2 Vertical suess distribution 33.3 Construction problems on clay sites 33.4 Foundation designs on clay soils 33.5. Settlements in clay soils 3.44 Moisture movements 3.4.1 Liquid timit test 3.4.2. Plastic limit west Bibliography 4 Foundations in sands and gravels 4.1. Classification of sands and gravels 4.1.1 Composite sands and gravels 4.12. Dilatant sands 4.13 Calcareous sands 42 Relative densities of granular soils 4.2.1 Field density assessment 4.22 Visual observations 42.3 Groundwater levels 4.24 The standard penetration test 4.25 Interpretation of SPT results 426 Ulimate bearing capacities 43° Construction problems in granular soils 44 Foundation design in granular soils 45. Plate bearing tests 46 Piling into sands and gravel strata 46.1 Bored piles 4.62 Continuous fight auger piles 4.63 Design of bored piles 4.64 Set calculations 465 Dynamic ple formula 466 Redrive tests 4.6.7 Base-driven stel tube piles 468 Top-driven ste! piles Bibliography st a1 a1 2 2 2 82 83 83 86 87 9 99 92 92 93 3together ssand case ~roblems. designs veanded are x in civil ous and sistance in ominated ied to my ' t the caleu- m their Couneil ch and 1 British yotced by n, 2 Park complete 2 22 Structural calculations for three-storey flats 23 Disused well 24 Bored piles 25 Detached house: pile and ground beam desiga 3.1 Strip footing on clay soil 3.2 Settlements on clay soil 33. Triaxial test 4.1 Strip footing on granular soil 4.2 Pad foundation on sand 43° Strip footing on sand, high water table 444 Bearing pressure of granular soil 45. Bored piles 4.6 Working load of precast concrete piles 47 Steel piles 48 Driving precast concrete piles 5.1 Calculating the reinforcement in a mining reft 5.2 Designing the reinforcement in an irregular shaped dwelling 53 Reinforcement mesh 54 Calculating movement joint sizes 6.1 w Foundations on clay sol with young poplar trees Page 35 40 45 49 33 1 B 8 87 88 88 91 92 93 93 104 107 108 109 16 Examples 62 63 64 6s aM 12 13 14 15 16 17 78. 8 9 92 93 94 10.1 ‘Strip foundations on clay soil with mature and semi-mature trees Foundations on a site with mature trees, subject to settlement Site investigation and foundation design, heavily wooded site Foundation design on a site with mature trees, subject to heave ‘Thrust on a retaining wall Pressures and bending moments on @ retaining wall Thickness of retaining wall Pocket-type retaining wall Reinforced cavity retaining wall Concrete filled evity retaining wall Brick retaining wall Reinforced concrete retaining wall to Bs 8002 Suspended floor slab over filled ground Design of stone columns Improving mixed clay fills Partial depth treatment of filled ground Dynamic consolidation Foundations beside existing building 27 8 129 134 155 156 1ST 160 161 162 165 167 180 194 194 196 205Contents 5. Building in mining localities 5.1 Coal minin 5.2 Coal shafts 5.3. Shallow mineworkings 54. Drilling investigations 5.5. Stabilizing old workings 55.1 Collapsed workings 5.5.2. Special conditions 5.6 Foundations in areas with shallow workings 5.7 Active mining 58 Future mining 5.9 Mitigating the effects of mining subsidence 5.9.1 Longwall mining (advancing system) 5.9.2 Designing buildings for future mining subsidence 59.3 CLASP system of construction 5.94 Mining rafts 5.9.5. Irregular-shaped units 5.9.6 Designing strip footings in active ‘mining areas 59.7 Movement joints Bibliography past and present 6 Sites with trees 6.1 Foundation design 6.1.1 Climatic variation 6.1.2 Distances between trees and foundations 6.13 Foundation depths related to proposed tree and shrub planting 6.1.4 Measurement of foundation depths 62 Building on wooded sites © 621 Piled foundations 62.2 Deep trench-fill concrete foundations 6.2.3 Deep strip footings with loose stone backfill iff raft foundations on a thie ‘cushion of granular fil 62.5 Deep pad and stem foundations 6.3 Precautions to take when there is evidence of clay desiccation 63.1 Suspended floors 6.3.2 Drainage and services 63.3 Protection to drainage 63.4 Precautions against clay heave 6.44 Foundations in granular strata overlying shrinkage clays Bibliography 624 7 Developing on sloping sites TL. Stability of slopes Case study 7.1. Sloping ste with clay fills over boulder clay 7.2. Developing on sloping sites 7.2.1 Additional weight of dwellings 9s 95 96 a 99 100 100 100 100 101 101 101 102 103 los 107 109 nz ns 3 ng ng a 121 12 12 13 124 124 1s 25 126 126 126 27 134 136 37 BT M41 146 146 7.22 Additional weight of regrade fill ‘Changes in the groundwater level or surface runoft 7.2.4 Excavations for deep drainage 7.2.5 Removal of toes and vegetation 72.6 Splitlevel housing 7.3 Retaining systems 7.3.1 Gravity type retaining systems 7.3.2 Cantilever walls: reinforced concrete or brickwork 7.3.3 Gabions erib walling, reinforced earth 734. Steel sheet piling 74° Designing retaining walls 74.1 Active pressure on walls 7.42 Surcharge loading 743. Passive resistance (granular soils) 7.5. Cantilevered retaining walls 75.1 Mass brick or block walls 752. Reinforced cavity walls 753. Pocket-type walls 7.6 Damp-proofing to retaining walls 7.6.1 Type A structures: tanked protection 7.62 Type C structures: drained cavity construction Bibliography 18 on filled ground 8.1 Opencast coal workings 82 Foundations 8.2.1 Stiff raft foundations 8.22 Piled foundations 83. Suspended ground-floor construction 8.4 Compaction of fills to an engineered specification 84.1 Procedure 8.4.2 Site testing before backfilling 84.3 Foundations 84.4 Roads and drainage 84.5 Groundwater 8.5 Ground improvement techniques 85.1 Dynamic consolidation 8.5.2 Surcharge loading 8.6 Compaction of structural fills 8.6.1 Materials specification 8.62. Definitions 8.63. Suitable fil materials 8.64 Unsuitable materials, 865 Compaction 8.6.6 Testing onsite Bibliography 9 Ground improvement 9.1 Vibro-compaction techniques 9.1.1 Types of treatment 9.1.2 Ground conditions 147 7 M47 147 148, 14 148, 148 149 150 150 150 151 152 152 152 156 156 169 169 m2 m4 15 7 178 178 178 179 181 181 18 182 182 182 182 182 182 182 183 183, 183 183 183, 184 184 185 186 186 187arth 147 147 147 147 148 148 14s 14s, 149 150 150 150 1ST 152 152 152 156 156 169 169 m2 m4 15 7 178 8 18 179 181 181 18 182 182 182 182 182 182 182 183 183, 183 183, 183, 184 184 185 186 186 187 9.1.3. Engineering supervision 9.1.4 Design of vibro-compaction stone columns. 9.1.5. Foundations on vibro-compaction sites 9.2. Dynamic consolidation 9.2.1 Testing 9.3 Preloading using surcharge materials 9.4 Improving soils by chemical or grout injection Bibliography 10 Building up to existing buildings 10.1 Site investigation 10.2 Foundation types 103° Underpinning 10.3.1 Beam and pad solution 10.3.2 Pile and needle beam solution Case study 10.1 Investigation and underpinning of detached house on made ground, York Case study 10.2. Differential settlement, Leyburn Case study 10.3 House on made ground, Beverley Case study 10.4 House founded on sloping rock formation, Scarborough 104 Shoring Bibliography 11 Contaminated land 11.1 Contaminated sites 11.2 UK policy on contaminated land 113. Risk assessment 11.4 Industrial processes 190 193 197 198, 201 201 202 203 205 205 205 212 216 216 218 219 223 226 20 29 29 29 230 233 Contents 114.1 Asbestos 11.42. Scrap yards 11.4.3 Sewage treatment works 11.44 Timber manufacturing and timber tueatment works 114.5. Railway land 114.6 Petrol stations and garage sites 114.7 Gasworks sites 114.8 Metal smelting works 11.49 Old mineral workings 11.4.10 Toxicological elfects of contaminants 115 Landiillsites 115.1 Gas migration 11.52 Gas monitoring 11.53 Carbon dioxide 11.54 External measures 116 Desk study 1 Local geological study 2 Industrial history of the ste 11.63 Mining investigation 11.64 Site reconnaissance 11.7 Site investigation 11.7. Trial pits 1172. Boreholes 11.7.3. Testing for toxic gases 11.74 Chemical analysis 11.75. Safety 117.6 Conclusion ‘Case study 11.1 Dibliography 235 235 235 235 236 236 236 236 236 238 239 240 241 241 242 248 244 24 244 244 245 245 245 245 245 245 246 248 251Before purchasing a site @ builder must establish whether there are any hazards on or below the site which could result in expensive house foundations. Remember: you pay for a site investigation wheter you have one done or not. In other words, the consequences of inadequate site investigation could be at least as expensive, and most probably much more so, than having one carried out ‘The builder should visit the site and make enquiries. The ‘most important thing he should do is carry out a pre- liminary ground investigation before making an o‘fer for the land. This investigation may be no more than simple tial pits, mechanically excavated to depths of appro- imately 3 m, If there are hazardous ground conditions the builder may have to consult a chartered structural or chartered civil ‘engitter to have special foundations designed and costed before purchasing the land. Not all ground hazards require ‘engineer-designed foundations. Sometimes it may just be a simple case of placing the strip footings deeper inte firmer strata or catering for the effect of existing tes by ‘implementing the requirements of the NHBC Standards Chapter 4.2. These are decisions which any experienced builder should be able to make. However, the builder must recognize when a specialist needs to be consulted, Site investigation should be split up into three sections: ‘© a walk-over survey (very important); ‘© an initial desktop study; « field investigations using wal pits or boreholes 11 WALK-OVER SURVEY ‘This is an essential part of a site investigation and it should always be cartied out. The Technical Questionnaire Survey Sheet (Fig. 1.1) should be used as an aide-mémoire when carrying out the walk-over survey. ‘The object of the survey is to check and supplement information gleaned from the desktop study and the field Chapter 1 Site investigations TECHNICAL QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY SHEET Stoatiess Gran Lane, York, Ome vsted 161-02 Paotire dan 2 Give recion and grant of sopes. Gila fairly, Aovel retere any nears ot cep? Ne ‘Yoo. A copoe beh haben Se concert 1. Give description of site, ‘3. Presence of tees, streams, marshy seas oe 4 Arta any 4 expoues in trenches, neaby games ete? Nov 5. Isthore ary ndleaton ot being Yor present? 8. Has the site been previously developed? Give any nations of, depth and type of exstng foundations, 7. Ase any od basements prsont? Fy, 0, ive details of extnt and doph 8, Have you taken ground levels and ‘obtained the location of boreholes Loo ‘ad ial ps? 8. Ave thore nearby buldings? Ary leo, Neratigite. ‘sans of cracking? Any infrmation on ougno of clamage. foundations of such buicings? a memes ae Na See dir mld 19, What samples nave beon taken? 4: No; buy ocumpleo a taken? From which pis? Fig. 11 Technical questionnaire survey sheet.Site investigations investigation by observing the site topography. Information «an be gleaned from local inhabitants and people working in the area, ic. for statutory authorities such as gas, water and electricity. Any evidence of likely ground instability should be noted, such asthe following. ‘© Surface depressions ‘© Hummocky terraced ground ‘© Existing vegetation and trees «© Railway cuttings « Spoil heaps © Existing structures 1 Slope of site ‘© Groundwater, springs ete ‘© Surface hollows © Reeds, bullrushes ete ‘¢ Manholes « Existing dwellings = Sorface cracking © Gaps in existing houses 1 Street names S*Flooded areas « Site bouncy under foot 12 DESK STUDY Past mining or quarries Fig. 1.2) Slope instability, hill ereep ig. 13) Cay desiccation Exposed strata(Fig. 1.4) Possible mine shafts or bell pts (Fig. 1.5) Record any visible damage Will retaining walls be required? Signs of landslp Could const lems arise? May be solution features in chalk (Fig. 1.6) May be collapsed mine workings Generally indicate peaty for wet ground Old sewer lines, infilled Check if there are any cellars Indicative of soils plasticity Why? Could be sewers, ‘mineshaft (Fig. 1.7) Quarry Lane, Coal Pit Lane? Construction problems; expensive land drainage Indicative of tigh water table ion prob- This involves collecting as much information as possible about the site. Sources include geological maps, Ordnance (Cees surface hatows? / ‘rown hoe resuting, SAAHOW mine workings from cotapsed stata above old rine wong 12 Crown holes, Soft stata wat igh water table Firm strata or ook Aiwayseamine 7 txts cutings focrateays te tows arising rom saison features in cha, | aypsum eas, Fig. 16 Solution features eo es oeie. iene ibe i Large gos batoo} essing bukings ma bets Sresut ct man crap mi a, ‘tmajoe services Check on od Ordnanc Survey plas, Fig. 1.7 Gaps in existing development.i z al a ull Survey maps, geological memoirs, aerial photographs, ‘mining records, and previous site investigations forthe site fr adjacent sites, Most ofthis information can be cbtained at a relatively low cost from public libraries and local ‘# Old Ordnance plans indicate old ponds, old hedge lines, and old watercourses. Evidence of previous buildings — ‘old mill buildings for example — can be defined. All these features could have an effect on the proposed evelopment. ‘¢ Geological memoirs and maps give information on mine shafts, coal outerops and strata succession (the different levels and types of strata), ‘¢ Aerial photographs give valuable information relating to previous tres or hedges on the site. They can also reveal Desk study ‘old quarries, old landslips, or depressions caused by old ‘mine shafts or infilled quarries. ‘¢ Mining reports: Always consult British Coal who have detailed plans and knowledge of the local coalfield together with mine shaft records, ‘British Rail: Where a railway tunnel passes below the site, ‘construction shafts may be present. Details ofthese may ‘beheld by British Rail engineers. «District mineral valuers: They have useful information on ‘old mines, quarries and mineral workings. Always consult with the NHBC regional engineers and local authority building inspectors for information on and adjacent to the site. Consult with all the statutory service ‘undertakings in respect of any existing services which may be on the site to be investigated. DESK STUDY CHECKLIST 1. Site topography, salient vegetation and drainage (a) Are there any springs, ponds, or watercourses fon or near the site? (b) Is the site steeply sloping? (€) Are there any signs of previous tree growth on. 2. Ground conditions (a) Is the site in a known mining atea fr coal or other minerals? {(b) What is che geological strata succession below the site? (©) Are the clay in the high plasticity range? (@) Is there any evidence of slope instability? (©) What information is available on the ground strengths? 3. Proposed ho (a) What type of development is intended? (b) What foundation loads are expected? (e) What soils investigation is required to enable special foundations to be designed, eg. piling, dewatering? 4. Identification of ground conditions. By consulting geological records and maps a lot of information can be obtained about the site conditions below the surface (a) Type of drift material, e.g. sands, clas, shales. (b) Thickness of various strata bands. Usually indicated on borehole records and geological ‘maps. (©) Positions of old coal pits, old mine shafts, ‘geological faults, whinstone dykes, buried alacial valleys: For ow-rse housing (two to three storey) the foundations generally requite ground bearing capacities in the 50- 1OOKN/m? range when using stip footings. Settlements under such footings are generally ofa low order and less than 25 mm. Jn general, itis only when soft alluvium, paty sta and filled ground are encountered that settlements ean reach unacceptable magnitudes. Alluvial soils, peats and glacial head deposits often have considerable variations in sraturm thickness over relatively short distances. Peat beds are often ina lenticular form or can be found in old infiled valley formations. Sands, gravels and rock stata usually provide excellent bearing capacities with setlements taking place over short timescale. The effect of groundwater on sands and grevels is to reduce the ground bearing capacity and allowance should be made for variations likely because of seasonal variations Site investigations carried out in the summer months may not reveal water problems encountered in the period from October to February periods. ‘Where clay strata are known to be present the plasticity index of the clays needs tobe determined, especially if there are tees on site or trees have been removed from the site ‘This information is required in order that foundations can be designed in accordance with the NHBC Chapter 4.2, formerly NHBC Practice Note 3. Information about the ste and its underlying stability may have an influence on the type of housing layout and the construction programme: avoiding long terrace blocks in ‘mining areas, provision of public open space in any no-build zones, and providing movement joints at changes in storey heights, for example. ‘Where British Coal opencast plans or old quarry record plans show no-build zones atthe high wall batter planes the 3Site investigations housing layout may need to be modified to avoid placing hhouses in these areas if the site is 10 be developed economically. 13. SITE INVESTIGATION: FIELD WORK For low-rise housing itis generally considered tha simple tril pits are the most useful and economic way of deter- ‘mining ground conditions. When excavated, they stould be deep enough to confirm that the strata below the proposed {oundation level remain competent and adequate for atleast a further metre below a standard-width footing of 40 mm. ‘The minimum depth of the tral pits should range from 2.5 10 3.0 m and where possible they should be atleast 3.0m from proposed dwellings I the position of dwellings has not been finalized then the trial pits should be accurately located for he site survey. If an adequate formation depth is not encountered within the reach of a mechanical excavator then a larger machine may be required. If this is likely to be too disruptive, a in-situ field tests are needed, then shell and auger boreholes will need to be drilled If poor ground conditions are evident during the delling of ‘boreholes then the boreholes should be taken well below any suitable strata which may have to support piles. 13.1 Trial pit logs ‘The following data should be recorded in the wal pit logs together witha ite plan showing an accurate location ofthe trial pits Fig. 1.8) ‘© depth and nature of the strata encountered: e.g, ston clays, wet loose sands; «© dapeription of the various stata in regard to their srength cg, firm to stiff clays, loose, medium dense or dense sands ‘© depths at which groundwater entered the tral pit and the final depth at which it stabilized; © whether the sides of the tial pit collapsed, either during excavation or shortly after excavation (in sands and gravels this can be a good indication of the state of compaction), During the excavation of the trial pit the following information should be taken, '» Penetrometer or shear vane results enable the undrained shear values for clay strata to be determined. These values, ‘when doubled will give an approximate allowable bearing pressure allowing fora factor of safety of 3.0. Clay samples can be obtained for laboratory testing (.Okg bulk samples). These can be tested for natural ‘moisture content, plastic limit, liquid limit, plasticity index, soluble sulphates and pH (acidity). « If filed ground is evident, this should be described: eg topsoil, vegetation, organic refuse, rags, metal, timber. If possible the percentage of organic matter such as timber should be indicated, 13.2 Borehole record This should indicate the following information (Fig. 1.9), ‘© Ground level at the borehole postion. Ths is very import ant, but regretably itis often omitted. When the investi- sation is being done to assess the site stability for possible shallow coal workings, iis essential that ground levels are know if accurate strike lines of the seam are tobe drain. ‘¢ Depths and description ofthe various strata encountered, 4 Depths of any water entries and the final standing level, «© Piezometer readings if applicable, ‘© Depths at which various samples o field tests are taken, eg. standard penetration tests or U-100mm samples (samples obtained undisturbed from the borehole) Figure 1.10 shows the standard key symbols for annotating ‘rata variations 14 E INVESTIGATION PROCEDURE Site investigations should be carried out in accordance with BS 5930 (1999). The tests carried out on samples ‘obtained in the fieldwork are to be in accordance with the procedures laid down in BS 1377 (BSI, 199). L Borehole logs ‘These show the ground conditions only atthe positon of the borehole. Ground conditions between boreholes can be correlated but the accuracy cannot be guaranteed, 142° Trial pit logs ‘These enable soil conditions to be examined in more detail and bulk sampling to be cartied out. The stability of the tench sides and details of groundwater ingress provide useful indicators ofthe soil strengths 143, Groundwater Groundwater levels can vary because of seasonal effects and some allowance may be required depending on the time of year when the works are cartied out. The use of temporary casings may seal off scepage into the borehole 1.44 Standard penetration tests These are generally used in sands and gravel strata but can also be taken in cohesive soils and made ground. They can also be performed in soft or weathered rock strata. (See (Chapter 4 for a description of the standard penetration test.) Because of the difficulty in obtaining accurate N’ values especially in filled strata containing large stones, the results should only be used as a guide when assessing the ground strength. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 give an approximate guide to soil strengths based on SPT values.Site investigation procedure ‘TRIAL PIT RECORD he. £19). SITE SURVEYS LTD 3 Bote: 16 MARCH 7991 possible ‘Otent: C.M, JACKSON (BUILDERS) LTD 1 ad levels are he drawn, She habeas: Rowan Avenue, Leads, Yorkshire umered Location: Phase 4 hg level tare taken, samples From | | key Description of stata ol) TIADE GROUND comprising loose bricks, GL | 0-30 lumps of conerete, soll 4 anotating genes "and fragmenis of timber E (MADE GROUND, comprisin cE J 020 | 170 moderably compact dark Black - brown Clayex “Fine to coaree-grauned "ston ashes with, stones and Pirm brow! E clay. E accordance, Brick footings encountered down to E samples 4 080 m [- + swith the E sition ofthe ¥70 | a0 TADE GROOWO, compris f cs can be frm medion gray Brown’ silky clay wilh i 4 black ashes aad sows fF dono Soft to firm medion fo dark ery silky CLAY. Lore detail ' 7 reo Fim madiom gray brouh eilky any iy of the - wi “friable udetone fe atti! 270 Firm to aHiF wadiom gray with sandstone Fragmnaats End of triel pit affects and he time of + F temporary Tat rents, water absevatons and remarks Slow ground water ingress at 200m ee Bulk Samples taken at O7Sm & [50m rata. (See ¥ a oy Vase test readings af 220k 250m from bulk sample NV values the results| B the ground date guide to vrata but cen Fig. 18 Typical wil pit log,Site investigations an ome oe Site Address: Vale Avenve [Location - a Dien Wise fabme mag ene | 8 oe aa cern Sears Dare BASING WA} Death 2 res en” beat | ae Key Description of tata oto [AOD = Wade Ground ~ Black Ach Flow wadion brent sandy ea silky 20 8 E | F tounge ee a | Sokol tants of shave 7 CBP bar pam) wate ings | |b ew Ta EP GEES Caifale Oh Reset a Beene Medium to dark ‘brown Ree, eae scene al eee Mediom e> aa ey black, « Sado HK bands! of biaek coaly shales 210 i | | End o Gurchole Temata and poondwater bearvalons Gromdwaier ingress at om bg! L Fig. 19 Typical borehole logprocedure sous SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 3 ace gun Fa] ome 4 ee iG Boulder and obties [EZSE] crete cxmes roc sande Sandstone veers) ca LEE] sitstone | ‘Mudstone = ' = 4 oat : TAT] Procaste 4 es) stysana Sin] Nocmesen . rs pain. 2 Reset oe METAMORPHIC ROOKS rexeous Rocks 1 — =] coarse-grained TATE] conrse-grines = Z| wectemgrnet Tere] eum grained FES] rneranes ave | Fre-orained Fig. 110 Key to sol symbols i wil pt logs.Site investigations LABORATORY RESULTS: SYMBOLS B_ Balk sample: disturbed © Cohesion (KN/m?) © Bective cohesion intercept (kN/t?) CBR California Bearing Ratio D___Jarsample: disturbed LVT Laboratory vane test my Coefficient of volume decreas (n NN’ Standard penetration est value (blows 300 mm) pH Acidity alkalinity index PL Plasticity index (%) SOs Soluble sulphate content U.—Undiseurbed 100 mm dia, samples U — Undrained triaxial compression test W Watersample w Natural moisture content (%) Wi Liquid limit (%) W, Plastic limit (%) % Bulk density (kefa’) ta Dry density (kg/m?) 9 Angle of shearing resistance (degrees) 9 Bifective angle of shearing resistance (degrees) Soil strengths. Soil tests used on cohesive strata fall into ‘two main categories. The undrained triaxial testis carried ‘out on a soil which is stressed under conditions such that no changes occur in the moisture content. This reproduces the Table L1. SPT values for cohesive soils Consistency Undrained shear Wale strength x) Very att > 150 > 20 suf 75-130 10-20 Firm 40.75 «10 Soft 20-40 24 Very soft =20 <2 ‘Table 1.2, SPT values for sands and gravels Cowsisteney value Very dense >30 Dense 30-50 “Medium dense or compact 10-30 Loose 10 Very lose <4 ‘Table 1.3, Field assessment of soil strengths Consistency Method of esting Approximate ndrained of sil shear strength (Nn Very soft des between fingers <0 when squeezed in one’s hand Soft Moulded by igh finger 20-40 pressure Firm Moulded by strong finger 40-80 pressure suite Tndented by thumb pressure 80-150 Very stiff indented by thambeail 130-300 Hard Difficult to indent with > 300 thumbnail Table LA. Typical ground bearing capacities “Types of rock and sol “Maximum ste beating Nim?) eapacty Rocks Tgncous and gneissc rocks in sound 10-700 condition “Massively bedded limestones and hard 4300 sandstones Schiss and slates 3200 Had shales, mudstones and soft 2200 sandstones Clay shales 1100 Hard sold chalk 650 Tnly bedded imestones and sandstones * Heavily shatered rocks 7 Nomcohesive sil? Dey Submerged Compact, welgraded sands and 430-650 220-320, ravel-tand mintures Loose, wel graded sands and 220-490 110-220 sgravel-sand mixtures (Compact uniform sands 220-430 110-220 ‘Loose uniform sands 10-220 $5-110 Cohesive site ‘Very tif boulder clays and had clays witha shay srvcture 430-650 Sif elays and sandy clays 220-430 Firm clays and sandy clays 110-220 Soft clays and sits 5-110 Very soft clays and silts! 55 Peats and made ground! Tote acne ater impection With rans the with f foundation io bens ess than 90 ‘Dy ean hat he gounvater level at» Spe ot ss hn 900 mn Below the oundson tase Cohesive soils are suscep wo long tem consaition ‘Tobe dermioed ar mvetiation Soure: BSI (1986) BS 8008 conditions most. likely under the actual foundations. The undrained test gives the apparent cobesion Cy and the angle of shearing resistance 6. With saturated non-fissured clays @, tends to zero and the apparentsprees) {safe bearing )eapacity Submerged 0 220-320 110-220 110-220 0 55-110 sttan900 mm. ‘sthan 990 mm the actual znt cohesion | With saturated the apparent cohesion Cy is equal to one-half of the unconfined compression strength qu. The drained triaxial test can also be carried out using the triaxial compression apparatus and is known as the slow test. ‘The approximate consistency ofa clay sol can be assessed inthe field by handling the sample. Table 1.3 lst the criteria used in arriving at approximate values for the uncrained shear strength. Table 1.4 gives typical ground bearing capacities for various soils; these figures should only be used as a guide, 15_ INTERPRETATION OF LABORATORY TESTING ‘Once the results of the laboratory tests are determined they can 'be used in conjunction with field tests to determine the sxength of the soil strata below the site. By examining the borehole logs it is possible to build up a picture ofthe stratification of| soils below the foundations. Fig. 1.10 shows the standard symbols adopted in soil reports carried out in accordance with BS 5930 (BSI, 1981) and tested in accordance with BS 1377 (BSI, 1990). Generally, suitable 100 mm samples are subjected te quick undrained triaxial compression testing using three speci- mens, 38 mm dia by 76 mm long, taken from each sample, ‘The samples ae tested under lateral pressures of 70, 140 and 210 kN/m? ata constant rate of strain of 2% per minute. The results ofthese tests, comprising shear strength parameters. apparent cohesions, angle of intemal friction ¢, natural ‘moisture contents, field dry density and Atterberg lim.s can then be determined. ‘Table 1.5 illustrates the results of several quick undrained ‘compltssion tests. When the angles of intemal friction are indicated by the test results then Mohr circle stress ‘diagrams are drawn (Fig. 1.11). From these values the shear strength parameters can be determined. The allowable bearing capacities can then be determined using the appro Driate factors of safety Table 1.8. Compression est resulte Interpretation of laboratory testing Using the bulk samples the Atterberg limits can be determined and the values obtained for liquid limit, and plasticity index can be plotted on the standard Casagrande plasticity chart (Fig 1.12) to confirm the clay classification, If the bulk samples are sands or gravel mixtures, grading tests will be carried out to determine the particle size distribution, The results are plotted on a chart (Fig. 1.13) Which indicates which zone the materials fall into These tests will not reveal the bearing strength of the ‘materials but they are of particular value when considering {ground improvement techniques such as vibro-compaction, dewatering or grouting operations. 15.1 Chemical tests ‘The tests generally carried out are those which determine Whether there are aay substances in the ground which could bbe aggressive to Ordinary Portland Cement. The most ‘common are the soluble sulphur trioxide (SOs) and the hhydrogen ion pH tests. Table 1.6 lists the clasifcation of sulphates in soils and groundwater. BRE Digest 363 (BRE, 1991) gives various recommen- ations for the design of suitable concrete mixes to res sulphate attack, These are listed in Table 1.7. In addition to using the required minimum cement contents and water ‘cement ratios the concrete should be dense, well cured and of Tow permeability to provide the maximum resistance 10 ‘chemical attack. These recommendations only apply to cconerete with a low workability. ‘When examining a number of tests carried out on a site, the greater emphasis should be placed on those samples Table 6, Classification of sulphates in soils and groundwater Class TouslS0;—-SOyin21 Th groundwater % aqueousextract (ge) elie) 1 <020 =10 <030 2 020-050 10-190 030-1.20 3 050-10 190-310 1202.50 4 10-20 310-560 250-50 5 >20 25.60 350 Borehole Depth Cohesion Angle of Natural Bulk no. (=) (N/m?) intemal —-moistere density friction content (eares) 5 oso as 4 302018 5 150" 20 6 242050 5 2st u i cain) 5 30 100 1B 82108. 7 03046, 9 2 2035 7 08050) 4 18 2090 7 Lat 10 21 2070 7 230° 138 0 Liss “odie ress edo podice he Mab es cles a 1.1 ‘which fall nto the higher elasification. For example, if six cut of ten samples are found to be within the Class I range and are hence non-aggressive, while the other four fall into Class 2, then the site should be placed into the Class 2 ‘category of risk. ‘The pH values of soils and groundwater can be critical when determining concrete mix designs, Table 1.8 gives the acidity classification for various pH values. Any foundations placed in soils with organic acids of pH values less than 6 will need to have special precautions taken to ensure the durability of the concrete used below ground,Site investigations Table 1.7. Requirements for well compacted cat-insity concrete 140-450 mm thickness exposed on all vertical faces toa permeable sulphated soi or fill materials containing sulphates ‘Concentration o and magnesium Tnsoil or fill Class Byacid By 2:1 wateroil_ In groundwater (g/) Cement ype_—-Minimum cement Maximum ree extraction (8) extract content (kgm?) waterfcement ratio a ‘Notes I and 2 Note 1 504 SO, Mg 50 Mg 1 024 <2 oa AL Note 3 065 2 1223 as AG 330) 050 H 230 03s HL 300 03s . —— 3 poz 23.37 1430 " 320 050 clasity HL 340 030 4 bas «3767 <12. 3060 to H 360 as of HL 380 04s 24 exmct 37-67 912 30-600 H 360, 04s: s 6751260 310 As for Clase 4 plus surface protection 26712360 >L0 Noe 1 Cement conta! nlos pls and ag NNoe2 Cement contents rete to 20 mm nominal maximum sv aggregate. I order to mins the cement content of the mortar faction at sii ales, ‘he minimum cement content given shoud be increased by 40 kp for 10 sa aoa manmum ste aggre and may te destesed by 50 gn for 40 mm nominal maximum size aggregate as desc a Table 8 of BS 332 Pt | Note 3 The mininam vase equed in BS 8110: 1985 and BS3328; Pr I: 19908278 kp for nreinforced structural one cont with no suaresive sol A minimum cement cote’ of 300 ky? (BS 6110) and maximum fee watrcement ato of 060i routed foreiforced once. A minimum cement content of 220 Kgl? and maimum fe wate rato of 080s pelle for CBD grade conc. when sing Source: Based on BRE Digest 353. uly 191 Table L8 pH Values ‘The pH values should also be taken into account when the ae Le sulphate contents are borderline between the various classes. ° —E If the pH is less than 6 the sample should be placed in the PH value Negligible 360 ‘more severe class of sulphate classification. Table 1.9 relates Moderate 50-60 the acids in groundwater to the probable aggressiveness to High 350-50 ‘ordinary Portland cement. Very high 3.50 ‘Table 1.9. Acids in groundwater: probable aggressiveness to ordinary Portland cement concrete (This table is imtended as abroad guide only) Category pHrange Comments @ 70-465 Atack probably unlikely o 65-50 Slight atack probable ‘Where the pH and chemicel analysis of the groundwater suggest that some sigh attack may occur, and if this can be tolerated, then the concrete shouldbe flly compacted made with ether ordinary Portland cement ‘or Portland blast fue cement and aggregates complying with BS 882 (BSI,1973). The maximum free Waterfcement rato shouldbe 0.50 by weight with a minimum cement content of 330 kg/m’ © 50-450 Appreciableatack probable For conditions where appreciable attack i probable, the concrete shouldbe fully compacted, made with wea and it fawons in the gical Survey, th organic tion is t0 sum. Ls eould also Fast mining pers. This ical and past ered in the vort should -al pits and investigation ‘allow coal Case study 1.1 Case study 1.1 (contd.) RESEARCH SOURCES In compiling this report we have examined information and records and made enquiries from the following sources: 1. British Coal Mining Surveyors at Technical Head- (uarcers. Burton upon Trent to examine the shaft register held in the archives; Fig. 1.15 Case study 1.1:ste location ad layout 2. The British Coal Opencast Division at Burton upon Trent; 3. Ordnance Survey County Series plans 1850 edition and 1905 edition; 4. The County Series geological maps and memoirs including consultations with the Britih Geological Survey at Keyworth, Notingham;Site investigations Case study 1.1. (contd.) 5. Sheffield City Technical Services Dept; 6. Mining Records Ofice at Rawmarsh, Rotherham, South Yorkshire; 7. Plans of abandoned mines and quarries contained in the archives of the Health and Safety London; 8. Mineral Valuer District Offices; Sheffield SITE GEOLOGY ‘The 1:10 560 scale County Series geological map NZ282 SE published by the British Geological Survey shows most of the site to be overlain by deposits of boulder clay of glacial origin. The thickness of these drift deposits is not recorded fon the geological maps but from information gleaned from 5 i 7 i : carbontaous ‘Siketone rock coal ‘Sandstone ‘Sikstone coal Sandstone Sandstone Penistone tage) pt coat Sandstone Coat Sandstone Sandstone Winmaor coal Fig. 116 Case study 1.1: generalized vertical section of strata below the superficial deposits. Unlabeled areas are shales or mudstones, 16