DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUTSINMA (FUDMA)

BIO 231: CELL BIOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY (2 CREDIT UNITS)

Second Part Lecture Note
Course Lecturers: Abdulaziz Bashir Kutawa and Hassan Kabir
FIRST SEMESTER LECTURE NOTE 2018/2019 ACADEMIC SESSION

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the fundamental substances of living things. They are extremely complex
molecules produced by living cells and viruses. Their name comes from their initial isolation
from the nuclei of living cells. Certain nucleic acids, however, are found not in the cell nucleus
but in cell cytoplasm. They have at least two functions: to pass on hereditary characteristics
from one generation to the next, and to trigger the manufacture of specific proteins.
The two principal types of nucleic acids are the deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and the
ribonucleic acids (RNA). It has been shown that DNA is confined to the nucleus, whereas RNA
is found mainly, but not exclusively in the cytoplasm. All living cells contain the genetic
material DNA. The cells of bacteria may have one strand of DNA, but such a strand contains all
the information needed by the cell in order to reproduce an identical offspring. The cells of
mammals contain scores of DNA strands grouped together in chromosomes. In short, the
structure of a DNA molecule or combination of DNA molecules determines the shape, form, and
function of the offspring.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), genetic material of all cellular organisms and most viruses. DNA
carries the information needed to direct protein synthesis and replication.

Structure of DNA.
A molecule of DNA consists of two chains, strands composed of a large number of chemical
compounds, called nucleotides (basic building blocks), linked together to form a chain. These
chains are arranged like a ladder that has been twisted into the shape of a winding staircase,
called a double helix. Each nucleotide consists of three units: a sugar molecule called
deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four different nitrogen-containing compounds
called bases. The four bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). The
deoxyribose molecule occupies the center position in the nucleotide, flanked by a phosphate
group on one side and a base on the other. The phosphate group of each nucleotide is also linked
to the deoxyribose of the adjacent nucleotide in the chain. These linked deoxyribose-phosphate
subunits form the parallel side rails of the ladder. The bases face inward toward each other,
forming the rings of the ladder. The nucleotides in one DNA strand have a specific association
with the corresponding nucleotides in the other DNA strand. Because of the chemical affinity of
the bases, nucleotides containing adenine are always paired with nucleotides containing thymine
(A-T), and nucleotides containing cytosine are always paired with nucleotides containing
guanine (C-G). The complementary bases are joined to each other by weak chemical bonds
called hydrogen bonds.

Structure of RNA.

Like DNA, RNA consists of a chain of chemical compounds called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
is made up of a sugar molecule called ribose, a phosphate group, and one of four different
nitrogen-containing compounds called bases. The four bases are adenine, guanine, uracil,
and cytosine. The basic nucleotide structure of RNA resembles that of DNA, but the two
compounds have three critical differences. First, the structure of RNA incorporates the sugar
ribose rather than deoxyribose, the sugar in DNA. Secondly, RNA uses the base uracil (U)
instead of thymine (T). In RNA uracil binds with adenine just as thymine does in DNA. Third,
RNA usually exists as a single strand, unlike the double-helix structure that normally
characterizes DNA.
Cellular differentiation

Cellular differentiation is the process where a cell changes from one cell type to another.
Usually, the cell changes to a more specialized type. Differentiation occurs numerous times
during the development of a multicellular organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a
complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation continues in adulthood as adult stem
cells divide and create fully differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal
cell turnover. Some differentiation occurs in response to antigen exposure. Differentiation
dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, membrane potential, metabolic activity, and
responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to highly controlled modifications in
gene expression and are the study of epigenetics. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation
almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very
different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.

A specialized type of differentiation, known as 'terminal differentiation', is of importance in

some tissues, for example vertebrate nervous system, striated muscle, epidermis and gut. During
terminal differentiation, a precursor cell formerly capable of cell division, permanently leaves the
cell cycle, dismantles the cell cycle machinery and often expresses a range of genes
characteristic of the cell's final function (e.g. myosin and actin for a muscle cell). Differentiation
may continue to occur after terminal differentiation if the capacity and functions of the cell
undergo further changes.

Among dividing cells, there are multiple levels of cell potency, the cell's ability to differentiate
into other cell types. A greater potency indicates a larger number of cell types that can be
derived. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types, including the placental tissue, is known as
totipotent. In mammals, only the zygote and subsequent blastomeres are totipotent, while in
plants, many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques. A cell
that can differentiate into all cell types of the adult organism is known as pluripotent. Such cells
are called meristematic cells in higher plants and embryonic stem cells in animals, though some
groups report the presence of adult pluripotent cells.

Cell cycle

Onion (Allium )cells in different phases of the cell cycle. Growth in an 'organism' is carefully
controlled by regulating the cell cycle.
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to
duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) and division of cytoplasm and organelles to produce
two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C,
and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA
replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage
between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells.
In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into two main stages:
interphase and the mitotic (M) phase (including mitosis and cytokinesis). During interphase, the
cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, and undergoes DNA replication preparing
it for cell division. During the mitotic phase, the replicated chromosomes and cytoplasm separate
into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper division of the cell, there are control
mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints.

The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a
mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal
organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new
cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable,
each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare
the cell for initiation of cell division.

Phases

The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase
(collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis). M phase is itself
composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's nucleus divides, and
cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each
phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have
temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called
G0 phase.
Schematic of the cell cycle. Outer ring: I = Interphase, M = Mitosis; inner ring: M = Mitosis, G1
= Gap 1, G2 = Gap 2, S = Synthesis; not in ring: G0 = Gap 0/Resting

State Phase Abbreviation Description

A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped
Resting Gap 0 G0
dividing.

Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control

Gap 1 G1 mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA
synthesis.

Synthesis S DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Interphase

During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the

cell will continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control
Gap 2 G2
mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M
(mitosis) phase and divide.

Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is

focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells. A
Cell
Mitosis M checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase
division
Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell
division.
After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the
various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the
cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for
initiation of cell division.

Mammalian Tissues

Tissue A biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar

function within an organism.

Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective
tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of
organs and blood vessels throughout the body, as well as the inner surfaces of
cavities in many internal organs. An example is the epidermis, the outermost layer
of the skin.

There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous, columnar, and
cuboidal. These can be arranged in a single layer of cells as simple epithelium,
either squamous, columnar, or cuboidal, or in layers of two or more cells deep as
stratified (layered), either squamous, columnar or cuboidal.

Functions of Epithelial Tissues

1. to protect the tissues that lie beneath from radiation, desiccation, toxins,
invasion by pathogens, and physical trauma
2. the regulation and exchange of chemicals between the underlying tissues
and a body cavity
3. the secretion of hormones into the circulatory system, as well as the
secretion of sweat, mucus, enzymes, and other products that are delivered
by ducts
4. to provide sensation
 Connective tissue (CT) is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body,
including the nervous system. In the central nervous system, the three outer
membranes (the meninges) that envelop the brain and spinal cord are composed of
connective tissue. They support and protect the body. All connective tissue
consists of three main components: fibers (elastic and collagenous fibers), ground
substance and cells.

Connective tissue is largely a category of exclusion rather than one with a precise
definition, but most tissues in this category are involved in structure and support,
derived from mesoderm, and characterized by the traits of non-living tissue.

Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to muscles'
ability to contract. This is opposed to other components or tissues in muscle such as tendons or
perimysium. It is formed during embryonic development through a process known as
myogenesis.

Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals the three types are:
skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated muscle; and cardiac muscle, which is
sometimes known as semi-striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without
conscious intervention. These muscle types may be activated both through interaction of the
central nervous system as well as by receiving innervation from peripheral plexus or endocrine
(hormonal) activation. Striated or skeletal muscle only contracts voluntarily, upon influence of
the central nervous system. Reflexes are a form of nonconscious activation of skeletal muscles,
but nonetheless arise through activation of the central nervous system, albeit not engaging
cortical structures until after the contraction has occurred.
The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and
(c) cardiac muscle

Function

Skeletal muscle

1. They carry out movements of the body.

2. They support the body (micromovement).

3. Assist ligaments in holding bones together.

4. Rapid contraction and release will create friction and therefore warm the body--shivering.

5. To a lesser extent than fat, they can help insulate the body and retain heat.

Smooth muscle

Smooth musculature is found in (almost) all organ systems such as hollow organs (e.g. stomach,
bladder), in tubular structures (e.g. vessels, bile ducts), in sphincters, in the uterus, in the eye etc.
In addition it plays an important role in the ducts of exocrine glands. It fulfills various tasks such
as sealing orifices (e.g. pylorus, uterine os) or the transport of the chyme through wavelike
contractions of the intestinal tube. On the one hand smooth muscle cells contract slower than
skeletal muscle cells, on the other hand they are stronger, more sustained and require less energy.

Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart. It is self-contracting, autonomically regulated and
must continue to contract in rhythmic fashion for the whole life of the organism. Hence it has
special features.

Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue

Example of nervous tissue

Nervous tissue, also called neural tissue or nerve tissue, is the main tissue component of the
nervous system. The nervous system regulates and controls bodily functions and activity and
consists of two parts: the central nervous system (CNS) comprising the brain and spinal cord,
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprising the branching peripheral nerves. It is
composed of neurons, or nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and neuroglia, also
known as glial cells or glia, which assist the propagation of the nerve impulse as well as provide
nutrients to the neurons.

Nervous tissue is made up of different types of nerve cells, all of which have an axon. An axon is
the long stem-like part of the cell that sends action potential signals to the next cell. Bundles of
axons make up the nerves in the PNS and tracts in the CNS.

The main function of nervous tissue is to form the communication network of the nervous
system by conducting electric signals across tissue.

Other functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of muscles and
glands, homeostasis, and mental activity.
Structure

Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, also called nerve cells, and neuroglial cells. Four types
of neuroglia found in the CNS are astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells and
oligodendrocytes. Two types of neuroglia found in the PNS are satellite cells and Schwann cells.
In the central nervous system (CNS), the tissue types found are grey matter and white matter.
The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components.

Function

Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated axons.

Selected References

Mazzarello, P. (1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology.
1 (1): E13–5.

Robinson, R. "History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell Structure". Advameg, Inc. Retrieved

17 March 2014.

Schleiden, M. J. (1839). "Beiträge zur Phytogenesis". Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin: 137–176.

Schwann, T. (1839). Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der

Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen. Berlin: Sander.