Linux-Notes 2


FILESYSTEM HIERARCHY SYSTEM
Linux uses single rooted, inverted tree like filesystem hierarchy
/ this is top level directory

it is parent directory for all other directories
it is called as ROOT directory
it is represented by foward slash(/)
c:\ of windows
/roo
/root
t it is home
home dire
direct
ctor
ory
y for
for root
root user
user(s
(sup
uper
er user
user)
)
it provides working enviorment for root user
c:\Documents and Settings\Administrator
/hom
/home
e it is home
home dire
direct
ctor
ory
y for
for othe
other
r use
users
rs
it provied working environment for other users(other than root)
c:\Documents and Settings\username
/boo
/boot
t it cont
contai
ains
ns boot
bootab ablele file
files s for
for linu
linuxx
like vmlinuz(kernel) ..... ntoskrnl
initrd(INITial Ram Disk)and
GRUB(GRand Unified Bootloader).... boot.ini, ntldr
/etc
/etc It cont
contai
ains
ns all
all conf
config igururat
atio
ionn file
files
s
l ik e /etc/passwd..... user info
/e t c/ r es o l v. c o nf . .. Preffered DNS
/e t c/ d hc p d .c o n f. . .. DHCP server
c:\windows\system32\dirvers\
/usr
/usr By defa
defaul
ult
t sof
softw
twar
ares
es are
are inst
instal
alle
led
d in
in /us
/usr
r dir
direc
ecto
tory
ry
(Unix Sharable Resources)
c:\program files
/o p t It is
is op
optional di
directory fo
for /u
/usr
It contains third party softwares
c:\program files
/bin
/bin It cont
contai
ains
ns comm
comman
ands
ds used
used by all
all user
users
s
(Binary files)
/sbi
/sbin
n It con
conta
tain
ins
s comm
comman
ands
ds use
used
d by only
only Sup
Super
er Use
User(
r(ro
root
ot)
)
(super user's binary files)
/d e v It co
contains dedevice fi files
like /dev/hda ... for harddisk
/d e v/ c dr o m ... for cdrom
similar to device manager of windows
/pro
/proc
c It cont
contai
ainn proc
proces esss file
files
s
Its contents are not permanent, they keep changing
It is also called as Virtual Directory
It's file contain usefull information used by OS
l ik e / pr o c/ m em i n fo . .. information of
of RA
RAM/SWAP
/p r oc / cp u i nf o . .. information of CPU
/var
/var It is cont
contai
aini
ning
ng vari
variab
able
le data
data like
like mail
mails,
s, log
log fil
files
es
/mnt
/mnt It is defa
defaul
ult
t mou
mount
nt poin
point
t for
for any
any par
parti
titi
tion
on
It is empty bydefault
/media
/media It conta
contains
ins all
all of remo
removabl
vable
e media
media like
like cdrom
cdrom,
, pendri
pendrive
ve
/lib
/lib It cont
contai
ains
ns libr
librar
ary
y file
files
s whi
which
ch are
are used
used by OS
it is similar to dll files of windows
library files in linux are SO(shared object) files
/t m p It stored temporary files

................................................................................
.
Basic commands:-
pwd.... print present working dir
[root@sys10~]# pwd
/root
[root@sys10boot]# pwd
/boot
date...... to display date and time

# date (press enter)
who ........ to see who is logged in

# who( press enter )
whoami ..... to show who is working on present terminal

# whoami (press enter)
cal... to show calender

# cal
to show present month's calender
# cal 2008
to show calender of year 2008
mkdir..... make directory

s y n t ax # m kd i r < di r na m e>
ex # mkdir o ne
# mkdir one/two
# mkdir one/two/three
we can use -p option to create dir inside a dir

ex # mkdir -p o n e/ t wo / th r ee
rmdi
rmdirr ....
.... to dele
delete
te an empt
empty
y dir
dir
s y n t ax # r md i r < dir name>
ex # rmdir o ne
error...... Directory not empty
# r m di r o ne / tw o /t h re e
# r m di r o ne / tw o
# r m di r o ne
how to create files:-

we can use 'touch' or 'cat' command
touch command is used to create blank files

size of file created by touch is zero bytes
synt
syntax
ax # touc
touch
h <fil
<filen
enam
ame>
e>
ex # touch fi r s t. t xt
ex # touch second.txt thrid.doc f o ur t h. b at
cat command is used to create file and diplay the contents of file also
s y n t ax # cat > < new file name >
e x. # cat > f ir s t. t xt
type the contents of file here
ksldjf;lkas
asdkljfja;sdf
asdfashflkjasdfh
................
press ctrl + d to save the file
how to see contents of file
ex # cat fi r st . tx t
type the contents of file here
ksldjf;lkas
asdkljfja;sdf
asdfashflkjasdfh
................
how to copy file:

cp command is used to copy a file
s y n t ax # cp < source name > < target name >

ex # cp / r oo t /f i rs t .t x t / ro o t/ o ne / tw o /t h re e
this command will copy first.txt file to three directory with same name
ex # cp / r oo t /f i rs t .t x t / ro o t/ o ne / tw o /t h re e / ne w . tx t
this command will copy first.txt file to three directory with new.txt na
me
by default cp command will not copy directory

we have to use -r switch to copy directory also
ex # cp -r
-r /r
/root/one/* / var
this command will copy all the contents of one directory to var director
y
note
note:-
:- we can
can use
use wil
wildc
dcar
ard
d char
charact
acter
ers
s
* means multiple characters
? m ea n s single character
how to delete a file:

rm command is used to delete a file/directory
synt
syntax
ax # rm < file
file/d
/dir
ir name
name >
ex # rm / r oo t /f i rs t .t x t
it will ask for confirmation, press y to delete file
ex # rm -f
-f / ro o t/ f ir s t. t xt
it will not ask for confirmation
to remove a directory also we have to use -r option

ex # rm -rf / r oo t /o n e
this command will delete one directory with all its contents,
without confimation.
mv .. . .. to move file/dir
this command is also used to rename file/dir
synt
syntax
ax # mv < sour
source ce name
name > < targ
target
et name
name >
ex # mv
mv /r o o t/ f ir s t. t xt / r o ot / on e /t w o/ t h re e
this comamnd will cut first.txt file and paste it in three directory
ex # mv / r oo t /f i rs t .t x t / ro o t/ n ew . tx t
this command will rename first.txt file to new.txt
cd . . .. . change directory
synt
syntax
ax # cd < dir
dir name
name >
[root@sys10~]# cd /var/log
[root@sys10 log]# pwd
/var/log
[root@sys10 log]# cd /root
[root@sys10~]# pwd
/root
cd - means switch directory to previous directory

cd ~ means go back to home directory of user
cd .. mean
means
s go to pare
parent
nt dire
direct
ctor
ory
y
cd . ./ . . means go to 2 level parent directory
cd means go back to home directory of user
ls......... list directories
this command is used to list the contents of a directory

generally following options are used with 'ls'
ls -l long listing
ls -a list all files and directories
ls -R Recursive order
ls -r reverse order
ls -i to list inode numbers
ll same as 'ls -l'
the output of ll command shows following iformation:-

file type
permissions
links
owner of file
owner's group name
size of file in bytes
date and time of modification
file name
..............................................................................
VI visual display editor

V IM visual display editor improved
this is command mode editor for files

other editors are emacs, gedit
vi editor is most popular
it is having 3 modes:
1 command mode
2 insert mode (edit mode)
3 extended command mode
Insert mode:
i Insert at current cursor position

I Insert at start of line
a Append at current cursor position
A Append at the end of line
o Insert line below cursor position
O Insert line Above cursor position
Ins-key same as i
ex command mode:
:w to save the file

:wq to save and quit
:q to quit without saving
:q! to quit without saving (forcefully)
:wq! to save and quit file (forcefully)
{used for read only files}
:se nu to SEt line NUmber
:se nonu to remove line number
:14 to move cursor to line no. 14
command mode:
dd to delete a line (cut)
4dd to delete 4 lines (cut)
yy to copy a line (yank)
10yy to copy 10 lines (yank)
p to paste lines below cursor position
P to past lines above cursor position
u to undo
ctrl+r to redo
/<find what> to find a text inside a file
How to find and replace:-

:<range>s/<find what>/<replace with>/<options>
range can be:
% complete file
10,$ from 10th line to last line
15,20 from 15th line to 20th line
option can be:
g to replace all the occurence in same line
i to ignore case sensitivity
ex. :1,$s/cat/dog/gi
to find cat,CAT,Cat,cAT and replace with dog in complete file
more and less commands are used to see the contents of a file page wise.
syntax. # more < file name >
ex. # more file1.txt
now to see contents page wise press space
to see contents line wise press enter
less command is same as more
but to quit less command we have to press q
head ........ this command is used to see first 10 lines of a file.

ex. # head file1.txt
to see the first 'n' lines:
ex. # head -n file1.txt
tail ....... this command is used to see last 10 lines of a file.

ex. # tail file1.txt
to see the last 'n' lines:
# tail -n file1.txt
redirection:- used to give output of one command to a file.ex.

# cat file1.txt >> file2.txt
this command will APPEND the contents of file1.txt to
file2.txt
# ls -l >> file3.txt
the output of 'ls-l' is saved inside file3.txt file.
pipe:- used to give output of one command to another command

ex. # cat file1.txt  more
``:``
this is pipe symbol
Note: grep:- Global Regular Expression Print

awk:- The name AWK is derived from the family names of its
authors —
alfred Aho, peter Weinberger, and brian Kernighan
# ll  grep "^-"
to show only files
# ll  grep "^d"
to show only directory
# ll  grep "^-"  wc -l
to count no. of files
wc..... word count

# wc file1.txt
it will show no. of lines
no. of words
no. of characters
# wc -l file1.txt
shows only no. of lines
# wc -w file1.txt
shows only no. words
# wc -c file.txt
shows only no. of characters.
..............................................................27/03
User Group Administration

whenever a user is created in linux :-
its home directory is created(/home/username)
its mail box is created(/var/spool/mail)
unique UID & GID are given to user
UID for system users 0 to 499

UID for normal users 500 to 60,000
Redhat Enterprise Linux and fedora used UPG scheme
UPG... User Private Group
it means that whenever a user is created is has its own private group
how to create user:

syntax. # useradd <option> <username>
options are
-u user id
-G Secondary group id
-g primary group id
-d home directory
-c comment
-s shell
ex. # useradd user1
user1 is created
ex. # useradd -u 1001 -d /anydirectory -s /bin/sh user2
user2 is created with uid=1001,home=/anydirectory,shell=/bin/sh
all of user information is stored in /etc/passwd file.

it contains 7 fields:-
user1:x:500:500::/home/user1:/bin/bash
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 user login name
2 mask password
3 uid
4 gid
5 comments( bydefault no comment)
6 user's home directory
7 user's login shell
after creating users we can modify its properties by using:

syntax. # usermod <options> <username>
options are:
all of the options which are used with useradd command and,
-l to change login name
-L to LOCK account
-U to UNLOCK account
ex. # usermod -l newname oldname

ex. # usermod -L newname
ex. # usermod -U newname
note:- when a account is locked it will show !(exclamation mark) in
/etc/shadow file.
how to set password:

syntax. # passwd <username>
ex. # passwd user1
ex. # passwd root
the password information is stored inside /etc/shadow file

it contains encrypted password
linux uses MD5 and DES algorithms for encrypting passwords
MD5 Message Digest version 5
DES Data Encryption Standard
how to delete a user account:

syntax. # userdel <option> <use rname>
ex. # userdel user1
it will delete user1 but home directory will not be deleted
ex. # userdel -r user2
it will delete user2 and home directory will also be deleted
...........................................................................
to create a group:
syntax. # groupadd <option> <groupname>
options:
-g to set GID
ex. # groupadd -g 1010 sales
ex. # groupadd mktg
to add/delete secondary users to group

syntax # gpasswd <options> <user> <groupname>
ex. # gpasswd -a user1 sales
to add a single user
ex. # gpasswd -M user2,user3,user4 sales
to add multiple users
ex. # gpasswd -d user1 sales
to delete secondary user from member list
to delete group ( group must not contain any primary user )

syntax. # groupdel <groupname>
ex. # groupdel sales
note: all information of group is stored in /etc/group file

it contain list of secondary members also.
..............................................................................
PERMISSIONS:-
to see the present permission on any file:-

# ls -ld <filename>
permission are applied on three levels:-

owner or user level
group level
others level
access modes are of three types:-

r read only
w write/edit/delete/append
x execute/run a command
access modes are different on file and directory
file dir
r open the file 'ls' the contents of dir
w write,edit,append,delete file add/del/rename contents of dir
x to run a command/shell script to enter into dir using 'cd'
the output of ls -ld command shows following properties

-rw-r--r-- 2 root root 54 15 march ..... file1.txt
`````````` `` ```` ```` `` `````````````` ```````
filetype+permission, links , owner, grp name of owner, size in bytes,
date of modification, file name.
file types:-
- normal file
d directory
l link file(shortcut)
b block file(harddisk,floppydisk)
c character file(keyboard,mouse)
permission can be set on any file/dir by two methods:-

1 absolute method(numbers)
2 symbolic method(ugo)
to set the permission on file/dir 'chmod' command is used

bydefault permissions on file and dir:-
file dir
root 644 755
normal user 664 775
here,
read=4
write=2
execute=1
different permissions on file and directory:-

file dir
read file can be open,read contents of dir can be listed (ls)
write contents of file canbe changed contents of dir can be deleted,created
execute command/script can be run user can enter into dir (cd)
how to set permission on file/dir:-

syntax. # chmod <permission> <file/dir name>
ex. # chmod 777 /file1.txt
or
# chmod u=rwx,g=rwx,o=rwx /file1.txt
or
# chmod ugo=rwx /file1.txt
this command is used to give full permission to all.
ex. # chmod 000 /file.txt

or
# chmod u=-,g=-,o=- /file.txt
or
# chmod ugo=- /file.txt
this command is used to remove all permission.
note:- UMASK- is the number which is removed from default permission of file/
dir.
default umask of root user is 022
default umask of unprivledged user is 002
for root user:-

file dir
default perm. 666 777
subtract UMASK -022 -022
Resulting perm. 644 755
for normal user:-

file dir
def. perm. 666 777
subtract UMASK -002 -002
Resulting perm. 664 775
...............................................................................
04/04/08
Advanced Permissions:
There are 3 types of adv. permissions:

SUID ... userlevel
SGID ... Grouplevel
Sticky bit others level
to set adv permissions by using numeric method we use

suid = 4
sgid = 2
stickybit= 1
SUID:-
If suid is set on any command then any normal user can run
that command with privledges of root user
like, Defaultly ping command is having suid, so all users can
run that command but if suid is removed then 'permission denied'
ex.
# whereis ping
/bin/ping
# ls -ld /bin/ping
-rwsr-xr-x ..........
````` this means SUID is set bydefault
how to remove SUID:
# chmod 0755 /bin/ping
# ls -ld /bin/ping
-rwxr-xr-x ................
```` this means SUID is removed
how to check:
log in as normal user and try to ping
it will display error..... opration not permitted
SGID:-
SGID is used for group inheritance, files and directories will
get groupname from their parent directory
ex.
# mkdir /mywork
# chmod 777 /mywork
# chgrp sales /mywork
# chmod 2777 /mywork
# ls -ld /mywork
now login as sales group members, create some files, and check their
properties
Sticky Bit:-
If sticky bit is set, then only owner can delete that file/dir
ex.
# mkdir /mywork
# chmod 1777 /mywork
# ls -ld /mywork
it will display rwt.... for sticky bit
# su user1
$ touch /mywork/file1
$ exit
# su user2
$ rm /mywork/file1
error.... permission denied
..............................................................................
Network-Client configuration:
ifconfig:-
Interface configuration(Network Interface Card)
it is used to set ip addr temporarily
it is also used to check ip addr
how to set ip addr temporarily:-

# ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.X
how to check ip add:-

# ifconfig eth0
it will display ip addr, hardware addr, subnet mask .....
netconfig:- network configuration is used to set ip addr,

subnet mask, preffered dns, default gateway
how to set ip addr:

# netconfig ( press enter )
ok
192.168.1.X
255.255.255.0
enter
enter
ok
# service network restart
restart network service to update new ip addr
note:- if netconfig is not working then pakage is not installed
you can install this pakage by using rpm
system-config-network
or
neat( Network Administration Tool )
used to set ip addr in Graphical mode
ifup:- interface up
this command will enable lan card
# ifup eth0
ifdown:- interface down

this command will disable lan card
# ifdown eth0
ethtool:- used to check whether lan card is detected or not:

# ethtool eth0
yes
How to change Hostname:
hostname:- this command is used to set hostname temporarily

and view hostname
to see hostname:-
# hostname (press enter)
to set hostname temporarily:-
# hostname sysX
to make hostname permanent:-

# vi /etc/hosts
192.168.1.X sysX
# vi /etc/sysconfig/network
HOSTNAME=sysX
to check log off and log in again and use 'hostname' command
Partitions:-
fdisk command is used in linux to create,delete,view,manage partitions
# fdisk -l
Disk /dev/hda: 41.1 GB, 41174138880 bytes

Device Boot Start cyl End cyl Blocks Id File System
/dev/hda1 * 1 1020 8193118+ 7 HPFS/NTFS
/dev/hda2 1021 1033 104422+ 83 Linux
Note:- 1Block=1KB
Id is used by system to identify the type of partition.
* means it is a boot partiton.
How to create new partition:-

# fdsik < device name >
# fdisk /dev/hda
command(m for help):
commands are:-
n new partition
d delete partition
p print partition table
t set system id(tag)
w to save and quit
q to quit without saving
m prints this help
l to list system id
to create new partition:-

command(m for help): n
first cyl..........: (press enter)
size in mb +sizeM..: +100M
command(m for help): w
it will display warning:- kernel use old partition table.

# partprobe /dev/hda
now check partition:-
# fdisk -l
How to delete partition:-

first note the partition no. by using 'fdisk -l' command.
for example----/dev/hda9
then,
# fdisk /dev/hda
command(m for help) : d
partition no.(1-9) : 9
command(m for help) : w
# partprobe /dev/hda
Note:- dont delete partition already created.
delete only that partition which u hav created.
How to format partition:-

mkfs command is used to make file system.
to format partition using ext3 file system:-
# mkfs.ext3 /dev/hda9
to format partition using ext2 file system:-
# mkfs.ext2 /dev/hda9
to format partition using vfat file system:-
# mkfs.vfat /dev/hda9
How to mount the formated partition:-

mount command is used to create a link between physical partition
and an empty directory.
you can use /mnt directory for mounting any partition
or you can create your own dir. also
# mount <device name+partition no.> < mount point>
# mount /dev/hda9 /mnt
# mount /dev/hda10 /4s
after mounting you can create file/dir in that partition:-

# cd /mnt
# touch 1 2 3 4
# mkdir one two three four
mount command is also used to check whether the partition is mounted

or not
# mount (press enter)
it will show all currrently mounted partitions
Label:- label of partition is name of partition

(ex. in windows .....disk1_vol1, localdisik)
(ex. in linux ..... /boot, /root)
How to check current label:

# e2label < partition no. >
# e2label /dev/hda1
# e2label /dev/hda2
how to change label:

# e2label /dev/hda9 Myname
# e2label /dev/hda10 yourname
How to convert ext2 to ext3

# tune2fs -j /dev/hda9
How to convert ext3 to ext2
# tune2fs -O ^has_journal /dev/hda9
(capital O)
................................................................................
05/04/08
SWAP
swap is a file system, it is similar to virtual memory of windows
swap space is used to improve the system performance
How swap works?
system identifies the idle process in RAM(memory) and sends it to
swap space, so that RAM again becomes free.
swap space is created on Hard disk
Rule to create Swap?
if size of RAM < 2GB
then size of SWAP=2*RAM
else
size of SWAP= 2 + RAM
How to view info about swap

# free
# more /proc/meminfo
# more /proc/swaps
# swapon -s
-s option is to show swap
How to increase Swap size

1. first create a new partition using fdisk command
ex. /dev/hda9
2. make it a swap partition:-

# mkswap /dev/hda9
3. enable swap on this partition:-
# swapon /dev/hda9
check it by using 'swapon -s'
How to Break root password:-
1. restart system
# init 6
2. go to single user mode
at the grub boot screen select Redhat and press 'a'
then give space and type '1'
then press enter
3. at the shell prompt change the root password
sh# passwd root
******
******
4. restart the system
# init 6
What is GRUB?
GRand Unified Bootloader is the default boot loader program for RHEL5
configuration file for GRUB is
/boot/grub/grub.conf
its contents are:-
default=0 ........default os is Redhat

timeout=5 ........time to change os
splashimage=(hd0,1)/grub/splash.xpm.gz ........grahical screen
hiddenmenu ........hides os options
title Red Hat Enterprise Linux Server (2.6.18-8.el5) ...... name of 1st os
root (hd0,1) ..... partition
kernel /vmlinuz-2.6.18-8.el5 ro root=LABEL=/1 rhgb quiet ...kerne
l
initrd /initrd-2.6.18-8.el5.img ..... Initial RamDisk
title Other ....... name of 2nd os
rootnoverify (hd0,0)  boot info
chainloader +1  of 2nd os(windows)
How to set GRUB password:-

1. # grub-md5-crypt >> /boot/grub/grub.conf
now type password for two times
2. # vi /boot/grub/grub.conf
remove last 2 lines:-
password
retype password
cut last line where encrypted password is written.
paste it below ' hiddenmenu '
ex.:-
hiddenmenu
passowrd --md5 $123abc.xyz456$pqr.
title Red Hat Enter.....
3. save and exit file, restart system and verify.
How to remove GRUB password:-

1. boot from RHEL 1st cd
2. at the boot prompt type 'linux rescue' and press enter
boot: linux rescue
3. keyboard ...... ok
4. language ..... ok
5. network support .... no
6. rescue ......... continue
7. shell will appear type following command:-
sh# chroot /mnt/sysimage
8. open grub configuration file and remove password line:-
sh# vi /boot/grub/grub.conf
delete line below 'hiddenmenu'
save and exit
9. remove cd and restart
..............................................................................
08/04/08
Symbolic Link
There are two types of Links:-

Hard link Soft Link
1 size of both file is same size of link file is equal to no.

of characters in the name of original fi
le
2 can't be created accross can be created accross
partition partiton
3 inode no. of both file is inode no. of source and link file
same is different
4 if original file is deleted if original file is deleted
then also link will contain link is broken and data is
data lost
5 BACKUP FILE SHORTCUT FILE
command used to create Hard link:-

syn # ln <source file> <target file>
to check use:-
# ls -ali
command used to create Soft link:-

syn # ln -s <source file> <target file>
to check use:-
# ls -ali
..........................................................................
31/03/08
............................................................................
swap file system
swap file system is used to improve system performance

it is the part of your hard disk which is used for storing idle process
of RAM.
it is similar to virtual memory of windows os
how to create new swap partition.
1 create new partition using fdisk command

2 make swap partition using mkswap
3 enable swap partition using swapon
4 check by using free, /proc/meminfo , swapon -s
2 #mkswap /dev/hda11
3 #swapon /dev/hda11
4 #free
it will show total swap space.
note:- in first step, while creating partition we have to set system ID

by using 't' option
set tag no. 82 to make it swap/solaris partition.
if we not set tag(system ID) then swap partition will not work.
Quota:-
quota are used to restrict the amount of disk usage by any user,
group on a particular partition.
QUOTA
user level . group level
blocks inodes .blocks inodes
(size in kb) (no. of files) .(size in kb) (no. of files)
inode:- Index node no. it is used by system to identify the

properties of file like, file type, permission, owner,
group, size in blocks, no. of links, time stamps.
Inode no. is unique to a file.

how to see inode no.......... # ls -il < file name>
steps to implement quota:-

1 create a new partition.(fdisk)
2 format it(mkfs.ext3)
3 mount partition using userquota,groupquota option(mount)
4 check mounted partition(mount)
5 create user,group
6 create quota file inside quota partition(quotacheck)
7 enable quota on quota partition(quotaon)
8 specify quota limits(edquota)
3 # mount -o usrquota,grpquota /dev/hdaX /mnt

4 # mount
5 # useradd user1; #useradd user2
# passwd user1
# passwd user2
6 # quotacheck -cugv /dev/hdaX
options:-
-c to create quota database files
-u user quota
-g group quota
-v verbose
to check whether files are created or not:-
# ls /mnt
7 # quotaon /mnt
8 to set userlevel quota:-
# edquota -u user1
to set group level quota:-
# edquota -g grpname
after 8th step quota file will open
here,
soft means --- limit after which warning message is displayed
hard means --- limit after which error message is diplayed
to check quota limits, log on as user and create file/dir

or use "repquota <mnt point>" command
................................................................................
..........
03/04/08
RAID
Redundant Array of Inexpensive/Independent Disk
2 or more hard disk are combined to create RAID, it is used in servers

with SCSI Harddisk.
Redhat supports following RAID Levels:-
RAID 0 (stirping) 2min 32max
RAID 1 (mirroring) 2min 2max
RAID 4 (striping with Parity disk) 3min 32max
RAID 5 (striping with distributed parity) 3min 32max
how to implement RAID 5 on redhat:-

'mdadm' command is used for administration of MetaDisk in linux.
syntax. # mdadm -C <metadevice> -nX <device1> <device2>..... -lX

-C to create metadevice
-n to set no. of harddisk
-l to set RAID level
ex. # mdadm -C /dev/md0 -n3 /dev/hda9 /dev/hda10 /dev/hda11 -l5

/dev/md0 is metadisk
/dev/hda9,10,11 are new partitions
-n3 means no. of harddisk=3
-l5 means RAID level=5
after creating RAID to check it:-

ex. # mdadm -D /dev/md0
-D to display information
to use RAID Partition format it:-
ex. # mkfs.ext3 /dev/md0
make a mount point:-

ex. # mkdir /4s
now mount RAID Partition on /4s
ex. # mount /dev/md0 /4s
now create some files and directory in /4s.
how to make any RAID Device faulty

ex. # mdadm -f /dev/md0 /dev/hda10
/dev/hda10 from /dev/md0 is now fautly
how to check it:-
it will show fautly device----- /dev/hda10
how to remove any Faulty Device from RAID

ex. # mdadm -r /dev/md0 /dev/hda10
how to check it:-
it will show only 2 devices..... one device is removed.
how to add newly created partition to already existing RAID:-

ex. # mdadm -a / dev/md0 / dev/hda12
here /dev/hda12 is newly created partition.
how to check:-
it will show spare building for some time.
then it will show active synchronous.
.............................................................................
LVM....... Logical Volume Manager.
In linux, lvm is used to create logical partitions, called as

logical volumes.
we can easily resize logical volumes, without data loss.
LVM can be created using one or more harddisk.
We will implement LVM on 3 different partitions of single harddisk.
Diagram:-
How to create Physical Volume:-

# pvcreate /dev/hda9 /dev/hda10 /dev/hda11
How to check Physical Volume:-
# pvdisplay  more
How to create Volume Group (name of volume group is 4s):-

syntax # vgcreate <vgname> <pv1> <pv2> <pv3> .........
# vgcreate 4s /dev/hda9 /dev/hda10 /dev/hda11
How to check Volume Gorup:-
syntax # vgdisplay <vgname>
# vgdisplay 4s
How to create Logical Volume (name of Logical Volume is LINUX):-

syntax # lvcreate -L +sizeM <vgname> -n <lvname>
# lvcreate -L +100m 4s -n linux
another logical volume(name is CCNA):-
# lvcreate -L +50m 4s -n ccna
another logical volume(name is MCSA):-
# lvcreate -L +60m 4s -n msca
How to check Logical Volume:-
syntax # lvdisplay <lvname>
# lvdisplay linux
# lvdisplay ccna
# lvdisplay mcsa
How to write data into Logical Volume:-

first format Logical Volume:-
# mkfs.ext3 /dev/4s/linux
then mount Logical Volume on a Directory:-
# mount /dev/4s/linux /mnt
now create some files/dir in mount point:-
# cd /mnt
# touch 1 2 3 4 5
How to resize LV:-

syntax # lvresize -L +/-sizeM <lvname>
# lvresize -L +10M /dev/4s/linux
# lvresize -L -20M /dev/4s/linux
How to remove LV:-

# lvremove /dev/4s/mcsa
How to add new Physical Volume to already existing Volume Group:-

first create new partition.......... /dev/hda12 using fdisk
now create physical volume:-
# pvcreate /dev/hda12
now add this physical volume to Volume Group:-
# vgextend 4s /dev/hda12
RPM
RedHat Pakage Manager
sample rpm file:-

vsftpd-2.0.5-10.el5.i386.rpm
pakagename-version-release.enterpriselinux5.architecture.extension
There are two way to install rpm:-

1 standalone installation(rpm file is on your sys/cdrom)
2 network installation(rpm file is on Server)
How to install rpm Loacally(standalone installation):-

first mount cd/dvd on /mnt directory:-
# mount /dev/dvdwriter /mnt
# cd /mnt
# cd Server
# ls vsftpd*
vsftpd-2.0.5-10.el5.i386.rpm
now install this pakage:-
# rpm ivh vsftpd-2.0.5-10.el5.i386.rpm
preparing..... ############################[100%]
#####################################[100%]
options:-
i install pakage
U(capital U) Upgrade Pakage
v verbose mode installation
h hash
--force to forcefully install pakage, overwrite previous
installation.
--nodeps to remove pakage but dependency will not be removed.
-e to erase/remove installed pakages

-q to query installed pakages
-qa to query all installed pakages
-qd to see documentations files inside pakage
-ql to see all files inside pakage
-qs to see the status of files inside pakage
-qi to see detailed information of installed pakage
-qip to see detailed info of not installed pakage
How to install pakages from network server:-

Note:- ip addr of server in lab is 192.168.10.10
share directory name is /var/ftp/pub/Server
here all rpm are already copied.
on client machine:-
method 1:- NFS
first ping server
# ping 192.168.10.10
then mount the shared directory from server to any local directory:-
# mount 192.168.10.10:/var/ftp/pub/Server /mnt
```````````` ``````````````````` ````
IP add of server:/location of shared dir local dir.
go to mount point
# cd /mnt
now install pakage:-
# rpm -ivh <pakage name + version>
# rpm -ivh vsftpd-2.0.5-10.el5.i386.rpm
(try dialog rpm also)
method 2:- FTP

first ping server
# ping 192.168.10.10
then install pakages using ftp method:-
# rpm -ivh ftp://192.168.10.10/pub/Server/<pakage name+version>
# rpm -ivh ftp://192.168.10.10/pub/Server/vsftpd-2.0.5-10.el5.i386.rpm
YUM
YellowDog Updater Modified
yum feature was avialable with fedora, now it is available in RHEL5
RPM feature is used to install pakages but its main drawback is
Failed Dependency Resolution.
yum automatically identifies dependency in pakages,& install those
dependencies also.
by using YUM we can install, remove, list pakages and group of pakages.
Repository:- it is the place where we create RPM Dump

on server we copy all rpm from RHEL cd/dvd
here a list of all those pakages is created
this list of pakages is called Repository.
generally we copy all rpm of 'Server' directory of rhel cd/dvd to

/var/ftp/pub/Server directory on Server.
Server side configuration:-
1. copy rpms from cd/dvd to /var/ftp/pub/Server

2. install pakage createrepo* from cd
3. create repository
4. edit configuration file /etc/yum.repos.d/rhel-debuginfo.repo
Client side configuration:-
1. check ip addr
2. ping server(192.168.1.10)
3. edit configuration file /etc/yum.repos.d/rhel-debuginfo.repo
4. start installing pakages using 'yum' command.
steps for Server:-

if vsftpd pakage is not installed then install it
make dir... /var/ftp/pub/Server
1 # mount /dev/dvdwriter /mnt
# cp -r /mnt/Server/* /var/ftp/pub/Server
`````````````` ```````````````````
source target
# cd /mnt
2. # rpm -ivh createrepo*
3. # createrepo -g /mnt/Server/repodata/comps* /var/ftp/pub/Server/
source target
4. # vi /etc/yum.repos.d/rhel-debuginfo.repo
edit following lines:-
#baseurl (remove hash)
#enabled (remove hash)
baseurl=ftp://<server ip adr>/pub/Server
(192.168.1.10)
enabled=1
steps for Client side configuration:-

just edit same file /etc/yum.repos.d/rhel-debuginfo.repo
and start installing pakages using 'yum' command
yum command :-
# yum install <pakagename> rpm -ivh <pkgname>
# yum remove <pakagename> rpm -e <pkgname>
# yum list installed rpm -qa
# yum list installed <pakagename> rpm -q <pkgname>
# yum grouplist -----
# yum upgrade <pakagename> rpm -Uvh < pkg name>
# yum groupinstall <grpname> -----
..............................................................................
08/04/08
BACKUP & RESTORE
TAR:- tape archive

this command is used to create archive.
syntax: # tar <option> <destination> <source>
options are:-
-c to create a new archive
-v verbose mode
-f to create archive of files also
-x to extract archive
-z to zip archive using gzip
-j to zip archive using bzip2
# tar -cvf /var/home.tar /home

to create archive of /home directory inside /var directory
# tar -tvf /var/home.tar
to see the contents of home.tar archive without extracting
# tar -xvf /var/home.tar
to extract /var/home.tar inside /var
# tar -xvf /var/home.tar -C /home
to extract /var/home.tar to /home directory
# tar -cvfz /var/home.tar /home

to create a tar of /home and zip it using gzip utility
# tar -xvfz /var/home.tar
to extract home.tar using gunzip utility
# tar -cvfj /var/home.tar /home
to create tar and zip it using bzip2 utility
# tar -xvfj /var/home.tar
to extract home.tar uing bunzip2 utility
after creating tar how to zip

there are two zip commands used, gzip/gunzip and bzip2/bunzip2
bzip2 is more powerfully than gzip
to zip using gzip:-

# gzip <tar file name>
# gzip /var/home.tar
# ls -ld /var/home.tar.gz
to unzip using gunzip:-
# gunzip /var/home.tar.gz
to zip using bzip2:-

# bzip2 /var/home.tar
# ls -ld /var/home.tar.bz2
to unzip using bunzip2:-
# bunzip2 /var/home.tar.bz2
Remote copy:-
scp---- secure copy
this command is used to copy contents of remote system,
we can take remote backup using this command
syntax # scp -r <source> <target>

# scp -r 192.168.1.1:/home 192.168.1.2:/tmp
source pc target pc
this command will ask for root password of remote pc
Note:- this command is based on ssh

ssh is Secure SHell
ssh is secure version on telnet
it uses port no. 23 like telnet
but the data, password sent using ssh is secure because
it encrypts data before sending
using ssh we can SHARE REMOTE DESKTOP in text mode.
HOW?
# ssh <ip add of remote pc>
password of root:
to run a command on remote pc:-
# ssh <ip add of remote pc> <command>
# ssh 192.168.1.1 init 0
this command will shutdown 192.168.1.1 pc
How to configure hostname:-

Hostname is pc name
it is used to identify the system on network
bydefault hostname is localhost.localdomain
to change hostname temprorily:-

# hostname <newname>
to see hostname :-
# hostname (press enter)
to change hostname permanently:-

open and edit configuration file:-
HOSTNAME=sysX
#vi /etc/hosts
192.168.1.X sysX
logout and again login
NFS --- Network File System

NFS server is used to share a dir between linux-linux or linux-unix
machine
NFS SERVER:- system which share(export) its directory for network

NFS CLIENT:- system which mounts server's directory
NFS SERVER configuration :-
pakages:- nfs-utils*
portmap*
port no. 2049.... nfs

111.....portmap
configuration file /etc/exports
Services nfs
portmap
Daemon statd,mountd,lockd,nfsd
Steps:-
server side:-
create share folder:-
# mkdir /share
give full permission:-
# chmod 777 /share
export(share) this directory:-
# vi /etc/exports
/share 192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0(rw,sync)
NOTE:- /share *(ro,async)
restart service:-
# service portmap restart
# service nfs restart
client side:-
mount server's dir on /mnt
# mount 192.168.1.10:/share /mnt
check the contents:-
# cd /mnt
# ls
Note:- # showmount -e <ip add>

this command is used to see what is shared on 'ip add'
FTP SERVER
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL- used to upload and download files from ftpserver
following are different ftp server:-
wuftp washington university ftp
proftp
vsftp very secure ftp
FTP SERVER:- system which is having shared file/dir

FTP CLIENT:- system which is uploading/downloading file to server
Pakages:- vsftpd*.rpm
Port no. 20 for data transfer
21 for connection control
configuration file /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf
/etc/vsftpd/user_list
/etc/vsftpd/ftpusers
services vsftpd
Daemon vsftpd
Steps:-
1 check for installed pakages

# rpm -q vsftpd
if not installed then install it using nfs method
# mount 192.168.1.10:/var/ftp/pub /mnt
# cd /mnt
# cd /Server
# rpm -ivh vsftpd*
2 create shared dir inside /var/ftp

# cd /var/ftp
# mkdir upload
# mkdir download
give write permission on upload directory
# chmod ugo+w upload
create some files in download directory
# cd download
# touch one two three
3 open main configuration file:-

# vi /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf
you can change any of the following options:-
line no.
12 anonymous_enable=YES
to allow anonymous user to log into ftp server
user name for anonymous users are,
ftp
anonymous
15 local_enable=YES
to allow local users that are created on server machine to log into ftp
server from
client side
example of local users is user1,user2,raj,ravi
27 anon_upload_enable=YES
to allow users to upload file to ftp server
bydefault any user is not permitted to upload files to server, he can on
ly download
115 userlist_enable=YES
4 restart ftp service

# service vsftpd restart
or to reload service without shutting down use:-
# service vsftpd reload
Client Side configuraion:-
1 connect to ftp server:-

# ftp 192.168.1.10
(ip addr of server)
it will ask for username, password
default user is ftp/anonymous
default password is ftp/anonymous
or you can also use any username that is created on server(local user)
2 download files
go to download directory
ftp> cd download
ftp> get one
3 upload file
go to upload directory
ftp> cd upload
ftp> put localfilename
4 disconnect ftp server

ftp> bye
Note:-
if local_enable=YES is given in vsftpd.conf file
it means local users of server can also login from client side
ex. of local users are user1,user2, and even root
but bydefault root user is NOT allowed to login from network
so to deny any local user to login into ftp server, enter its name in
ftpusers file or user_list file, and reload the service
How to access FTP Server in graphical mode:-

open web browser( mozila filefox )
type addr
ftp://<ip addr of ftp server>
like
ftp://192.168.1.10(press enter)
............................................................................
10/04/08
SAMBA SERVER
Windows OS share file/folders using SMB(server message block) protocol

Windows OS share file/folder over tcp/ip by using CIFS(common internet
file sharing) method
Linux uses SMBD/NMBD to share file and folders with windows machine
for this we have to configure samba server on linux machine
pakages samba,samba-common,samba-client,swat
portno. 137 NetBIOS name service
138 NetBIOS datagram service
139 NetBIOS session service
configuration file /etc/samba/smb.conf and /etc/samba/smbpasswd
service smb
Daemon smbd,nmbd

1 install the pakages if not already installed
# yum install samba*
2 open main configuration file
# vi /etc/samba/smb.conf
go to last line
copy last 8 lines(press yy)
paste at the bottom of file (press p)
now edit last 8 lines by removing ;(comment)
[myshare] .......... this is share name
comment = This is 4s shared dirctory .... you can type any comment
path = /var/share ................ this is path of shared directory
valid users = user1 ............... space seprated list of users
public = no .................... to make folder visible to all
writable = yes .................. to give write permission on folder
browseable = yes .... to see icon of shared folder in my'network places
'
3 create your shared dirctory

# cd /var
# mkdir share
# cd share
# touch file1 file2 file3
4 start the service

# service smb restart
Client Side configuration:-
there are 2 methods in which we can access samba server from linux clien
t
NFS:-
# mount //<ip add of samba server>/<share name> <mountpt> -o
username=smbusername
# mount //192.168.1.10/myshare /mnt -o username=user1
FTP method:-
# smbclient //<ip add of server>/<share name> -U username
# smbclient //192.168.1.10/myshare -U user1
smb>ls
smb>get file1
smb>put anyfile
smb>quit
Note :- on samba server you must create user and provide smb password
# useradd user1
# smbpasswd -a user1
*****
*****
to access samba server in graphical mode in linux go to

places----> Network Servers--------> system name
here you will find shared folder
How to access samba server from windows machine:-

go to my network places
entire network..... find linux machine icon
here you will find shared folder
..............................................................................
BOOTING PROCESS of LINUX
1 POST=== POWER ON SELF TEST

to check the conectivity of necessary hardware.
2 BIOS=== BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM
to identify boot device
3 MBR==== MASTER BOOT RECORD
it is first 512bytes of hard disk
it keeps the information of boot loader(GRUB)
4 GRUB=== GRAND UNIFIED BOOT LOADER
GRUB is default boot loader for linux machine
it is loaded into memory(RAM) by MBR
it is capable of reading ext3 partition directly
GRUB is having 2 stages:-
1 STAGE
it loads second stage loader
2 STAGE
it reads /boot/grub/grub.conf file
and loads kernel(vmlinuz), and initrd
(Initial Ram Disk)
vmlinuz file is kernel of redhat linux
it is heart of operating system
it is responsible for establishing link between system
hardware and shell
then kernel loads initrd
initrd loads device drivers so that kernel can
comunicate with hardware.
5 INIT=== INITIALIZATION OF OTHER PROCESS
then kernel initialize first process that is init
init is responsible for running other process, like
auditd, syslog, portmap, cups, sshd, xinetd, vsftpd,
dhcpd, crond, atd, yum-updatesd, haldaemon.
all these deamons are inside /etc/init.d directory
6 Boot specific files:-

/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit
/etc/rc.d/rc.local
/etc/inittab.... to define default runlevel
...to define prefdm(preffered display mangager)
.bashrc ..... inside user's home directory
..... to define user specific aliases
ex. alias vi=vim
7 Login prompt and after that if it is runlevel 5 then X11 server
is started and gdm/kdm/xdm will provide graphical desktop.
PROCESS MANAGEMENT:-
How to manage different process:-

system identifies any process by its process id(PID)
how to see pid of a running process:-
# service vsftpd status
vsftpd is runnig (3954).......
(this is pid)
or
# ps -ef  grep vsftpd
NOte:- PID for init is always 1
how to start any process(daemon)

# service vsftpd start
how to stop a process
# service vsftpd stop
how to restart any process
how to reload the process
# service vsftpd reload
when we restart the service is shutdown and again started, it takes time
when we reload service only changes are reloaded, it is fast
if any service is not responding then we can use kill command to

abnormally terminate that process:-
# kill <pid of that process>
# kill 3954
note :- first check the pid of process, then kill it.
how to make any process to run permanently in any runlevel?

chkconfig command is used
like,
# chkconfig vsftpd on
to make vsftpd run bydefault in all possible runlevels
# chkconfig --level 35 vsftpd on
to make vsftpd run bydefault in runlevel 3 and 5 only
# chkconfig --list  grep vsftpd
to see present on/off status of vsftpd service
# chkconfig vsftpd off
to turnoff vsftpd service in all possible runlevels
..............................................................................
DHCP---- DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
pakage dhcp-3.0.5-3.el5
configuration file /etc/dhcpd.conf
/usr/share/doc/dhcp-3.0.5/dhcpd.conf.sample
/var/lib/dhcpd/dhcpd.leases
port no. 67 bootp server

68 bootp client
service dhcpd
Daemon dhcpd
How to configure dhcp server:-

check for dhcp pakage install:-
# rpm -q dhcp
if it is not installed then install it:-
# yum install dhcp*
now copy sample file to main configuration file:-

# cp /usr/share/doc/dhcp*/dhcpd.conf.sample /etc/dhcpd.conf
source sample file target main file
edit main configuration file

# vi /etc/dhcpd.conf
define the subnet with its class if ip addr

go to line no. 21
range dynamic-bootp 192.168.1.128 192.168.1.254;
start range end range
save and exit
restart the service:-

# service dhcpd restart
on client side issue following command to obtain ip addr automatically

from dhcp server:-
# dhclient
or
# netconfig
yes
* use dynamic IP configuration[bootp/dhcp]
then restart the service

or
user graphical method
# system-config-network
or
# neat
check the new ip addr

# ifconfig eth0
How to give DHCP reservation:-

we can bind any MAC addr to a IP addr by using dhcp ip address reservati
on
first we have to find out the mac addr of client:-

# ifconfig
it will show harware addr
now on dhcp server open main configuration file:-

# vi /etc/dhcpd.conf
modify following lines:-
hardware ethernet 12:34:56:78:AB:CD;

fixed-address 192.168.1.150;
save and exit, then restart dhcp service
note:- if you want to see mac addr of client from server machine then
# ping 192.168.1.X
# arp -a (press enter)
...............................................................................
14/04/08
DNS--- Domain Name Server/Service
DNS server is used to resolve Hostname to IP addr and IP addr to Hostnam

e
DNS server maintains Zone files
Zonefiles are database which contains information about different server
and thier corresponding ip addr
there are two type of zone database files:-
Forward Lookup Zone file:-
This file contain Hostname and corresponding IP add
It is used in Hostname to Ip addr resolution
Reverse Lookup Zone file:-
This file contain IP addr and corresponding Hostname
It is used in Ip addr to hostname resolution
When Hostname is added to Domain name it becomes FQDN

sys10.4s.com.
sys10-- hostname
4s-- domain name
.com-- top level domain
. root domain
A DNS server will have following records:-

SOA record Start Of Authority record
First record created when a dns is configured
Used for defining replication between DNS and Bakup DNS
A Address record
Used to show it Ip Addr of any hostname
PTR Pointer record

Used to show hostname of any IP Addr
NS Name Server record

Used to identify nameserver(dns server)
CNAME Canonical Name record

Used to provid alias/duplicate names to server
MX Mail Exchange record

Used to identify Mail server
There are two types of DNS servers:-

Master and Slave
Master is having all zone records, its SOA no. is always greater than
Slave.
Slave is having backup of zone records of Master server, when any new
entry is entered in master server's zone file, it is automatically
replicated to slave, its SOA no. is always smaller than Master
How to configure Master DNS in Linux:-
pakages bind* caching-nameserver*
portno. 53
main conf file /etc/named.rfc1912.zone
/etc/named.caching-nameserver.conf
Service named
Daemon named
Note:- DNS works on BIND(Berkely Internet Name Domain) version 9

In RHEL we call bind as named(nameserver daemon)
Steps:-
check ip addr:-
# ifconfig
if it is not correct set ip addr
# neat
or
# netconfig
restart network service:-
check hostname
# hostname
if it is not correct then set hostname
# hostname sysX.4s.com
make it permanent:-
# vi /etc/hosts
192.168.1.X sysX.4s.com sysX
hostname=sysX.4s.com
now logout and login again to check hostname
check for pakage:-

# yum list installed bind*
if it is not installed, then install it:
# yum install cach*
# yum install bind*
total 9 pakages
edit configuration files:-

# vi /etc/named.caching-nameserver.conf
listen-on port 53 { 127.0.0.1;192.168.1.10; };
allow-query { localhost;192.168.1.0/24; };
match-clients { localhost;192.168.1.0/24; };
# vi /etc/named.rfc1912.zones
copy line no. 21 to 31 ( 11 lines)

paste it below line no. 31
edit these lines:
zone "4s.com" IN {
type master;
file "4s.for";
};
zone "1.168.192.in-addr.arpa" IN {
type master;
file "4s.rev";
};
change directory:-
# cd /var/named/chroot/var/named
copy and rename file localhost.zone

# cp -p localhost.zone 4s.for
copy and rename file named.local

# cp -p named.local 4s.rev
modify zone database file:-

# vi 4s.for
$TTL 86400
@ IN SOA sys10.4s.com. root.4s.com. (
42 ; serial (d. adams)
3H ; refresh
15M ; retry
1W ; expiry
1D ) ; minimum
IN NS sys10.4s.com.
IN A 127.0.0.1
sys10.4s.com. IN A 192.168.1.10
sys9.4s.com. IN A 192.168.1.9
sys2.4s.com. IN A 192.168.1.2
# vi 4s.rev
$TTL 86400
@ IN SOA sys10.4s.com. root.localhost. (
1997022700 ; Serial
28800 ; Refresh
14400 ; Retry
3600000 ; Expire
86400 ) ; Minimum
IN NS sys10.4s.com.
10 IN PTR sys10.4s.com.
open resolv.conf file and enter the ip addr of dns server

this file is similar to prefered dns of windows os
# vi /etc/resolv.conf
nameserver 192.168.1.10
now restart service:-

# service named restart
client side configuration:-

provide the ip addr of dns server in relov.conf file(preffered dns)
nameserver 192.168.1.10
query dns server and check the output:-
we can check dns server by two commands:-
nslookup and dig
# nslookup
enter the server name
the output will be ip addr of server
# dig sys10.4s.com.
or
# dig -x 192.168.1.10
................................................................................
KICKSTART INSTALLATION
It is similar to RIS/Unattended installation of Windows os
By using kickstart installation we can install linux on remote machine
all the installation files are present on kickstart server
client is booted from linux bootable cd(cd no.1) and
then it will take installation files from server along with
answer file.
Answer file is a file genereted on kickstart server which provides all
answers of questions which are asked during installation process.
Requirements for kickstart server:-

all the files of RHEL cd/dvd
dhcp server
kickstart answer file
nfs/ftp server
Requirements for kickstart client:-

first cd/dvd of RHEL
How to configure kickstart server:-

first configure your system as dhcp server, providing valid ip addr rang
e
method 1:-
if we are using 5 cds then, copy all the contents of 1st cd to
/var/ftp/pub
then copy contents of Server dir of remaining cds to /var/ftp/pub/Server
method 2:-
if we are using 1dvd then simply copy complete dvd to /var/ftp/pub
now configure nfs server to share this location

# vi /etc/exports
/var/ftp/pub *(rw,sync)
check it
# showmount -e
or
now configure ftp server to share this location
just install the vsftpd pakage and configuration is completed
because bydefault ftp server shares /var/ftp/pub location itself
now create kickstart file:-

for this we need a pakage system-config-kickstart
if this pakage is not installed then install it first form cd/dvd/yum
then
# system-config-kickstart(press enter)
it will open a wizard
configure the options,
after configuring options you have to add pakage list manually to the
kickstart file
give follwing command:-
# yum grouplist >> /var/ftp/pub/ks.cfg
it will transfer all group names to end of kickstart file
now modify that file

# vi /var/ftp/pub/ks.cfg
at the bottom write

%pakages
@ editors
@ Java Development
....
....
then save the file
give executable permission to this file:-
# chmod +x /var/ftp/pub/ks.cfg
so that any client can execute this file when needed
How to configure kickstart client:-

boot the system by using 1cd
you will get boot prompt
boot:
here you can use any method nfs/ftp
boot: linux ks=nfs:192.168.1.10:/var/ftp/pub/ks.cfg
or
boot: linux ks=ftp://192.168.1.10/pub/ks.cfg
installation starts from server........
...............................................................................
How to perform network installation:-

configure nfs/ftp server with dump of all cds in /var/ftp/pub
on the client side boot with cd
boot: linux askmethod
it will ask for type of intallation
nfs
ftp
cdrom
choose nfs and specify ip addr of nfs server and dir(/var/ftp/pub)
or
choose ftp and specify ip addr of ftp server and dir(/var/ftp/pub)
installation starts from server........
...............................................................................
MAIL SERVER:-
MAIL server uses MTA( mail transfer agent) like sendmail, qmail, postfix
squirrelmail, smail etc
MTA uses SMTP protocol to send and recieve mail at port no. 25
on the client side mail client software like mutt(Mutt Mail User agenT),
thunderbird, evolution, and webmail are used to send and recieve mail.
How to configure Mail server(sendmail):-
pakages sendmail* m4*

portno. 25 SMTP
110 POP3
143 IMAP
config file /etc/mail/sendmail.mc
/etc/mail/sendmail.cf
service sendmail
daemon sendmail

install the pakages if not already installed
# yum remove sendmail*
# yum install sendmail*
open main configuration file:-

# vi /etc/mail/sendmail.mc
edit following line no.
116 add "# dnl" at the begining of line
155 add "# dnl" at the begining of line
(delete to new line)
compile this file and send its contents to sendmail.cf file

# m4 /etc/mail/sendmail.mc > /etc/mail/sendmail.cf
note: this command will not show any output on screen
m4 is a macro compiler which is used to compile sendmail.mc file
start service
# service sendmail restart
set hostname ......... mail.4s.com

set ip addr
on client side:-
set hostname............. sysX.4s.com
set ip addr
set ip addr of dns server in resolv.conf file
nameserver 192.168.1.X
DNS Server configuration:-

In dns server the only change is in forward lookup zone file:-
add following entry:-
IN MX 5 mail.4s.com.----(to define mail server)

192.168.1.X IN A mail.4s.com.----(to define its ip addr)
now start mailing from one user to other

root user is mailing to user1:-
# mail user1
Subjet: hi
skldjf;lasjkdf
lkjdslkafja;sldjkf
these are the contents of mail
type it and then press ctrl+d
Cc: (press enter)
mail is sent to user1
how to check mail:

Login as different user, user1
$ mutt (press enter)
or
$ mail (press enter)
How to configure squirrel mail( graphical mode )
Install following pakages:

squirrelmail*, dovecot*, php*, perl*, httpd*, curl*, cyrus-imapd*,
and sendmail* if it is not already installed
Restart following services:

service httpd restart
service dovecot restart
service cyrus-imapd restart
service saslauthd restart
service sendmail restart
Then you can access mail in graphical mode using webmail( mail client )
open mozila firefox web browser

type following addr
http://<name of mail server>/webmail
like
http://mail.rhce.com/webmail
it will ask for username and password
then you can access your mail
...............................................................................
17/04/08 WEB SERVER(APACHE SERVER)
There are many web servers like IIS(windows), apache, sunone, AOL, etc
most popular web server is Apache, it works on both windows and linux
more than 68% of total web servers of world are configured on Apache
Note:- go to www.netcraft.com
type url of any web server, and search, it will show you
on what kind of server that web site is working,
like www.way2sms.com is working on Apache 2.0 installed on Fedora8
go to ip2location.com
type url of any web server, and search, it will show you
the geographical location of that web server,
like www.google.com is in US, california, street...., contact person...
www.whois.net...... you can find who is maintaining that server,
complete contact information is displayed with ph. no. too
use nslookup command to see ip addr of any dns server.
How to configure web server:-
pakages httpd*(httpd,httpd-manaul,httpd-devel)
port no. 80
conf file /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
service httpd
daemon httpd
steps to configure web server:-

install the pakages if not already installed:-
# yum install httpd*
open main configuration file:-
# vi /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
modify following lines:-
250 ServerAdmin root@web.4s.com
264 ServerName www.4s.com.:80
280 DocumentRoot "/var/www/html"
134 Listen 80
390 DirectoryIndex index.html
line 250 is for providing contact user information

if your web server is not working then client will contact to
this person
line 264 is for provding url for your web site, it may be different from
your system name
like here system name is web.4s.com
but website url is www.4s.com.
and it works on port no. 80
line 280 is for defining DocumentRoot
this is the location where your html files are kept
you can change this location
134 Listen 80
this is to define portno. that this web server listens
390 DirectoryIndex discribes the name of first page of your website
if first page name is different then change this option, by
default it is index.html file which is created inside
/var/www/html(DocumentRoot)
after editing configuration file you have to create website(index page)

# cd /var/www/html
# vi index.html
<html>
<title> This is 4s.com web site </title>
<body> <h1> This is home page of 4s computers ltd. </h1>
<h7> This page is created by YOURNAME </h7>
</body>
</html>
now restart the service

# service httpd restart
now specify your dns server:

check it
# dig -x 192.168.1.X
DNS server side configuration:-

on the dns server there is only one change
open FLZ file and add the entry of web server;
web.4s.com. IN A 192.168.1.Y----to define webserver

www.4s.com. IN CNAME web.4s.com.---to define its aliasname
# service named restart
Client side configuration:-

define your preffered dns:-
now open web browser and open website www.4s.com or web.4s.com
...............................................................................
18/04/08
NIS..... Network Information Services
It is a centralised directory service through which we can share

resources like users, groups, mails over the network
It is similar to LDAP( Light Weight Dirctory Access Protocol )
Linux machine uses NIS, Solaris machine also uses NIS+
How to configure NIS server?
pakages ypserve*, ypbind*, yp-tools*

ypserve is for NIS server only, not client side
ypbind and yp-tools are required on client side
ypbind pakage is used to bind nis-client with server
portno. randomly assigned by portmap service
to see portno. use command--- (rpcinfo -p)
conf file /var/yp/Makefile
/etc/sysconfig/network
service yppasswdd, ypserv, portmap
daemon yppasswdd
steps:-
1 install the pakage ( remove it if it is already installed )
# yum remove yp*
# yum install yp*
2 set nis domain name temporarily

# nisdomainname 4s.com
check it
# nisdomainname (press enter)
3 set nis domain name permanently

NETWORKING=yes
HOSTNAME=sysX.4s.com
NISDOMAIN=4s.com
4 edit main conf file

# vi /var/yp/Makefile
line no. 23
NOPUSH=TRUE
it means that there is no slave nis server
line no. 109
all: passwd group....... mail\
list of database which are centralised on network
5 create master nis server's database

# /usr/lib/yp/ypinit -m
it will ask hostname: (press ctrl + d)
then it will ask (y/n) (press y)
6 create some users:-

# useradd nisuser1
# passwd nisuser1
7 share your home dir using nfs server:

# vi /etc/exports
/home *(rw,sync)
# showmount -e
Configuring NIS-Client:
1 set nisdomain name

# nisdomainname 4s.com
NISDOMAIN=4s.com
2 mount home dir from server over client's home dir

# mount 192.168.1.X:/home /home
3 specify the type of authorization:

# authconfig-tui
* nis
ok
4 check your nis server conectivity
# ypwhich
it will show nis domain name in output
5 logout and login with nisuser1

now whatever data you create on client machine's home dir
will be stored on nis-server's home dir
it means /home dir is centralized
..............................................................................
SHELL SCRIPTING
# grep 'root' /etc/passwd

# date --help  grep year
# cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd
# grep bash /etc/passwd  sort
# cut -d: -f7 /etc/passwd  sort  uniq
first shell script:-
# vi first.sh
#/bin/bash
echo " this is my first shell script "
echo " Enter your First name:.......... "
read firstname
echo " Enter your Last name:........... "
read lastname
echo " Your Full Name Is :............. $firstname $lastname "
save this file and give execute permission

now to run this shell script :
# ./first.sh
or
# bash first.sh
second shell script:-
# vi second.sh
#/bin/bash
echo "enter yes or no"
read ans
ans="$(echo $ans  tr 'A-Z' 'a-z')"
echo "$ans"
save the file and give execute permission

now run shell script:
# ./second.sh
Note:- tr means translate character

used to translate characters
sed means Stream EDitor
used to edit output, without effecting original file
# vi pets
hi this is my pet animals file

i have a lot of pet animals
like
cat dog parrot and rabbit
but my fav. is cat
my cat is very soft
cat is white in color
dog is black in color
save the file and exit
# sed 's/cat/dog/' pets

this command will show edited output
all cat will be converted to dog in output
but the file will remain uneffected
# grep '^root:' /etc/passwd

to filter info of root user only
echo " this is date and time $(date)"
echo "pwd is : $(pwd)"
if [ -d $1 ]
then
echo " $1 is a dir"
else
if [ -f $1 ]
then
more $1
fi
fi
capital=dehli
echo "what is capital of india"
read cap
if [ $cap != $capital ]
then
echo "wrong"
exit 1
else
echo " correct "
fi
echo " enter ur weight"

read wt
if [ $wt -lt 500 ]
then
echo " u r eligible for next fight"
else
echo " u r not eligible for next fight"
read a
read b
c=`expr $a + $b`
echo $c
for x in 10 20 30
do
echo $x
done
cat > animal

cat
dog
fly
goat
lion
for i in `cat animal`

do
echo " $i"
done
...............................................................................
/etc/fstab and /etc/mtab files
FSTAB---- File System Table file stores information about partition,

file type, mount point, and mounting options
system reads this file at the time of booting, and mounts the partitions
which are listed in this file
common contents of /etc/fstab are:
LABEL=/ / ext3 defaults 1 1

LABEL=/boot /boot ext3 defaults 1 2
LABEL=/home /home ext3 defaults 1 2
LABEL=/usr /usr ext3 defaults 1 2
LABEL=/var /var ext3 defaults 1 2
LABEL=SWAP-hda7 swap swap defaults 0 0
/dev/hda9 /mnt ext3 defaults 0 0
label of partition mnt pt filesystem options dump fsck
how to see label of partition:-

# e2label /dev/hda2
/boot........ this is the label of /dev/hda2 partition
/etc/mtab..... MOUNT TABLE

this file provides system the iformation about mounted partitions
" mount " command uses the contents of this file
Note:-
when we mount any partition by using 'mount' command, then
/etc/mtab file is updated and new entry is added
but this type of mounting is temporary
after rebooting the system it is automatically unmounted
so to mount a partition permanently we use /etc/fstab file

we have to manually edit this file to mount a partition permanently
ex.
a new partition is created /dev/hda9, it is formated
to mount it temporarily,
# mount /dev/hda9 /mnt
to mount it permanently,
# vi /etc/fstab
at the bottom of this file type following line
/dev/hda9 /mnt ext3 defaults 0 0
or you can change mounting options
/dev/hda9 /mnt ext3 defaults,usrquota 1 2
................................................................................
Task Automation by using 'cron' and 'at'
cron daemon is used to automate any task,

by using cron daemon we can run any task in background on particular
date and time, this is similar to schedule task of windows
main configuration file is /etc/crontab

daemon name is crond
to add a new task :-

# crontab -e
this will open a blank file,
it is having following fields:
min hr date month day of week task(command)
05 15 24 04 * mkdir /root/auto
this task is to create "auto" dir in /root at 03:05pm on 24/04/08

the task will be completed in background
to restart cron service:

# service crond restart
to see current pending task:-

# crontab -l
to remove any task:-

# crontab -r
at
this command is used to schedule task for one time only:
# at 13:30
at> touch /root/breaktime
at> (press ctrl+d to save)
how to check it
# atq
it will diplay task no. and time
how to remove any task :

# atrm < task no.>
ex.
# at 13:29
at> eject
at> ctrl+d
# at 13:30
at> eject -t
at> ctrl+d
# at 13:31
at> eject
at> ctrl+d
check task list:

# atq
2
3
4
remove any particular task
# atrm 4
...............................................................................
Virtualization
Red Hat Virtualization can host multiple guest operating systems.

Each guest operating system runs in its own domain.
Each guest operating systems handles its own applications.
Virtualization is of two types:

Full virtualization or paravirtualization.
Full virtualization provides total abstraction of the underlying physical system

and creates a new virtual system in which the guest operating systems can run.
No modifications are needed in the guest OS or application
(the guest OS or application is not aware of the virtualized environment
and runs normally).
Paravirualization requires user modification of the guest operating systems

that run on the virtual machines(these guest operating systems are aware that
they are running on a virtual machine)
The first domain, known as domain0 (dom0), is automatically created

when you boot the system. Domain0 will host Guest OS(Domain1).
The hypervisor (Red Hat's Virtual Machine Monitor) is a virtualization platform

that allows multiple operating systems to run on a single host simultaneously
within a full virtualization environment.
A guest is an operating system (OS) that runs on a virtual machine in addition t
o
the host or main OS.
Hardware Requirements for Virtualization:-
Intel VT-x or AMD-V Pacifica and Vanderpool technology for full and paravirtuali
zation.
For full virtualization your system must support PAE(physical Address Extension)
,
by using PAE technology we can increase the amount of physical or virtual memory
avialable to user applications.
Celeron " Pentium II " Pentium III " Pentium IV " Xeon " AMD Athlon " AMD Duron
for paravirtualization.
Installing virtualization:-
yum install <pakage name>
pakages are:
kernel-xen
xen
xen-libs
virt-managerz
gnome-applet-vm
libvirt
Booting a guest domain

we can use virsh or xm commands
# xm create -c guestdomainname
you can make it permanent :

# chkconfig xendomains on
Connect to a domian:
# xm console domain-id
Create a domain:
# xm create -c newdomainname
saving a domain:
# xm save domain-id
destroy a domain:
# xm destroy domain-id
shutdown a domain:
# xm shutdown domain-id
restore a domain:
# xm restore domain-id
suspend a domain:
# xm suspend domain-id
resume a domain:
# xm resume domain-id
reboot a domain:
# xm reboot domain-id
pause a domain:
# xm pause domain-id
unpause a domain:
# xm unpause domain-id
display domain states:

# xm list domain-id
diplay uptime:
# xm uptime domain-id
diplay domain information:

# xm domain info
Managing Virtual Machines in GUI mode:

by using Virtual Machine Manager
The Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) gives you a graphical view of the virtual mach
ines
on your system.
You can use VMM to define both para-virtual and full virtual machines.
Open connection window:

go to applications ->system tools -> vitrual machince manager
select local xen host
click on connect
VMM window opens, here you can see domain0 is running
How to create a new virtual machine:
requirements:
first create a new partition on Domain0 host(ex. /dev/hda9)
then configure your nfs install server 192.168.1.10(share dir is /var/ftp/pub)
then create a kickstart server 192.168.1.10(save file in /var/ftp/pub)
click on new in VMM window

->forward
->enter the name of virtual server(remember this name) and click forward
->specify the type of virtualization(paravirtualization) and click forward
->enter intall media url........ nfs:192.168.1.10:/var/ftp/pub
enter kickstart url........... nfs:192.168.1.10:/var/ftp/pub/ks.cfg
click on forward
->specify the partition name
partition..... /dev/hda9
click on forward
->set max. memory for virtual machine( dont modify anything )
click on forward
->start creating virtual machine.............
after virtual machine is created you can view graphical mode in

virtual machine console window
to start your guest machine:-
# xm create -c guestname
then right click on guest in virtual machine manager and chose open to open
virtual console
Note:- you can also use "virt-install" command to create a virtual machine in
text mode
...............................................................................
PROXY SERVER
Proxy server is used to provide following three services:

Caching Server
Securing web access
Internet connection sharing
How to configure Proxy server:-
pakage squid*
portno. 3128
conf file /etc/squid/squid.conf
service squid
daemon squid
Server side configuration:
Install the pakage:

# yum install squid*
Open main configuration file:

# vi /etc/squid/squid.conf
line no.
73 http_port 3128
remove the hash from line no. 993
cache_dir ufs /var/spool/squid 100 16 256
define acl before line no. 2394

like
acl neighbours src 192.168.10.0/24
acl denydomain dstdomain .yahoo.com
acl denykeyword url_regex http://www.google.co.in
after defining all acl define allow/deny policy for each of them
below line no. 2500
like
http_access deny denydomain
http_access deny denykeyword
or
http_access deny denydomain denykeyword
http_access allow neighbours
save & exit
restart the service

# service squid restart
Client side configuration:

open mozilla fire fox
edit-> pref -> connections -> manual proxy ->
ip addr of proxy server and port no.(3128)
use same proxy server for all services
close
try to access different web sites.......
or for text mode

open elinks
press escape
go to setup menu
options manager
select protocols(press space to expand)
select http (press space to expand)
select proxy configuration(press space to expand)
select host and port-numbar option and edit
now specify ip addr of proxy server and portno.
save and exit
for windows clients:

open internet explorer
tools-> internet options-> connections -> lan connections ->
specify proxy server's ip addr and portno

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FILESYSTEM HIERARCHY SYSTEM

Linux uses single rooted, inverted tree like filesystem hierarchy

/ this is top level directory

/t m p It stored temporary files

pwd.... print present working dir

date...... to display date and time

who ........ to see who is logged in

whoami ..... to show who is working on present terminal

cal... to show calender

mkdir..... make directory

we can use -p option to create dir inside a dir

how to create files:-

touch command is used to create blank files

s y n t ax # cat > < new file name >

how to see contents of file

how to copy file:

s y n t ax # cp < source name > < target name >

by default cp command will not copy directory

how to delete a file:

to remove a directory also we have to use -r option

cd - means switch directory to previous directory

ls......... list directories

this command is used to list the contents of a directory

the output of ll command shows following iformation:-

VI visual display editor

this is command mode editor for files

i Insert at current cursor position

:w to save the file

How to find and replace:-

head ........ this command is used to see first 10 lines of a file.

tail ....... this command is used to see last 10 lines of a file.

redirection:- used to give output of one command to a file.ex.

pipe:- used to give output of one command to another command

Note: grep:- Global Regular Expression Print

wc..... word count

User Group Administration

UID for system users 0 to 499

how to create user:

all of user information is stored in /etc/passwd file.

after creating users we can modify its properties by using:

ex. # usermod -l newname oldname

how to set password:

the password information is stored inside /etc/shadow file

how to delete a user account:

to add/delete secondary users to group

to delete group ( group must not contain any primary user )

note: all information of group is stored in /etc/group file

to see the present permission on any file:-

permission are applied on three levels:-

access modes are of three types:-

access modes are different on file and directory

the output of ls -ld command shows following properties

permission can be set on any file/dir by two methods:-

to set the permission on file/dir 'chmod' command is used

different permissions on file and directory:-

how to set permission on file/dir:-

ex. # chmod 000 /file.txt

for root user:-

for normal user:-

There are 3 types of adv. permissions:

to set adv permissions by using numeric method we use

how to set ip addr temporarily:-