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PHYS1112 - Electricity and Magnetism Lecture Notes: Dr. Jason Chun Shing Pun
PHYS1112 - Electricity and Magnetism Lecture Notes: Dr. Jason Chun Shing Pun
Lecture Notes
January 2005
Contents
1 Vector Algebra 1
1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Components of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Multiplication of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Vector Field (Physics Point of View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Other Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Electric Potential 36
4.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V . . . . 45
4.4 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
i
5.5 Dielectric Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.6 Capacitor with Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.7 Gauss’ Law in Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.8 Ohm’s Law and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.9 DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.10 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Magnetic Force 73
6.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 Motion of A Point Charge in Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.3 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.4 Magnetic Force on Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7 Magnetic Field 81
7.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.2 Parallel Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.3 Ampère’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4 Magnetic Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.5 Magnetic Dipole in A Constant B-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9 Inductance 107
9.1 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2 LR Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.3 Energy Stored in Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.4 LC Circuit (Electromagnetic Oscillator) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.5 RLC Circuit (Damped Oscillator) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10 AC Circuits 116
10.1 Alternating Current (AC) Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.2 Phase Relation Between i, V for R,L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.3 Single Loop RLC AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10.4 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.5 Power in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.6 The Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
ii
11 Displacement Current and Maxwell’s Equations 125
11.1 Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.2 Induced Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
11.3 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
iii
Chapter 1
Vector Algebra
1.1 Definitions
A vector consists of two components: magnitude and direction .
(e.g. force, velocity, pressure)
A scalar consists of magnitude only.
(e.g. mass, charge, density)
~a + ~b = ~b + ~a
~ = (~a + ~c) + d~
~a + (~c + d)
1.3. COMPONENTS OF VECTORS 2
Magnitude of ~a = |~a| = a,
q
a= a2x + a2y + a2z
~a = ~ax + ~ay
q
a = a2x + a2y
ax = a cosφ; ay = a sinφ
ay
tanφ =
ax
Figure 1.2: φ measured anti-clockwise
from position x-axis
~a = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
1. Polar Coordinate:
~a = ar r̂ + aθ θ̂
2. Cylindrical Coordinates:
~a = ar r̂ + aθ θ̂ + az ẑ
3. Spherical Coordinates:
~a = ar r̂ + aθ θ̂ + aφ φ̂
~a · ~b = ~b · ~a
î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
î · ĵ = ĵ · k̂ = k̂ · î = 0
If ~a = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
~b = bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂
then ~a · ~b = ax bx + ay by + az bz
~a · ~a = |~a| · |~a| cos0◦ = a · a = a2
1.4. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS 5
If ~c = ~a × ~b,
then c = |~c| = a b sinφ
~a × ~b 6= ~b × ~a !!!
~a × ~b = −~b × ~a
• IMPORTANT:
~a × ~a = a · a sin0◦ = 0
î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
î × ĵ = k̂; ĵ × k̂ = î; k̂ × î = ĵ
¯ î ĵ k̂ ¯¯
¯
~a × ~b = ¯¯ ax ¯
ay az ¯¯ = (ay bz − az by ) î
¯
bx by bz +(az bx − ax bz ) ĵ
+(ax by − ay bx ) k̂
1.5. VECTOR FIELD (PHYSICS POINT OF VIEW) 6
4. Vector identities:
~a × (~b + ~c) = ~a × ~b + ~a × ~c
~a · (~b × ~c) = ~b · (~c × ~a) = ~c · (~a × ~b)
~a × (~b × ~c) = (~a · ~c) ~b − (~a · ~b) ~c
~ y, z))
(Scalar field U(x,
Figure 1.8: d~l is a vector that is always tangential to the curve C with infinitesimal
length dl
Surface Vector
Figure 1.9: d~a is a vector that is always perpendicular to the surface S with
infinitesimal area da
1.6. OTHER TOPICS 7
Two conventions:
F~12 = 1
4π²0 · qr12q2 · r̂12
12
~r12
where r̂12 = is the unit vector which locates particle 1 relative to particle 2.
|~r12 |
• Charge is quantized
Recall 1 electron carries 1.602 × 10−19 C
COULOMB’S LAW:
(1) q1 , q2 can be either positive or negative.
2.2. THE ELECTRIC FIELD 9
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:
N
X
F~1 = F~1,j
j=2
F~ ~
lim =E
q0 →0 q0
1 q0 qi
F~0,i = · 2 · r̂0,i
4π²0 r0,i
where r̂0,i is the unit vector along the direction from charge qi to q0 ,
r̂0,i = Unit vector from charge qi to point P
= r̂i (radical unit vector from qi )
~
Recall E~ = lim F
q0 →0 q0
∴ E-field due to qi at point P:
~i = 1 qi
E · 2 · r̂i
4π²0 ri
where ~ri = Vector pointing from qi to point P,
thus r̂i = Unit vector pointing from qi to point P
Note:
(1) E-field is a vector.
(2) Direction of E-field depends on both position of P and sign of qi .
(b) E-field due to system of charges:
Principle of Superposition:
In a system with N charges, the total E-field due to all charges is the
vector sum of E-field due to individual charges.
2.2. THE ELECTRIC FIELD 11
X 1 X qi
i.e. ~ =
E ~i =
E r̂i
i 4π²0 i ri2
Notice: ~ + and E
Horizontal E-field components of E ~ − cancel out.
E+ or E− magnitude!
µ z }| { ¶
1 q
∴E =2 · 2 cos θ
4π²0 r
s
³ d ´2
But r = + x2
2
d/2
cos θ =
r
1 p
∴E = ·
4π²0 [x2 + ( d2 )2 ] 32
(p = qd)
Special case: When x À d
d 3 d 3
[x2 + ( )2 ] 2 = x3 [1 + ( )2 ] 2
2 2x
• Binomial Approximation:
(1 + y)n ≈ 1 + ny if y ¿ 1
1 p 1
E-field of dipole + · 3 ∼ 3
4π²0 x x
1
• Compare with E-field for single charge
r2
• Result also valid for point P along any axis with respect to dipole
~ = 1 dq
dE · 2 · r̂
4π²0 r
2.3. CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION 13
charge per
unit length
=λ
(1) Symmetry considered: The E-field from +z and −z directions cancel along
z-direction, ∴ Only horizontal E-field components need to be considered.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = λdz
∴ Horizontal E-field at point P due to element dz =
~ cos θ = 1 λdz
|dE| · 2 cos θ
4π²0 r
| {z }
dEdz
∴ E-field due to entire line charge at point P
ˆL/2
1 λdz
E = · 2 cos θ
4π²0 r
−L/2
ˆL/2
λ dz
= 2 · 2 cos θ
4π²0 r
0
2.3. CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION 14
ˆθ0
λ x sec2 θ dθ
E = 2· · cos θ
4π²0 x2 sec2 θ
0
ˆθ0
λ 1
= 2· · cos θ dθ
4π²0 x
0
λ 1 ¯θ0
= 2· · · (sin θ)¯¯
4π²0 x 0
λ 1
= 2· · · sin θ0
4π²0 x
λ 1 L/2
= 2· · ·q
4π²0 x x2 + ( L2 )2
1 λL
E= · q along x-direction
4π²0 x x2 + ( L )2
2
1 λL
2. L À x : E+ ·
4π²0 x · L2
λ
Ex =
2π²0 x
(1) Symmetry considered: For every charge element dq considered, there exists
~ field components cancel.
dq0 where the horizontal E
⇒ Overall E-field lies along z-direction.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge
dq = λ · ds
↑ ↑
Linear Circular
charge density length element
ˆ
Total E-field = dE
ˆ 2π
1 λR dφ z
= · · cos θ (cos θ = )
0 4π²0 r2 r
Note: Here in this case, θ, R and r are fixed as φ varies! BUT we want to
convert r, θ to R, z. ˆ 2π
1 λRz
E= · 3 dφ
4π²0 r 0
1 λ(2πR)z
E= · 2 along z-axis
4π²0 (z + R2 )3/2
dq = σ · ( 2πr
| {z dr} )
Area of the ring
ˆ R
1 2πσr dr · z
∴ E =
4π²0 0 (z 2 + r2 )3/2
ˆ R
1 r dr
= 2πσz 2
4π²0 0 (z + r2 )3/2
• Change of variable:
u = z 2 + r2 ⇒ (z 2 + r2 )3/2 = u3/2
⇒ du = 2r dr ⇒ r dr = 21 du
σ
E≈
2²0
E-field is normal to the charged surface
Figure 2.2: E-field due to an infi-
nite sheet of charge, charge den-
sity = σ
Conventions:
1. The start on position charges and end on negative charges.
2. Direction of E-field at any point is given by tangent of E-field line.
F~ = q E
~ = m~a
Example:
Assume that mass of inkdrop is small, what’s the deflection y of the charge?
Solution:
∴ L = vt (2.1)
2.6. DIPOLE IN E-FIELD 22
qE
∴ a=− (2.2)
m
Vertical distance travelled:
1 2
y= at
2
• Dipole moment:
p~ = q d~
Reminder:
Net torque ~τ
• direction: clockwise
torque
• magnitude:
τ = τ+ve + τ−ve
d d
= F · sin θ + F · sin θ
2 2
= qE · d sin θ
= pE sin θ
~
~τ = p~ × E
Energy Consideration:
dW = −τ dθ
1 2
BUT: Because E-field is a conservative force field , we can define a
potential energy (U ) for the system, so that
dU = −dW
∴ For the dipole in external E-field:
dU = −dW = pE sin θ dθ
ˆ ˆ
∴ U (θ) = dU = pE sin θ dθ
= −pE cos θ + U0
1
more to come in Chap.4 of notes
2
ref. Halliday Vol.1 Pg.257, Chap 12.1
2.6. DIPOLE IN E-FIELD 24
set U (θ = 90◦ ) = 0,
∴ 0 = −pE cos 90◦ + U0
∴ U0 = 0
∴ Potential energy:
~
U = −pE cos θ = −~p · E
Chapter 3
Mathematically:
~ is not
For non-uniform E-field & surface, direction of the area vector A
uniform.
∴ Electric flux ~ · dA
dΦE = E ~
ˆ
~ through surface S:
Electric flux of E ΦE = E~ · dA~
S
ˆ
= Surface integral over surface S
S
= Integration of integral over all area elements on surface S
Example:
~ = 1 −2q −q
E · 2 r̂ = r̂
4π²0 r 2π²0 R2
For a hemisphere, dA ~ = dA r̂
ˆ
−q
ΦE = 2
r̂ · (dA r̂) (∵ r̂ · r̂ = 1)
S 2π²0 R ˆ
q
= − dA
2π²0 R2 S
| {z }
2πR2
−q
=
²0
For a closed surface:
˛
Electric flux over closed surface S: ΦE = ~ · dA
E ~
S
˛
= Surface integral over closed surface S
S
Example:
~ = 1 q q
E · 2 r̂ = r̂ at the surface
4π²0 r 4π²0 R2
~ = dA · r̂
Again, dA
~
E
˛ z }| {z }| {
~
dA
q
∴ ΦE = 2
r̂ · dA r̂
S 4π²0 R
˛
q
= dA
4π²0 R2 S
| {z }
Total surface area of S = 4πR2
q
ΦE =
²0
IMPORTANT POINT:
If we remove the spherical symmetry of closed surface S, the total number of
E-field lines crossing the surface remains the same.
∴ The electric flux ΦE
3.2. GAUSS’ LAW 28
˛ ˛
ΦE = ~ · dA
E ~= ~= q
~ · dA
E
²0
S S0
• Gauss’ Law is valid for all charge distributions and all closed surfaces.
(Gaussian surfaces)
• For system with high order of symmetry, E-field can be easily determined if
we construct Gaussian surfaces with the same symmetry and applies Gauss’
Law
˛
Gauss’ Law: E ~ = Total charge = λL
~ · dA
S ²0 ²0
3.3. E-FIELD CALCULATION WITH GAUSS’ LAW 29
˛ ˆ ˆ ˆ
~ · dA
E ~= ~ · dA
E ~+ ~ · dA
E ~+ ~ · dA
E ~
S S1 S2 S3
| {z } | {z }
~ A
Ekd ~ ~
= 0 ∵E⊥dA~
ˆ
λL
∴ E dA =
S ²0
| 1{z }
Total area of surface S1
λL
E(2πrL) =
²0
λ
∴ E = (Compare with Chapter 2 note)
2π²0 r
~ = λ
E r̂
2π²0 r
˛
Gauss’ Law: E ~ = Aσ
~ · dA
S ²0
ˆ
~ · dA
E ~=0 ~ ⊥ dA
∵E ~ over whole surface S1
S1
ˆ ˆ
~ · dA
E ~+ ~ · dA
E ~ = 2EA (E
~ k dA
~ 2, E
~ k dA
~ 3)
S2 S3
3.3. E-FIELD CALCULATION WITH GAUSS’ LAW 30
Aσ σ
∴ 2EA = ⇒ E= (Compare with Chapter 2 note)
²0 2²0
~ = Q
∴ E r̂ ; for r > R
4π²0 r2
q Volume enclosed by S 0
∴ =
Q Total volume of sphere
3.4. GAUSS’ LAW AND CONDUCTORS 31
q 4/3 πr3 r3
= ⇒ q= Q
Q 4/3 πR3 R3
˛
Gauss’ Law: E ~= q
~ · dA
S0 ²0
˛
r3 1
E dA = ·Q
0 R3 ²0
| S{z }
surface area of S 0 = 4πr2
~ = 1 Q
∴ E · 3 r r̂ ; for r ≤ R
4π²0 R
ˆ
BUT ~ · dA
E ~=0 (∵ E
~ ⊥ dA
~)
ˆS1
~ · dA
E ~=0 ~ = 0 inside conductor )
(∵ E
S3
ˆ ˆ
~ · dA
E ~ = E dA ~ k dA
(∵ E ~)
S2 S2
| {z }
Area of S2
= EA
σA
∴ Gauss’ Law ⇒ EA =
²0
σ
∴ On conductor’s surface E =
²0
Example:
3.4. GAUSS’ LAW AND CONDUCTORS 33
(ii) For r ≥ R:
Consider Gaussian surface S1 :
˛
~ = Q
~ · dA
E
S1 ²0
˛ For a conductor
z }| {
E ~ = Q
dA ( E~ k dA
~ k r̂ )
S1 ²0 |{z}
| {z } Spherically symmetric
4πr2
Q
E =
4π²0 r2
∴ E-field = 0 inside
Example:
Inside hollow cylinder ( +2q )
(
Inner radius a
Outer radius b
For the inside hollow cylinder, charges distribute only on the sur-
face.
∴ Inner radius a surface, charge = 0
and Outer radius b surface, charge = +2q
For the outside hollow cylinder, charges do not distribute only on
outside.
∵ It’s not an isolated system. (There are charges inside!)
Q
∴ Surface charge density σ =
A
By principle of superposition
Electric Potential
dW = F~ · d~s
~ in moving the particle from Point 1 to Point 2
∴ Total work done W by force F
ˆ 2
W = F~ · d~s
1
Path A
ˆ 2
= Path Integral
1
Path A
= Integration over Path A from Point 1 to Point 2.
4.1. POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATIVE FORCES 37
ˆ 2 ˆ 1
Work done = F~ · d~s + F~ · d~s
1 2
Path A Path C
ˆ 2 ˆ 2
= F~ · d~s − F~ · d~s
1 1
Path A Path B
Example:
Suppose charge q2
moves from point 1
to 2.
ˆ 2
From definition: U2 − U1 = − F~ · d~r
1
ˆ r2
= − F dr ( ∵ F~ k d~r )
ˆr1r2
1 q1 q2
= −
2
dr
r1 4π²0 r
ˆ ¯r
dr 1 1 q1 q2 ¯¯ 2
(∵ =− +C ) = ¯
r2 r 4π²0 r ¯r1
µ ¶
1 1 1
−∆W = ∆U = q1 q2 −
4π²0 r2 r1
Note:
REFERENCE POINT: U (r = ∞) = 0
µ ¶
1 1 1
∴ U∞ − U1 = q1 q2 −
4π²0 r2 r1
↓
∞
1 q1 q2
U (r) = ·
4π²0 r
or ∆E = ∆K + ∆U = 0
∆U −∆W
∆V = =
q0 q0
• Similarly, we take V (r = ∞) = 0.
• Electric Potential is a scalar.
• Unit: V olt(V ) = Joules/Coulomb
• For a single point charge:
1 q
V (r) = ·
4π²0 r
• Energy Unit: ∆U = q∆V
V = V1 + V2 + · · · + VN (principle of superposition)
· ¸
1 q1 q2 qN
= + + ··· +
4π²0 r1 r2 rN
4.2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 41
N
1 X qi
V =
4π²0 i=1 ri
ˆ
1 dq
∴ V = ·
4π²0 r
charge
distribution
Similar to the previous examples on E-field, for the case of uniform charge
distribution:
∴ charge dq = λ ds
= λR dθ
1 dq 1 λR dθ
dV = · = ·√ 2
4π²0 r 4π²0 R + z2
Limiting Case:
(1) If |z| À R
s
√ ³
R2 ´
z 2 + R2 = z2 1 +
z2
³ R2 ´ 1
= |z| · 1 + 2 2 ( (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx if x ¿ 1 )
z
³ R2 ´ |z| 1
' |z| · 1 + 2 ( 2
= )
2z z |z|
σ R2 Q
∴ At large z, V ' · = (like a point charge)
2²0 2|z| 4π²0 |z|
where Q = total charge on disk = σ · πR2
4.2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 44
(2) If |z| ¿ R
√ ³z 2 ´ 12
z 2 + R2 = R · 1 +
R2
³ z2 ´
' R 1+
2R2
σ h z2 i
∴ V ' R − |z| +
2²0 2R
σR
At z = 0, V = ; Let’s call this V0
2²0
σR h |z| z2 i
∴ V (z) = 1− +
2²0 R 2R2
h |z| z2 i
V (z) = V0 1 − +
R 2R2
The key here is that it is the difference between potentials of two points
that is important.
⇒ A convenience reference point to compare in this example is the
potential of the charged disk.
∴ The important quantity here is
|z| z 2 ½½
V (z) − V0 = − V0 + ½2 V0
R ½2R
neglected as z ¿ R
V0
V (z) − V0 = − |z|
R
4.3. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD E AND ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL V 45
4.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Elec-
tric Potential V
(A) To get V from E:~
Recall our definition of the potential V:
∆U W12
∆V = =−
q0 q0
where ∆U is the change in P.E.; W12 is the work done in bringing charge
q0 from point 1 to 2.
´2
− 1 F~ · d~s
∴ ∆V = V2 − V1 =
q0
ˆ 2
∴ ∆V = V2 − V1 = − ~ · d~s
E
1
Note: The integral on the right hand side of the above can be calculated
along any path from point 1 to 2. (Path-Independent)
ˆ P
Convention: V∞ = 0 ⇒ VP = − ~ · d~s
E
∞
~ from V :
(B) To get E
∆U = q0 ∆V = −W
| {z }
Work done
However,
W = ~ · ∆~s
qE0
|{z}
Electric force
= q0 Es ∆s
∴ q0 ∆V = −q0 Es ∆s
4.3. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD E AND ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL V 46
∆V
∴ Es = −
∆s
For infinitesimal ∆s,
dV
∴ Es = −
ds
Note: (1) Therefore the E-field component along any direction is the neg-
tive derivative of the potential along the same direction.
~ then ∆V = 0
(2) If d~s ⊥ E,
(3) ∆V is biggest/smallest if d~s k E~
~
Generally, for a potential V (x, y, z), the relation between E(x, y, z) and V
is
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
, , are partial derivatives
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
For V (x, y, z), everything y, z are treated like a constant and we only
∂x
take derivative with respect to x.
Example: If V (x, y, z) = x2 y − z
∂V
=
∂x
∂V
=
∂y
∂V
=
∂z
For other co-ordinate systems
(1) Cylindrical:
∂V
Er = −
∂r
1 ∂V
V (r, θ, z) E θ = − ·
r ∂θ
∂V
Ez = −
∂z
4.3. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD E AND ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL V 47
(2) Spherical:
∂V
Er = −
∂r
1 ∂V
V (r, θ, φ) Eθ = − ·
r ∂θ
1 ∂V
Eφ = − ·
r sin θ ∂φ
Note: Calculating V involves summation of scalars, which is easier than
adding vectors for calculating E-field.
∴ To find the E-field of a general charge system, we first calculate
V , and then derive E~ from the partial derivative.
Example: Uniformly charged disk
From potential calculations:
σ √ 2 for a point along
V = ( R + z 2 − |z| )
2²0 the z-axis
ˆ s
~ · d~s (V− = Potential of
i.e. VP − V− = − E −ve plate)
ˆ0 s
∵ E,~ d~s pointing
= − (−E ds)
opposite directions
ˆ0 s
= E ds = Es
0
Convenient reference: V− = 0
∴ VP = E · s
4.4. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES 48
1 +q
V (r) = · = const
4π²0 r
⇒ r = const
Note: (1) A charge can move freely on an equipotential surface without any
work done.
(2) The electric field lines must be perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces. (Why?)
On an equipotential surface, V = constant
⇒ ∆V = 0 ⇒ E ~ · d~l = 0, where d~l is tangent to equipotential surface
∴ ~ must be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
E
σ
Recall V = V0 − |z|
2²0
↑
Potential at z = 0
Equipotential surface means
σ
V = const ⇒ V0 − |z| = C
2²0
⇒ |z| = constant
4.4. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES 49
Recall:
E = 0 ⇒ ∆V = 0 everywhere in conductor
⇒ V = constant everywhere in conductor
⇒ The entire conductor is at the same potential
σ1 q1 R22 R2
∴ = · 2 =
σ2 q2 R 1 R1
∴ If R1 < R2 , then σ1 > σ2
And the surface electric field E1 > E2
For arbitrary shape conductor:
5.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is a system of two conductors that carries equal and opposite
charges. A capacitor stores charge and energy in the form of electro-static field.
We define capacitance as
Q
C= Unit: Farad(F)
V
where
Q = Charge on one plate
V = Potential difference between the plates
Note: The C of a capacitor is a constant that depends only on its shape and
material.
i.e. If we increase V for a capacitor, we can increase Q stored.
~ = σ Q
|E| =
²0 ²0 A
Q ²0 A
(3) ∴ C= =
∆V d
(1) Using Gauss’ Law, we determine that the E-field between the conductors
is (cf. Chap3 note)
~ = 1 λ 1 Q
E · r̂ = · r̂
2π²0 r 2π²0 Lr
where λ is charge per unit length
(2)
ˆ −
∆V = ~ · d~s
E
+
~
Again, we choose the path of integration so that d~s k r̂ k E
ˆ r2 ˆ r2
Q dr
∴ ∆V = E dr =
r1 2π²0 L r1 r
| {z }
r
ln( r2 )
1
Q L
∴ C= = 2π²0
∆V ln(r2 /r1 )
ˆ −
∆V = ~ · d~s
E
ˆ+r2
1 Q
Choose d~
s k r̂ = · 2 dr
r1 4π²0 r
· ¸
Q 1 1
= −
4π²0 r1 r2
· ¸
r1 r2
C = 4π²0
r2 − r1
5.3. CAPACITORS IN COMBINATION 54
Total charge Q = Q1 + Q2
= C1 V + C2 V
Q = (C1 + C2 ) V
| {z }
Equivalent capacitance
∆V = Va − Vb
= ∆V1 + ∆V2
1 1 Q
∆V = Q( + )=
C1 C2 C
where C is the Equivalent Capacitance
1 1 1
∴ = +
C C1 C2
5.4. ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITOR 55
Suppose we move charge dq from −ve to +ve plate, change in potential energy
q
dU = ∆V · dq = dq
C
Suppose we keep putting in a total charge Q to the capacitor, the total potential
energy ˆ ˆ Q
q
U = dU = dq
0 C
Q2 1
∴ U= = C∆V 2 (∵ Q=C∆V )
2C 2
The energy stored in the capacitor is stored in the electric field between the
plates.
E 0 = −E0
Or, we can envision this so that in the absence of E-field, the direction of dipole
in the dielectric are randomly distributed.
5.6. CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC 58
The aligned dipoles will generate an induced E-field E 0 , where |E 0 | < |E0 |.
We can observe the aligned dipoles in the form of induced surface charge.
1
E= E0
Ke
Ke = dielectric constant ≥1
Example :
Vacuum Ke =1
Porcelain Ke = 6.5
Water Ke ∼ 80
Perfect conductor Ke =∞
Air Ke = 1.00059
Ke ²0 A
C=
d
5.6. CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC 59
²A
We can also write C= in general with
d
² = Ke ²0 (called permittivity of dielectric)
(Recall ²0 = Permittivity of free space)
Q2
Energy stored U = ;
2C
1
∴ Unew = Uold < Uold
Ke
⇒ Q0 = Ke Q > Q
5.7. GAUSS’ LAW IN DIELECTRIC 60
∴ Capacitor C = Q/V ⇒ C 0 → Ke C
Energy stored U = 21 CV 2 ⇒ U 0 → Ke U
(i.e. Unew > Uold )
Free charge
±Q ±Q
on plates
Induced charge
0 ∓Q0
on dielectric
˛ h i
⇒ ²0 E ~ =Q−Q 1− 1
~ 0 · dA
Ke
˛S
~ 0 · dA
~= Q
⇒ ²0 E
S Ke
˛
~=Q
~ 0 · dA
Ke E Gauss’ Law
S ²0 in dielectric
Note :
E0
(1) This goes back to the Gauss’ Law in vacuum with E = for dielectric
Ke
(2) Only free charges need to be considered, even for dielectric where there
are induced charges.
(3) Another way to write: ˛
~=Q
~ · dA
E
S ²
where ~ is E-field in dielectric,
E ² = Ke ²0 is Permittivity
V = Ed
∴ Energy stored per unit volume:
U 1
ue = = Ke ²0 E 2
Ad 2
Convention :
Drift Velocity :
∆Q = q A(Vd ∆t) n
| {z }
Volume of charge
passing through
∆Q
∴ Current: i= = nqAvd
∆t
Note : For metal, the charge carriers are the free electrons inside.
∴ ~j = −ne~ vd for metals
∴ Inside metals, ~j and ~vd are in opposite direction.
~
~j = σ E
5.8. OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCE 63
1
A more commonly used property, resistivity (ρ), is defined as ρ=
σ
∴ ~ = ρ~j
E
OHM’S LAW:
Ohmic materials have resistivity that are independent of the applied electric field.
i.e. metals (in not too high E-field)
Example :
∆V L
=R=ρ
i A
ENERGY IN CURRENT:
5.9 DC Circuits
A battery is a device that supplies electrical energy to maintain a current in a
circuit.
Example :
)
Va = Vc
assuming(1) perfect conducting wires.
Vb = Vd
By Definition: Vc − Vd = iR
Va − Vb = E
E
∴ E = iR ⇒ i=
R
Also, we have assumed(2) zero resistance inside battery.
Resistance in combination :
Example :
∴ E = i(R + r)
E
i =
R+r
Joule’s heating in resistor R :
dP E2
Setting =0 ⇒ [(R + r) − 2R] = 0
dR (R + r)3
⇒ r−R=0
⇒ R=r
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 67
KIRCHOFF’S LAWS:
Convention :
(i)
Example :
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 68
By junction rule:
i1 = i2 + i3 (5.1)
By loop rule:
i1 = i2 + i3 (5.1)
3E0 − 2i1 R − i2 R = 0 (5.2)
−2E0 + i2 R − 2i3 R = 0 (5.3)
3E0 − 2(i2 + i3 )R − i2 R = 0
⇒ 3E0 − 3i2 R − 2i3 R = 0 (5.4)
5 E0
⇒ i2 = ·
4 R
3 E0
⇒ i3 = − ·
8 R
Note: A negative current means that it is flowing in opposite direction from the
one assumed.
5.10 RC Circuits
(A) Charging a capacitor with battery:
i
z}|{
dQ Q 1st order
∴ E =R + differential eqn.
dt C
dQ dt
⇒ =
EC − Q RC
Integrate both sides and use the initial condition:
t = 0, Q on capacitor = 0
ˆ Q ˆ t
dQ dt
=
0 EC − Q 0 RC
5.10. RC CIRCUITS 70
¯Q t ¯¯t
− ln(EC − Q)¯¯ = ¯
0 RC 0
t
⇒ − ln(EC − Q) + ln(EC) =
RC
³ 1 ´ t
⇒ ln Q =
1 − EC RC
1 t/RC
⇒ Q = e
1 − EC
Q
⇒ = 1 − e−t/RC
EC
⇒ Q(t) = EC(1 − e−t/RC )
(4) At time = 0, the capacitor acts like short circuit when there is
zero charge on the capacitor.
(5) As time → ∞, the capacitor is fully charged and current = 0, it
acts like a open circuit.
5.10. RC CIRCUITS 71
(6) τc = RC is called the time constant. It’s the time it takes for
the charge to reach (1 − 1e ) Q0 ' 0.63Q0
1
At t = RC = τ Q(t = RC) = Q0 ' 0.37Q0
e
Chapter 6
Magnetic Force
Mathematically, F~E = q E
~ (electric force)
F~B = q~v × B
~ (magnetic force)
Direction of the magnetic force determined from right hand rule.
F~ = q~v × B
~
6.1. MAGNETIC FIELD 74
v2
∴ FB = m
r
v2
|q| vB = m
r
mv
∴ r =
|q|B
where r is radius of circular motion.
Note :
(1) B-field does NO work on particles.
(2) B-field does NOT change K.E. of particles.
Particle Motion in Presence of E-field & B-field:
F~ = q E
~ + q~v × B
~ Lorentz Force
Special Case : ~ ⊥B
E ~
E
⇒ v=
B
∴ For charged particles moving at v = E/B, they will pass through the
crossed E and B fields without vertical displacement.
⇒ velocity selector
Applications :
• Cyclotron (Lawrence & Livingston 1934)
• Measuring e/m for electrons (Thomson 1897)
• Mass Spectrometer (Aston 1919)
The separation will stop when FB experienced by the current carrier is balanced
by the force F~H caused by the E-field set up by the separated charges.
Define :
In equilibrium: ~ H + q~vd × B
qE ~ = 0, where ~vd is drift velocity
∆VH
∴ = vd B
W
Recall from Chapter 5,
i = nqAvd
where n is density of charge carrier,
A is cross-sectional area = width × thickness = W · t
∆VH i
∴ = B
W nqW t
iB To determine density
⇒ n= of charge carriers
qt∆VH
net
B= ∆VH
i
6.4. MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTS 78
~ )·
Total magnetic force = ( q~vd × B n
| {z } | A
{z L}
force on one Total number of
charge carrier charge carrier
Recall i = nqvd A
dF~ = i d~l × B
~
d~l = Infinitesimal
~
arc length element ⊥ B
∴ dl = R dθ
∴ dF = iRB dθ
ˆ π
∴ F~ = dF~
0
"ˆ π ˆ π
#
= −iRB sin θ dθ ĵ + cos θ dθ î
0 0
= −2iRB ĵ
For segment2:
For segment4:
= τ1 + τ3
b b
= iaB · sin θ + iaB · sin θ
2 2
= i |{z}
ab B sin θ
A = area of loop
Define: Unit vector n̂ to represent the area-vector (using right hand rule)
Magnetic Field
~ = µ0 · q~v × r̂ = µ0 · q~v × ~r
B
4π r2 4π r3
where µ0 = 4π × 10−7 Tm/A (N/A2 )
~ at P0 = 0 = B
B ~ at P1
~ ~
B at P2 < B at P3
However, a single moving charge will NOT generate a steady magnetic field.
stationary charges generate steady E-field.
steady currents generate steady B-field.
7.1. MAGNETIC FIELD 82
~ = µ0 dq ~v × r̂
∴ dB ·
4π r2
d~s
Notice: dq ~v = dq · = i d~s
dt
~ = µ0 i d~s × r̂
dB · Biot-Savart Law
4π r2
For current around a whole circuit:
ˆ ˆ
~ = ~ = µ0 i d~s × r̂
B dB ·
4π r2
entire entire
circuit circuit
∴ |d~
s × r̂| = dz sin φ
= dz sin(π − φ) (Trigonometry Identity)
d d · dz
= dz · = √ 2
r d + z2
µ0 i dz d µ0 i d
dB = · 2 · = · 2 dz
4π r r 4π (d + z 2 )3/2
ˆ L/2 ˆ
µ0 id +L/2 dz
∴ B= dB =
−L/2 4π −L/2 (d + z 2 )3/2
2
¯
µ0 i z ¯+L/2
B = · ¯
4πd (z 2 + d2 )1/2 ¯−L/2
µ0 i L
B = · L2
4πd ( 4 + d2 )1/2
Limiting Cases : When L À d (B-field due to long wire)
³ L2 ´−1/2 ³ L2 ´−1/2 2
+ d2 ≈ =
4 4 L
µ0 i direction of B-field determined
∴ B= ; from right-hand screw rule
2πd
λ
Recall : E = for an infinite long line of charge.
2π²0 d
Example 2 : A circular current loop
7.1. MAGNETIC FIELD 84
~1
Notice that for every current element id~s1 , generating a magnetic field dB
at point P , there is an opposite current element id~s2 , generating B-field
~ 2 so that
dB
dB~ 1 sin α = −dB~ 2 sin α
∴ Only vertical component of B-field needs to be considered at point P .
∵d~
s⊥r̂
z}|{
µ0 i ds sin 90◦
dB = ·
4π r2
∴ B-field at point P :
ˆ
B= dB cos
| {z α}
around consider vertical
circuit component
ˆ2π
µ0 i cos α
∴ B = · |{z}
ds
4πr2
0 Rdθ
ˆ 2π
µ0 i R
= · ds
4π r3 0
| {z }
Integrate around circum-
ference of circle = 2πR
µ0 iR2
∴ B =
2r3
Limiting Cases :
(1) B-field at center of loop:
µ0 i
z=0 ⇒ B=
2R
(2) For z À R,
µ0 iR2 µ0 iR2 1
B= ³ ´3/2 ≈ 3
∝ 3
2z 3 1 + R2 2z z
z2
p
Recall E-field for an electric dipole: E=
4π²0 x3
∴ A circular current loop is also called a magnetic dipole.
7.1. MAGNETIC FIELD 85
ˆ
B = dB cos
| {z α}
around z=0 ⇒
circuit α = 0 here.
Rθ = length of arc
z }| {
ˆ θ
µ0 i R
= · 3 · ds
|{z}
4π |{z}
r 0 Rdθ
R=r
when α = 0
µ0 i θ
B =
4πR
∴ Total current = ni dz
7.2. PARALLEL CURRENTS 86
Using the result from one coil in Example 2, we get B-field from coils of
length dz at distance z from center:
µ0 (ni dz)R2
dB =
2r3
q
However r = R2 + (z − d)2
ˆ +L/2
(Integrating over the
∴ B = dB entire solenoid)
−L/2
ˆ +L/2
µ0 niR2 dz
=
2 −L/2 [R2 + (z − d)2 ]3/2
L L
µ0 ni 2
+d 2
−d
B = q + q
2 R2 + ( L2 + d)2 R2 + ( L2 − d)2
along negative z direction
Ideal Solenoid :
LÀR
µ0 ni
then B= [1 + 1]
2
direction of B-field determined
∴ B = µ0 ni ; from right-hand screw rule
B~ 1 = µ0 i1 (pointing down) ~ 2 = µ0 i1
B (pointing up)
2πd 2πd
Force on i2 coming from i1 :
Limiting Cases :
(1) d À a
a a
tan θ = ⇒ θ≈
2d 2d
µ0 i B-field due to
∴ B= infinite long wire
2πa
(2) d ¿ a (Infinite sheet of current)
a π
tan θ = → ∞ ⇒ θ=
2d 2
µ0 i
∴ B= Constant!
2a
Question : Large sheet of opposite flowing currents.
‹ ˛
~=0
~ · dA ∵ There is no mag-
B netic monopole.
S S
A more useful law for calculating B-field for highly symmetric situations is the
Ampère’s Law:
˛ ˛
B~ · d~s = µ0 i
C C
˛
= Line intefral evaluated around a closed loop C (Amperian curve)
C
i = Net current that penetrates the area bounded by curve C ∗ (topological property)
Convention : Use the right-hand screw rule to determine the sign of current.
˛
~ · d~s = µ0 (i1 − i3 + i4 − i4 )
B
C
= µ0 (i1 − i3 )
Construct an Amperian
curve of radius d:
~
By symmetry argument, we know B-field only has tangential compo-
nent ˛
∴ ~ · d~s = µ0 i
B
C
7.3. AMPÈRE’S LAW 90
iincluded πr2
∴ =
i πR2
r2
∴ iincluded = i
R2
µ0 i
∴ B= ·r ∝r
2πR2
Recall: Uniformly charged infinite long rod
(3) Solenoid (Ideal)
˛ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
½ ½ ½
~ · d~s =
B ~ · d~s +
B ~ ·½
B ~ ·½ ~ ·½
½ d~
s+ B ½ d~
s+ B½ d~
s
½ ½ ½
C 1 ½
2 ½
3 ½
4
ˆ ˆ (
~ · d~s = 0 inside solenoid
B
= =0 ∵
~ = 0 outside solenoid
2 4 B
ˆ
=0 ∵ ~ = 0 outside solenoid
B
3
˛ ˆ
∴ ~ · d~s = B
B ~ · d~s = Bl = µ0 itot
C 1
But itot = |{z}
nl ·i
Number of coils included
∴ B = µ0 ni
Note :
(i) The assumption that B ~ = 0 outside the ideal solenoid is only
approximate. (Halliday, Pg.763)
(ii) B-field everywhere inside the solenoid is a constant. (for ideal
solenoid)
(4) Toroid (A circular solenoid)
µ0 N i
∴ B= inside toroid
2πr
7.4. MAGNETIC DIPOLE 92
Note :
(i) B 6= constant inside toroid
(ii) Outside toroid:
Take Amperian curve to be circle of radius r > R.
˛ ˛
~
B · d~s = B ds = B · 2πr = µ0 · iincl = 0
C C
∴ B=0
Similarly, in the central cavity B = 0
~µ = N iAn̂
~ = µ0 iR2 n̂ µ0 ~µ
B 2 2 3/2
=
2(R + z ) 2π(R + z 2 )3/2
2
7.5. MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A CONSTANT B-FIELD 93
At distance z À R,
B~ = µ0 ~µ ~ =
E
p~
2πz 3 4π²0 z 3
due to magnetic dipole due to electric dipole
(for z À R) (for z À d)
" #
Unit: Am2
Also, notice ~µ = magnetic dipole moment
J/T
µ0 = Permeability of free space
= 4π × 10−7 Tm/A
~
U = −~µ · B
Note :
e
∴ ”Current” i = , where P is period of one orbit around nucleus
P
7.6. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 95
2πr
P = , where v is velocity of electron
v
∴ Orbit magnetic dipole of atom:
³ ev ´ erv
µ = iA = (πr2 ) =
2πr 2
Recall: angular momentum of rotation l = mrv
e
∴ µ= ·l
2m
In quantum mechanics, we know that
h
l is quantized, i.e. l = N ·
2π
Edielectric = Ke Evacuum ; Ke ≥ 1
~M ∝ B
B ~0
Define :
~ M = χm B
B ~0
∴ ~ net = B
B ~ 0 + χm B
~0
~0
= (1 + χm ) B
~ net = κm B
B ~0 ; κm = 1 + χm
~ = d~µ
M
where µ
~ is magnetic dipole
dV moment, V is volume
~ M = µ0 M
B ~
(1) Paramagnetic:
.
e.g. Al (χm = 2.2 × 10−5 ), Mg (1.2 × 10−5 ), O2 (2.0 × 10−6 )
(2) Diamagnetic:
(3) Ferromagnetic:
χm = −1
A perfect diamagnetic.
NO magnetic field inside.
Chapter 8
ˆ
Φm = ~ · dA
B ~
S
(2) Graphical:
~ = Constant
B ~ = Constant
B B̂ = Constant ~ = Constant
B
~ = Constant
A Â = Constant dB/dt 6= 0 A = Constant
dA/dt 6= 0 ~
A = Constant dÂ/dt 6= 0
E =0 ∴ |E| > 0 ∴ |E| > 0 ∴ |E| > 0
Note : The induced emf drives a current throughout the circuit, similar to the
function of a battery. However, the difference here is that the induced emf
is distributed throughout the circuit. The consequence is that we cannot
define a potential difference between any two points in the circuit.
∆VAB = VA − VB = iR > 0
⇒ VA > VB
(2) The induced current is in such a direction as to oppose the changes that
produces it.
dΦm
E = −N
dt
~
⇒ B-field due to
so that
⇒ change in Φm =⇒ Φm ↓
induced current
F~E + F~B = 0
⇒ qE~ + q~v × B
~ =0 ~ is Hall electric field)
(where E
⇒ E~ = −~v × B~
• Magnetic force:
F~m = iL
~ ×B
~
Fm = iLB (pointing left)
Pin = F~ext · ~v
= iBLv
dx
= iBL
dt
d(xL) ( xL = A, area
= iB enclosed by circuit)
dt
d(BA)
= i ( BA = Φm , magnetic flux)
dt
8.3. MOTIONAL EMF 102
Induced current
³E2 ´
⇒ Power lost in Joule’s heating
R
⇒ Extra power input to keep moving
Number of coils
↓
´
ΦB = N B ~ · dA
~ = N BA cos θ
loop ↓
changes with time! θ = ωt
∴ ΦB = N BA cos ωt
dΦB d
Induced emf: E = − = −N BA (cos ωt)
dt dt
= N BAω sin ωt
E N BAω
Induced current: i = = sin ωt
R R
Alternating current (AC) voltage generator
The net effect of the torque is to oppose the rotation of the coil.
E − Eind
∴ i=
R
Pelectric = i2 R + Pmechanical
Electric power input Mechanical power delivered
However, even in the absence of the loop (so that there is no induced current),
the induced E-field will still accompany a change in magnetic flux.
8.4. INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD 105
The induced E-field only has tangential components. (i.e. radial E-field = 0)
Why?
Imagine a point charge q0 travelling around the circular path.
Work done by induced E-field = q0 Eind · 2πr
|{z}
| {z }
f orce distance
Recall work done also equals to q0 E, where E is induced emf
∴ E = Eind 2πr
Generally, ˛
E= ~ ind · d~s
E
¸
where is line integral around a closed loop, E ~ ind is induced E-field, ~s is
tangential vector of path.
∴ Faraday’s Law becomes
˛ ˆ
~ ind · d~s = − d ~ · dA
~
E B
dt
C S
⇓ ⇓
Conservative force field Non-conservative force field
The classification of electric and magnetic effects depend on the frame of reference
of the observer. e.g. For motional emf, observer in the reference frame of the
moving loop, will NOT see an induced E-field, just a ”regular” E-field.
(Read: Halliday Chap.33-6, 34-7)
Chapter 9
Inductance
9.1 Inductance
An inductor stores energy in the magnetic field just as a capacitor stores energy
in the electric field.
We have shown earlier that a changing B-field will lead to an induced emf in
a circuit.
Question : If a circuit generates a changing magnetic field, does it lead to an
induced emf in the same circuit? YES! Self-Inductance
The inductance L of any current element is
di The negative sign
EL = ∆VL = −L
dt comes from Lenz Law.
Example : Solenoid
di di
EL = VB − VA = −L <0 EL = VB − VA = −L >0
dt dt
∴ VB < VA VB > VA
9.1. INDUCTANCE 108
d di N ΦB
− (N ΦB ) = −L ⇒ L=
dt dt i
Calculating Inductance:
(1) Solenoid:
To first order approximation,
B = µ0 ni
Flux linkage = N ΦB
where A is
= nl · BA
cross-sectional area
N ΦB
L= = µ0 n2 lA
∴ i
L
= µ0 n2 A = Inductance per unit length
l
Notice :
(i) L ∝ n2
(ii) The inductance, like the capacitance, depends only on geometric
factors, not on i.
9.1. INDUCTANCE 109
(2) Toroid:
B=0
~ → κm B
~ (after insertion of
B magnetic material)
N ΦB
Inductance L=
ˆi
However ΦB = B ~ · dA
~ → κm ΦB
9.2. LR CIRCUITS 110
(after insertion of
∴ L → κm L magnetic material)
9.2 LR Circuits
(A) ”Charging” an inductor
E0 ³ ´
Solution: i(t) = 1 − e−t/τL
R
where τL = Inductive time constant = L/R
∴ |∆VR | = iR = E0 (1 − e−t/τL )
di E0 1
|∆VL | = L = L· · · e−t/τL = E0 e−t/τL
dt R τL
9.2. LR CIRCUITS 111
By loop rule:
∆VL − ∆VR = 0
↓ ↓
di
−L − iR = 0
dt
(Treat inductor as source of emf)
di R Discharging a capacitor
∴ + i=0 (Chap5)
dt L
i(t) = i0 e−t/τL
dUB di
∴ Power stored in inductor = = Li
dt dt
Integrating both sides and use initial condition
At t = 0, i(t = 0) = UB (t = 0) = 0
1 2
∴ Energy stored in inductor: UB = Li
2
Energy Density Stored in Inductors :
Consider an infinitely long solenoid of cross-sectional area A.
For a portion l of the solenoid, we know from §8.1,
L = µ0 n2 lA
∴ Energy stored in inductor:
1 2 1
UB = Li = µ0 n2 i2|{z}
lA
2 2
Volume of
solenoid
B2
∴ uB =
2µ0
Loop rule: VC + VL = 0
Q di
− −L = 0 (9.2)
C dt
Combining equations (9.1) and (9.2), we get
d2 Q 1
+ Q=0
dt2 LC
d2 x k
2
+ x=0
dt m
Another approach (conservation of energy)
Total energy stored in circuit:
U = UE + UB
↓ ↓
Q2 1 2
U = + Li
2C 2
Since the resistance in the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated in the circuit.
∴ Energy contained in the circuit is conserved.
dU
∴ =0
dt
Q dQ¶ di dQ
⇒ · ¶ + L¢i =0 (∵ i = )
C ¶dt dt dt
9.4. LC CIRCUIT (ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATOR) 114
di Q
⇒ L + =0
dt C
d2 Q 1
⇒ 2
+ Q=0
dt LC
Q(t) = Q0 cos(ωt + φ)
dQ
∴ = −ωQ0 sin(ωt + φ)
dt
d2 Q
2
= −ω 2 Q0 cos(ωt + φ)
dt
= −ω 2 Q
d2 Q
∴ 2
+ ω2Q = 0
dt
1 Angular frequency
∴ ω2 =
LC of the LC oscillator
Q2 Q20
Energy stored in C = = cos2 (ωt + φ)
2C 2C
1 2 1
Energy stored in L = Li = Lω 2 Q20 sin2 (ωt + φ)
2 2
1 Q20
∵ Lω 2 = = sin2 (ωt + φ)
C 2C
Q20
∴ Total energy stored =
2C
= Initial energy stored in capacitor
9.5. RLC CIRCUIT (DAMPED OSCILLATOR) 115
dU
and = Power dissipated in the resistor = −i2 R (Joule’s heating)
dt
Negative sign shows that energy U is decreasing.
i
z}|{
di Q dQ
∴ Li + · = −i2 R
dt C dt
d2 Q R dQ 1
⇒ + · + Q=0
dt2 L dt LC
This is similar to the equation of motion of a damped harmonic oscillator (e.g.
if a mass-spring system faces a frictional force F~ = −b~v ).
Solution to the equation is in the form Q(t) = eλt
If damping is not too big (i.e. R not too big), solution would become
R
Q(t) = Q0 |e−{z2L }t cos(ω1 t + φ)
| {z }
exponential oscillating
decay term term
1 ³ R ´2
where ω12 = −
LC 2L
³ R ´2
ω12 = ω 2 −
2L
Check this at home: What is UE (t) + UB (t) for the case when damping is small?
(i.e. R ¿ ω)
Chapter 10
AC Circuits
d2 Q dQ 1
L 2
+R + Q = Em sin(ωt + δ)
dt dt C
The general solution consists of two parts:
transient : rapidly dies away in a few cycles (not interesting)
steady state : Q(t), i(t) varies sinusoidally with the same frequency as input
1 ³ R ´2
Note : Current does NOT vary at frequency ω12 = −
LC 2L
Since we only concern about the steady state solution, therefore we can take any
time as starting reference time = 0
For convenience, we can write
E = Em sin ωt
And we can write
i = im sin(ωt − φ)
where im is current amplitude, φ is phase constant.
Our goal is to determine im and φ.
10.2. PHASE RELATION BETWEEN I, V FOR R,L AND C 117
∆VR = VA − VB = iR
∴ ∆VR = im R sin(ωt − φ)
XL = ωL
π
∆VL leads i by
2
π
i lags ∆VL by
2
Q
∆VC = VA − VB =
C
10.3. SINGLE LOOP RLC AC CIRCUIT 119
1
where XC = = Capacitive Reactance
ωC
π
∆VC lags i by
2
π
i leads ∆VC by
2
Em sin ωt = im R sin(ωt − φ)
+im XL cos(ωt − φ) − im XC cos(ωt − φ)
h i
Em sin ωt = im R sin(ωt − φ) + (XL − XC ) cos(ωt − φ)
Answer :
XL − XC
1. Take tan φ =
R
q
2. Define Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2
Check :
hR XL − XC i
R.H.S. = im Z sin(ωt − φ) + cos(ωt − φ)
hZ Z i
= im Z cos φ sin(ωt − φ) + sin φ cos(ωt − φ)
Use the relation:
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Here: A = ωt − φ, B = φ
= im Z sin(ωt − φ + φ)
= im z sin ωt
= L.H.S. if Em = im Z QED.
Phasor Approach :
10.4. RESONANCE 121
10.4 Resonance
Em
im = is at maximum for an AC circuit of fixed input frequency ω when Z
Z
is at minimum.
s
q ³ 1 ´2
Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2 = R2 + ωL −
ωC
∴ ω = 2πf = 314.2s−1
ˆ 2π/ω ˆ 2π/ω
P dt = i2m R sin2 (ωt − φ) dt
0 0
ˆ 2π/ω
1h i
= i2m R 1 − cos 2(ωt − φ) dt
0 2
©¯
ht
sin2 (ωt
© −©
© φ) i¯¯2π/ω
= i2m R
· − © ¯
2 ©© 4ω 0
1 2π
= i2m R · ·
2 ω
10.5. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS 122
i2
∴ Pave = m R = i2rms R
2
where irms = root-mean-square current
im ∵ Current is a
irms = √
2 sinusoidal func.
XL − XC
Recall tan φ =
R
R
∴ cos φ =
Z
Maximum power dissipated in circuit when
cos φ = 1
Two possibilities:
(1) XL = XC = 0
1 1
(2) XL − XC = 0 ⇒ XL = XC ⇒ ωL = ⇒ ω2 =
ωC LC
(Resonance Condition)
Solution : Transformers
In primary circuit, RP ≈ CP ≈ 0
∴ Pure inductive
R
Power factor : cos φ =
≈0
Z
∴ No power delivered from emf to transformer.
The varying current (∵ AC!) in the primary produces an induced emf in the
secondary coils. Assuming perfect magnetic flux linkage:
∆VP NP
⇒ =
∆VS NS
³ N ´2
P
”Equivalence Resistor” = R
NS
Chapter 11
If Ampère’s law is true all the time, then the iincl determined should be inde-
pendent of the surface chosen.
11.1. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT 126
If we look at , iincl = 0
Notes The induced magnetic field is along the same direction as caused by the
changing electric flux.
Example What is the magnetic field strength inside a circular plate capacitor
of radius R with a current I(t) charging it?
Qr2
ΦE = E · πr2 =
ε0 R 2
d ³ Qr2 ´
|{z} Binduced = µ0 ε0
2πr
dt ε0 R2
Length of loop C
r2 dQ
= µ0
R2 |{z}
dt
I(t)
µ0 r
∴ Binduced = I(t) for r < R
2πR2
˛
~ · d~a = Qincl
E
ε0
˛
S
~ · d~a = 0
B
˛
S ˆ
~ · d~s = − d
E ~ · d~a
B
dt
˛
C S ˆ
~ · d~s = µ0 iincl + µ0 ε0 d
B ~ · d~a
E
dt
C S
The one equation that describes how matter reacts to electric and magnetic fields.
F~ = q(E
~ + ~v × B)
~
(1) There is a high level of symmetry in the equations. That’s why the study
of electricity and magnetism is also called electromagnetism.
There are small asymmetries though:
(3) Maxwell’s equations are entirely consistent with the special theory of rela-
tivity. This is not true for Newton’s laws!